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People's Liberation Army Rocket Force
Strategic and tactical missile force of the Chinese People's Liberation Army

The People's Liberation Army Rocket Force (PLARF), formerly the Second Artillery Corps, is the strategic and tactical missile branch of the People's Republic of China, controlling land-based ballistic, hypersonic, and cruise missiles, both nuclear and conventional. Established in 1966, the PLARF is under the direct command of the Central Military Commission of the Chinese Communist Party. It comprises over 120,000 personnel across six ballistic missile Bases deployed in the five Theaters. According to the United States Department of Defense, China possesses the world's largest land-based missile arsenal, including hundreds of cruise and ballistic missiles, with an estimated 600 nuclear warheads projected to rise to 1,000 by 2030.

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History

Further information: China and weapons of mass destruction

China established the Second Artillery as a branch of the PLA designed to operate its nuclear missiles.17: 75  Top political leadership retained centralized control over the nuclear arsenal.18: 75–76  In 1967, the CMC issued the Temporary Regulations on the Second Artillery's Basic Tasks and Command Relationships, which established a direct line of command to the nuclear missile units and specified that "force development, deployments, maneuvers, and especially its combat [operations] must all be under the collective leadership of the CMC; extremely strictly [and] extremely precisely, obeying and carrying out the orders of the CMC."19: 76–77 

In 1980, the CMC stated that the Second Artillery should operate under the principles of "close defense" to ensure survivability of the nuclear force and "key point counterstrikes" to carry out retaliation.20: 75–76  In 1984, the Second Artillery added a third principle, reflecting Deng Xiaoping's preferences, that the nuclear force be "lean and effective".21: 76 

In the late 1980s, China was the world's third-largest nuclear power, possessing a small but credible nuclear deterrent force of approximately 100 to 400 nuclear weapons. Beginning in the late 1970s, China deployed a full range of nuclear weapons and acquired a nuclear second-strike capability. The nuclear forces were operated by the 100,000-person Strategic Missile Force, which was controlled directly by the General Staff.

China began developing nuclear weapons in the late 1950s with substantial Soviet assistance. With the Sino-Soviet split in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Soviet Union withheld plans and data for an atomic bomb, abrogated the agreement on transferring defense and nuclear technology, and began the withdrawal of Soviet advisers in 1960. Despite the termination of Soviet assistance, China committed itself to continue nuclear weapons development to break "the superpowers' monopoly on nuclear weapons," to ensure Chinese security against the Soviet and American threats, and to increase Chinese prestige and power internationally.

China made rapid progress in the 1960s in developing nuclear weapons. In a 32-month period, China successfully tested its first atomic bomb on October 16, 1964, at Lop Nor, launched its first nuclear missile on October 27, 1966, and detonated its first hydrogen bomb on June 17, 1967. Deployment of the Dongfeng-1 conventionally armed short-range ballistic missile and the Dongfeng-2 (CSS-1) medium-range ballistic missile (MRBM) occurred in the 1960s. The Dongfeng-3 (CCS-2) intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM) was successfully tested in 1969. Although the Cultural Revolution disrupted the strategic weapons program less than other scientific and educational sectors in China, there was a slowdown in succeeding years.

Gansu hosted a missile launching area.22 China destroyed 9 U-2 surveillance craft while two went missing when they attempted to spy on it.23

In the 1970s, the nuclear weapons program saw the development of MRBM, IRBM and ICBMs and marked the beginning of a deterrent force. China continued MRBM deployment, began deploying the Dongfeng-3 IRBM and successfully tested and commenced deployment of the Dongfeng-4 (CSS-4) limited-range ICBM.

By 1980, China had overcome the slowdown in nuclear development caused by the Cultural Revolution and had successes in its strategic weapons program. In May 1980, China successfully test launched its full-range ICBM, the Dongfeng-5 (CCS-4); the missile flew from central China to the Western Pacific, where it was recovered by a naval task force. The Dongfeng-5 possessed the capability to hit targets in the Soviet Union and the western United States.

In 1981, China launched three satellites into space orbit from a single launch vehicle, indicating that China might possess the technology to develop multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs). China also launched the Type 092 submarine SSBN (Xia-class) in 1981, and the next year it conducted its first successful test launch of the Julang-2 submarine-launched ballistic missile (CSS-NX-4).

In addition to the development of a sea-based nuclear force, China began considering the development of tactical nuclear weapons. PLA exercises featured the simulated use of tactical nuclear weapons in offensive and defensive situations beginning in 1982. Reports of Chinese possession of tactical nuclear weapons had remained unconfirmed in 1987.

In 1986, China possessed a credible deterrent force with land, sea and air elements. Land-based forces included ICBMs, IRBMs, and MRBMs. The sea-based strategic force consisted of SSBNs. The Air Force's bombers were capable of delivering nuclear bombs but would be unlikely to penetrate the sophisticated air defenses of modern military powers.

During the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, the United States bombed the Chinese embassy in Belgrade.24: 17  Believing that the bombing was intentional, Chinese leadership worried that China was significantly lacking in leverage against the United States.25: 17  Among the measures China took to close its lack in leverage were efforts to develop precision missiles and accelerating plans to expand conventional missile forces.26: 17, 132 

China's nuclear forces, in combination with the PLA's conventional forces, served to deter both nuclear and conventional attacks on the Chinese lands. Chinese leaders pledged to not use nuclear weapons first (no first use), but pledged to absolutely counter-attack with nuclear weapons if nuclear weapons are used against China. China envisioned retaliation against strategic and tactical attacks and would probably strike countervalue rather than counterforce targets.

The combination of China's few nuclear weapons and technological factors such as range, accuracy, and response time limited the effectiveness of nuclear strikes against counterforce targets. China has been seeking to increase the credibility of its nuclear retaliatory capability by dispersing and concealing its nuclear forces in difficult terrain, improving their mobility, and hardening its missile silos.

The CJ-10 long-range cruise missile made its first public appearance during the military parade on the 60th Anniversary of the People's Republic of China; the CJ-10 represents the next generation in rocket weapons technology in the PLA.

In late 2009, it was reported that the Corps was constructing a 3,000–5,000-kilometre (1,900–3,100 mi) long underground launch and storage facility for nuclear missiles in the Hebei province.27 47 News reported that the facility was likely located in the Taihang Mountains.28

The DF-ZF hypersonic glide vehicle (HGV) made its first flight test on 9 January 2014;29 it likely entered service by October 2019.30 It is believed to have atop speed of Mach 10, or 12,360 km/h (7,680 mph).31

Two Chinese technical papers from December 2012 and April 2013 show that China has concluded that hypersonic weapons pose "a new aerospace threat" and that they are developing satellite directed precision guidance systems. China is the third country to enter the "hypersonic arms race" after Russia and the United States. The U.S. Air Force has flown the X-51A Waverider technology demonstrator and the U.S. Army has flight tested the Advanced Hypersonic Weapon. China later confirmed the successful test flight of a "hypersonic missile delivery vehicle," but claimed it was part of a scientific experiment and not aimed at a target.32

US Air Force National Air and Space Intelligence Center estimated that as of 2023 the number of Chinese nuclear warheads capable of reaching the United States has expanded well over 200.33

In June 2021, James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies has found out that China is constructing new missile silo field in Gansu in western China. According to the satellite picture, 119 missile silos for intercontinental ballistic missiles are under construction near Yumen City.34 In July, Federation Of American Scientists found out there are another 110 silos being built in Hami, Xinjiang. The two significant expansion projects include silos more than ten times the number of ICBM silos in operation of PLARF today.35

In July 2021, China tested globe-circling hypersonic missile including the unprecedented launch of a separate 2nd missile from the ultra-high-speed vehicle according to the Financial Times and Wall Street Journal. The test showed China's development of its strategic, nuclear-capable weapons as more advanced than any had thought, surprising Pentagon officials, the two newspapers said. Neither the United States nor Russia has demonstrated the same ability, which requires launching a missile from a parent vehicle traveling five times the speed of sound. According to reporting by the Financial Times, this weapons system consists of two parts: a fractional orbital bombardment system (FOBS) and a hypersonic glide vehicle (HGV).3637

In July 2023, South China Morning Post reported that PLARF commander Li Yuchao and deputy commander Liu Guangbin were under the investigation by the CMC Commission for Discipline Inspection. Later that month, both Li Yuchao and Liu Guangbin were officially removed from their posts, while Wang Houbin was appointed as the commander of the PLARF.38 Additionally, Xu Xisheng was appointed as the political commissar.39 Li Yuchao and Liu Guangbin's expulsion has not been formally explained. There are rumors that they are being investigated for corruption or disclosing military secrets.4041 Furthermore, it was thought to be an odd decision to replace the Rocket Force commander with military personnel from outside the branch, and this led to concerns about the security, credibility, and integrity of the PLA as well as its participation in China's military tactics during the Taiwan Strait conflict.42

On 25 September 2024 at 00:44 UTC, the PLARF performed its first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) test over the Pacific Ocean since the early 1980s. The specific ICBM that was launched was not stated.4344

Missile ranges

Ranks

Officers

Title上将Shang jiang中将Zhong jiang少将Shao jiang大校Da xiao上校Shang xiao中校Zhong xiao少校Shao xiao上尉Shang wei中尉Zhong wei少尉Shao wei学员Xue yuan
Equivalent translationGeneralLieutenant generalMajor generalSenior colonelColonelLieutenant colonelMajorCaptainFirst lieutenantSecond lieutenantOfficer cadet
Shoulder insignia
Collar insignia

Enlisted

Rank group高级军士Gāo jí jūn shì中级军士Zhōng jí jūn shì初级军士Chū jí jūn shì义务兵Yì wù bīng
Title一级军士长Yī jí jūn shì zhǎng二级军士长Er jí jūn shì zhǎng三级军士长Sān jí jūn shì zhǎng一级上士Yī jí shàng shì二级上士Er jí shàng shì中士Zhōng shì下士Xià shì上等兵Shàng děng bīng列兵Liè bīng
Equivalent translationMaster Sergeant First ClassMaster Sergeant Second ClassMaster Sergeant Third ClassStaff Sergeant First ClassStaff Sergeant Second ClassSergeantCorporalPrivate First ClassPrivate
Shoulder insignia
Collar insignia

Equipment

Firearms

The Special Operations Regiment has been seen using bow and arrows along with QBZ-95 rifles and QBU-88 sniper rifles.4546

The QBZ-03 has also been used by the PLARF.47

Active missiles

Further information: Dongfeng (missile)

As of at least 2024, China has the largest land-based missile arsenal in the world.48

MissileNATO designationTypeNumberWarheadNotes
CJ-1049CH-SSC-9 Mod 150Cruise missile51~7252Conventional53
CJ-10A54CH-SSC-9 Mod 255Cruise missile56Conventional57
CJ-10058CH-SSC-1359Cruise missile60~54Conventional61
DF-5A62CSS-4 Mod 263ICBM6418+65Nuclear66
DF-5B67CSS-4 Mod 368ICBM69Nuclear70
DF-5C71CSS-4 Mod 4 (uncertain)72ICBM73Nuclear74
DF-11A75CSS-776SRBM77~10878Conventional79
DF-15B80CSS-681SRBM82~8183Conventional84
DF-1685CSS-1186SRBM87~3688Conventional89
DF-1790CSS-2291MRBM92~4893Conventional94Carries DF-ZF hypersonic glide vehicle (HGV)95
DF-21C96CSS-597MRBM98~3099Conventional100
DF-21D101CSS-5102MRBM103Conventional104
DF-26105CSS-18106IRBM107140+108Conventional/nuclear109
DF-27110IRBM111Conventional/nuclear112Carries HGV113
DF-31114CSS-10 Mod 1115ICBM116~6Nuclear117Silo-based118
DF-31A119CSS-10 Mod 2 (uncertain)120ICBM121~24122Nuclear123
DF-31AG124CSS-10 Mod 2 (uncertain)125ICBM126~56127Nuclear128
DF-41129CSS-20130ICBM131~36132Nuclear133

Retired missiles

  • DF-3A, CSS-2 (IRBM) – In service from 1971 to 2014

Transporter erector launchers

Tractor trucks

Structure

The PLARF is directly subordinated to the CMC.134 and headquartered in Beijing.135 It is organized into six operational bases and three support bases; these are corps leader or corps deputy grade units.136

The operational bases cover geographical areas, and their ordnance mix reflects their location and mission.137 They are similarly structured with six to eight missile brigrades, support regiments, and at least one hospital. Base equipment inspection regiments are responsible for storing nuclear warheads.138

Bases have peacetime administrative control of nuclear forces. In wartime, the CMC has direct control over nuclear forces. Control over conventional forces is unclear; in 2022, there was evidence of continuing integration with theater commands.139

The Military Unit Cover Designators (MUCD) from the April 2017 system for PLARF units are 5-digit numbers starting with "96" with the remaining digits organization details. MCUD's starting with "961" or "965" are from the pre-2017 MUCD system.140

Headquarters

PLARF headquarters has four administrative departments: Staff Department, Political Work Department, Equipment Department, and Logistics Department.141

Wang Houbin became PLARF commander in July 2023,142 Xu Xisheng was the political commissar in 2022.143

Base 61

Base 61 [zh] (第六十一基地) is an operational base covering eastern and some of southeastern China with headquarters in Huangshan, Anhui. It was created in 1965.144

Base 61 includes a brigade for testing its large short-ranged conventional missile inventory and an unmanned aerial vehicle regiment for intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance.145

Missile brigades
NameLocationWeaponsNuclear capableNotes
611146Qingyang, Anhui147DF-26148Yes149Major upgrade underway150
612151Leping, Jingdezhen, Jiangxi152DF-21A153Yes154Possibly upgrading to DF-31AG155
613156Shangrao, Anhui157DF-15B158No159Possibly upgrading to DF-17160
614161Yong'an, Fujian162DF-17163Unknown164
615165Meizhou, Guangdong166DF-11A167No168
616Ganzhou, Jiangxi169DF-17170No171New base added since 2020.172
617173Jinhua, Zhejiang174DF-16175No176
Nanchang, Jiangxi177No178Status uncertain

Base 62

Base 62 [zh] (第六十二基地) is an operational base covering most of southeastern China with headquarters in Kunming, Yunnan. It was created in 1966.179

Missile brigades
NameLocationWeaponsNuclear capableNotes
621180Yibin, Sichuan181DF-31AG (uncertain)182Yes183
622184Yuxi, Yunnan185DF-31A186Yes187
623188Liuzhou, Guangxi189DF-10A190No191
624192Danzhou, Hainan193DF-21D194No195Possibly upgrading to new missile196
625197Jianshui, Yunnan198DF-26199Yes200
626201Qingyuan, Guangdong202DF-26203Yes204
627205Puning. Jieyang, Guangdong206DF-17207No208Base expansion underway as of 2025209

Base 63

Base 63 [zh] (第六十三基地) is an operational base covering southern inland China with headquarters in Huaihua, Hunan.210

Base 63 includes a regiment responsible for fueling liquid-fuelled missiles.211

Missile brigades
NameLocationWeaponsNuclear capableNotes
631212Jingzhou, Hubei213DF-5B (possibly DF-5C)214Yes2156 silos, adding 6 more216
632217Shaoyang, Hunan218DF-31AG219Yes220
633221Huitong, Hunan222DF-5A223Yes2246 silos225
634226Yueyang, Hunan227DF-5C (uncertain)228Unknown22912 silos under construction as of 2025230
635231Yichun, Jiangxi232DF-17 (uncertain)233No234
636235Shaoguan, Guangdong236DF-16A237No

Base 64

Base 64 [zh] (第六十四基地) is an operational base covering northwest and north-central China with headquarters in Lanzhou, Gansu.238

Base 64 has an equipment inspection brigade instead of a regiment.239

Missile brigades
NameLocationWeaponsNuclear capableNotes
641240Hancheng, Shaanxi241DF-31 (uncertain)242Unknown243
Hancheng, Shaanxi244DF-31AG245Yes246New based completed 2024247
642248Datong, Shanxi249DF-31AG250Yes251At least 3 dispersed launch units252
643253Tianshui, Gansu254DF-31AG255Yes256
644257Hanzhong, Shaanxi258DF-41259Yes260
645261Yinchuan, Ningxia262DF-41 (uncertain)263Unknown264
646265Korla, Xinjiang266DF-21C

DF-26267

Yes268
647269Zhangye, Qinghai270DF-26 (uncertain)271Unknown272New brigade base under construction as of 2025273
Hami, Xinjiang274DF-31A (uncertain)275Unknown276120 silos277
Yumen, Gansu278DF-31A (uncertain)279Unknown280110 silos281

Base 65

Base 65 [zh] (第六十五基地) is an operational base covering eastern and northeastern China with headquarters in Shenyang, Liaoning.282 It was formerly Base 51.283

Missile brigades
NameLocationWeaponsNuclear capableNotes
651284Chifeng, Inner Mongolia285DF-41286Yes287
652288Tonghua, Jilin289DF-31AG290Yes291
Tonghua area292DF-31A (uncertain)293Yes294
653295Laiwu, Shandong296DF-21D297No298Possibly upgrading to new missile299
654300Dengshahe, Liaoning301DF-26 (uncertain)302Unknown303Former DF-21A used for DF-26 support304
Dengshahe, Liaoning305DF-26 (uncertain)306Unknown307New base construction paused308
Huangling309DF-26310Yes311
655312Tonghua, Jilin313DF-17 (uncertain)314No315Base upgrade underway as of 2025316
656317Linyi, Shandong318CJ-100 (uncertain)319No320
657321Rumored new base322
Yulin, Shaanxi323DF-31A (uncertain)324Unknown32590 silos326

Base 66

Base 66 [zh] (第六十六基地) is an operational base covering central China with headquarters in Luoyang, Henan. It was established in 1966.327

Missile brigades
NameLocationWeaponsNuclear capableNotes
661328Lushi, Henan329DF-5B330Yes3316 silos332
Sanmenxia333DF-5334Yes335New base336
662337Luanchuan, Henan338DF-5C (uncertain)339Yes34012 silos under construction 2025341
663342Nanyang, Henan343DF-31A344Yes345
664346Xiangyang, Hubei347DF-31AG348Yes349
665350Changzhi, Shanxi351DF-26 (uncertain)352Unknown353
666354Xinyang, Henan355DF-26356Yes357

Base 67

Base 67 [zh] (第六十七基地) is a support base headquartered in Baoji, Shaanxi,358 responsible for the storage, maintenance and distribution of China's nuclear weapons.359 Base 67 was created in 1958 as Unit 0674 in Haiyan County, Qinghai. It was transferred to the Commission for Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense in 1969 and moved to Shaanxi, and then to the Second Artillery Corps in 1980. It was known as Base 22 until 2017.360

Base 67 includes the subterranean361 nuclear weapons storage complex in Taibai County in the Qin Mountains.362363 Preparations to move the nuclear weapons storage facility to Taibai began in 1969.364 In 2010, relatively few warheads were maintained at operational base-level for extended durations. The distribution of warheads is reliant on the country's transportation network.365 The construction of the Baoji–Chengdu railway by the PLA in the 1960s may have been to support warhead distribution.366 A derailment inside a tunnel during the 2008 Sichuan earthquake shutdown the Baoji–Chengdu railway for 12 days. In another incident, a Second Artillery Corps crane was used to clear a multiple-vehicle collision caused by icy roads in the Qin Mountains.367

The Missile Technical Service Brigade is the main unit overseeing the Taibai facility.368 Its main focus seems to be warhead storage and maintenance.369 It is complemented by the brigade-sized Unit 96038 which seems focused on inspection and testing of certain warhead components.370 Unit 96038 includes a security battalion with the 38-member "Sharp Blade" Special Operations Team for site defense and the "Guardian Spirits of the Restricted Zone" Security Company.371 According to Ta Kung Pao in 2019, "Sharp Blade" also performed nuclear missile escort, warhead security and offensive tasks.372

Base 68

Base 68 [zh] (第六十八基地) is an engineering support base responsible for constructing physical infrastructure headquartered in Luoyang, Henan.373

Base 68 was created as the PLARF Engineering Base in 2012 from the Engineering Technical Zongdui (ETZ);374 ETZ was created in 1962 to handle installation of test platforms for nuclear weapon and satellite tests.375 It was combined with 308th Engineering Command in 2017 to create Base 68.376

Base 68 contains six engineering brigades plus support regiments.377

Base 69

Base 69 [zh] (第六十九基地) is a training support base created in 2017 headquartered in Yinchuan. It has four Test and Training Districts and various independent test and training regiments.378

The 1st Test and Training District provides training in desert environments, and provides measurement and control support for missile tests.379 The 2nd Test and Training District hosts a opposing force (OPFOR) regiment for PLARF training.380 The 3rd Test and Training District provides training in plateau operations, hosts the PLARF's electronic warfare OPFOR unit, and supports the Gobi Desert test range.381 The 4th Test and Training District provides cruise missile and rail transport training.382

Command, control, and communications

The PLARF has operated a separate command and control structure from the rest of the PLA since 1967.383 The goal of the system is to ensure tight control of nuclear warheads at the highest levels of government. This is done by the Central Military Commission having direct control of the PLARF, outside of the structure of military regions.

For nuclear weapons, the command structure is believed to run from the CMC, to the headquarters of the PLARF in Beijing, from there to each Rocket Base, and from each Rocket Base down to the individual Brigade. From there, the Brigade transmits firing orders to the launch companies under its control. In the case of conventional ballistic missiles, it is reasonable to assume that more autonomy will be provided in wartime, with command likely being issued from the Bases, which are believed to coordinate with their respective Military Regions on targeting and conventional missile use.

Chinese nuclear C3 capabilities are centered around fiber-optic and satellite-based communication networks, replacing older radio command networks that made up the-then Second Artillery's C3 infrastructure before the 1990s. While historically Chinese nuclear missile forces had to launch from pre-prepared sites, the newest generation of nuclear-capable missiles (the DF-26 and DF-31AG) have been seen deploying to, and launching from, unprepared sites in exercises.

This would corroborate reports that PLARF communications regiments are being trained in the ability to set up telephone and command networks "on-the-fly". The reason for these changes likely has to do with concerns about PLARF survivability; China's commitment to a no-first-use policy means that its nuclear forces have to be capable of both surviving a first-strike, and receiving the orders required to fire back.

Operations in Saudi Arabia

The PLARF Golden Wheel Project (Chinese Wikipedia: 金轮工程) co-operates the DF-3 and DF-21 medium-range ballistic missiles in Saudi Arabia since the establishment of Royal Saudi Strategic Missile Force in 1984.384385

See also

  • China portal

Notes

Citations

Sources

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chinese People's Liberation Army Rocket Force.

Further reading

References

  1. PLARF; Chinese: 中国人民解放军火箭军; pinyin: Zhōngguó Rénmín Jiěfàngjūn Huǒjiàn Jūn /wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters ↩

  2. Chinese: 第二炮兵 /wiki/Chinese_language ↩

  3. "火箭军的前世今生". Xinhua. 2016-01-02. Retrieved 2025-05-30. http://www.xinhuanet.com/mil/2016-01/02/c_128589285.htm ↩

  4. "China's nuclear policy, strategy consistent: spokesperson". Beijing. Xinhua. 1 January 2016. Archived from the original on 8 October 2016. Retrieved 29 June 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20161008084354/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2016-01/01/c_134970409.htm ↩

  5. Fisher, Richard D. Jr. (6 January 2016). "China establishes new Rocket Force, Strategic Support Force". Jane's Defence Weekly. 53 (9). Surrey, England: Jane's Information Group. ISSN 0265-3818. This report also quotes Chinese expert Song Zhongping saying that the Rocket Force could incorporate 'PLA sea-based missile unit[s] and air-based missile unit[s]'. /wiki/ISSN_(identifier) ↩

  6. Medcalf, Rory (2020). The Future of the Undersea Deterrent: A Global Survey. Acton, ACT: National Security College, The Australian National University. pp. 26–27. ISBN 978-1-925084-14-6. Archived from the original on 2020-04-13. Retrieved 2020-05-23. 978-1-925084-14-6 ↩

  7. Logan, David C.; Center for the Study of Chinese Military Affairs (Institute for National Strategic Studies at National Defense University) (2016). "China's Future SSBN Command and Control Structure". Strategic Forum (299). Washington, D.C.: NDU Press: 2–3. OCLC 969995006. Archived from the original on 2020-10-30. Retrieved 2020-05-23. https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo77048 ↩

  8. The Military Balance 2024, p. 254. - The International Institute for Strategic Studies (13 February 2024). The Military Balance 2024. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-032-78004-7. ↩

  9. Xiu 2022. - Xiu, Ma (24 October 2022). PLA Rocket Force Organization (PDF) (Report). China Aerospace Studies Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-24. Retrieved 2022-10-30. https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/CASI/documents/Research/PLARF/2022-10-24%20PLARF%20Organization.pdf ↩

  10. Kristensen, Hans M.; Korda, Matt (2019-07-04). "Chinese nuclear forces, 2019". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 75 (4): 171–178. Bibcode:2019BuAtS..75d.171K. doi:10.1080/00963402.2019.1628511. ISSN 0096-3402. S2CID 198708540. https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00963402.2019.1628511 ↩

  11. Mihal, Maj. Christopher J. (Summer 2021). "Understanding the People's Liberation Army Rocket Force Strategy, Armament, and Disposition" (PDF). Military Review (July–August 2021): 24–26. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-07-23. Retrieved 2022-08-26 – via Army University Press. https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Portals/7/military-review/Archives/English/JA-21/Mihal-PLA-Rocket-Force-v1.pdf ↩

  12. "2024 China Military Power Report". U.S. Department of Defense. Archived from the original on 2024-12-21. Retrieved 2024-12-23. https://www.defense.gov/Spotlights/2024-China-Military-Power-Report/ ↩

  13. Kristensen, Hans M.; Korda, Matt; Reynolds, Eliana (2023-03-04). "Chinese nuclear weapons, 2023". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 79 (2): 108–133. Bibcode:2023BuAtS..79b.108K. doi:10.1080/00963402.2023.2178713. ISSN 0096-3402. /wiki/Hans_M._Kristensen ↩

  14. "Status of World Nuclear Forces". Federation of American Scientists. March 31, 2023. Archived from the original on May 29, 2023. Retrieved 2023-05-29. https://fas.org/initiative/status-world-nuclear-forces/ ↩

  15. "2024 China Military Power Report". U.S. Department of Defense. Archived from the original on 2024-12-21. Retrieved 2024-12-23. https://www.defense.gov/Spotlights/2024-China-Military-Power-Report/ ↩

  16. Kristensen et al. 2025, p. 135. - Kristensen, Hans M.; Korda, Matt; Johns, Eliana; Knight, Mackenzie (2025-03-12). "FAS Nuclear Notebook: Chinese nuclear weapons, 2025". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 81 (2). Federation of American Scientists: 135–160. doi:10.1080/00963402.2025.2467011. Retrieved 2025-03-13. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/00963402.2025.2467011 ↩

  17. Cunningham, Fiona S. (2025). Under the Nuclear Shadow: China's Information-Age Weapons in International Security. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-26103-4. 978-0-691-26103-4 ↩

  18. Cunningham, Fiona S. (2025). Under the Nuclear Shadow: China's Information-Age Weapons in International Security. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-26103-4. 978-0-691-26103-4 ↩

  19. Cunningham, Fiona S. (2025). Under the Nuclear Shadow: China's Information-Age Weapons in International Security. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-26103-4. 978-0-691-26103-4 ↩

  20. Cunningham, Fiona S. (2025). Under the Nuclear Shadow: China's Information-Age Weapons in International Security. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-26103-4. 978-0-691-26103-4 ↩

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