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Latvian language
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<h2 id="classification">Classification</h2> <p>Latvian belongs to the <a href="/facts/Indo-European_languages/L34TfgSr">Indo-European</a> language family. It is classified as a part of the <a href="/facts/Baltic_languages/Jmj2ckcI">Baltic</a> branch of the family. It is one of two living Baltic languages with an official status, the other being <a href="/facts/Lithuanian_language/p0bS9M0R">Lithuanian</a>. The Latvian and Lithuanian languages have retained many features of the nominal morphology of <a href="/facts/Proto-Indo-European/cVLNoM3p">Proto-Indo-European</a>, though their phonology and verbal morphology show many innovations (in other words, forms that did not exist in Proto-Indo-European),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> with Latvian being considerably more innovative than Lithuanian. However, Latvian has mutual influences with the <a href="/facts/Livonian_language/DSxhHrgm">Livonian language</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="history">History</h2> <h3>Origins</h3> <p>According to some <a href="/facts/Glottochronology/IhWs6a0L">glottochronological</a> speculations, the <a href="/facts/Eastern_Baltic_languages/Jmj2ckcI">East Baltic languages</a> split from <a href="/facts/Western_Baltic_languages/Jmj2ckcI">West Baltic</a> (or, perhaps, from the hypothetical <a href="/facts/Proto-Baltic_language/wE6x9r0c">proto-Baltic language</a>) between 400 and 600 CE.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> The differentiation between <a href="/facts/Lithuanian_language/p0bS9M0R">Lithuanian</a> and Latvian started after 800 CE. At a minimum, transitional dialects existed until the 14th century or 15th century, and perhaps as late as the 17th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p><p>Latvian as a distinct language emerged over several centuries from the language spoken by the ancient <a href="/facts/Latgalians/qf6WoHyX">Latgalians</a> assimilating the languages of other neighboring Baltic tribes—<a href="/facts/Curonian_language/u9gFHpjT">Curonian</a>, <a href="/facts/Semigallian_language/nPY8u1NS">Semigallian</a>, and <a href="/facts/Selonian_(language)/fEQMaUoY">Selonian</a>—which resulted in these languages gradually losing their most distinct characteristics. This process of consolidation started in the 13th century after the <a href="/facts/Livonian_Crusade/G0c5vYjx">Livonian Crusade</a> and forced <a href="/facts/Christianization/ofJwq42c">christianization</a>, which formed a unified political, economic, and religious space in <a href="/facts/Medieval_Livonia/hseteHpQ">Medieval Livonia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> </p> <h3>16th–18th century</h3> <p>The oldest known examples of written Latvian are from a 1530 translation of a hymn made by Nikolaus Ramm [lv], a German pastor in <a href="/facts/Riga/PCWbJn2h">Riga</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> The oldest preserved book in Latvian is a 1585 Catholic catechism of <a href="/facts/Petrus_Canisius/NsBTAIux">Petrus Canisius</a> currently located at the <a href="/facts/Uppsala_University_Library/qVu1pYVo">Uppsala University Library</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p><p>The first person to <a href="/facts/Bible_translations_into_Latvian/dqe5FcwP">translate the Bible</a> into Latvian was the German <a href="/facts/Lutheranism/L4pMlRcS">Lutheran</a> pastor <a href="/facts/Johann_Ernst_Gl%25C3%25BCck/6Cjuusru">Johann Ernst Glück</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> (<a href="/facts/The_New_Testament/k066sDIn">The New Testament</a> in 1685 and <a href="/facts/The_Old_Testament/YFNzQVcK">The Old Testament</a> in 1691). The Lutheran pastor <a href="/facts/Gotthard_Friedrich_Stender/HJq2PUj4">Gotthard Friedrich Stender</a> was a founder of Latvian secular literature. He wrote the first illustrated Latvian <a href="/facts/Alphabet_book/I4xIgX30">alphabet book</a> (1787), the first encyclopedia "The Book of High Wisdom of the World and Nature [lv]" (<i>Augstas gudrības grāmata no pasaules un dabas</i>; 1774), grammar books and Latvian–German and German–Latvian dictionaries. </p> <h3>19th century</h3> <p>Until the 19th century, the Latvian written language was influenced by <a href="/facts/German_Lutherans/ra55vpjP">German Lutheran</a> pastors and the <a href="/facts/German_language/oWaQIDA8">German language</a>, because <a href="/facts/Baltic_Germans/zjwxu4lK">Baltic Germans</a> formed the upper class of local society.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> In the middle of the 19th century <a href="/facts/The_First_Latvian_National_Awakening/R6RoLFg2">the First Latvian National Awakening</a> was started, led by "<a href="/facts/Young_Latvians/9bdopUoa">Young Latvians</a>" who popularized the use of Latvian language. Participants in this movement laid the foundations for standard Latvian and also popularized the Latvianization of loan words. However, in the 1880s, when <a href="/facts/Czar_Alexander_III/nVYNzako">Czar Alexander III</a> came into power, <a href="/facts/Russification/D9yUd7n9">Russification</a> started. </p><p>According to the <a href="/facts/1897_Imperial_Russian_Census/JqHhxJbD">1897 Imperial Russian Census</a>, there were 505,994 (75.1%) speakers of Latvian in the <a href="/facts/Governorate_of_Courland/hC7gaHS2">Governorate of Courland</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> and 563,829 (43.4%) speakers of Latvian in the <a href="/facts/Governorate_of_Livonia/YKjyUDWq">Governorate of Livonia</a>, making Latvian-speakers the largest linguistic group in each of the governorates.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p> <h3>20th century</h3> <p>After the death of Alexander III at the end of the 19th century, Latvian nationalist movements re-emerged. In 1908, Latvian linguists <a href="/facts/K%25C4%2581rlis_M%25C4%25ABlenbahs/hTqGoBWq">Kārlis Mīlenbahs</a> and <a href="/facts/J%25C4%2581nis_Endzel%25C4%25ABns/pd0Vckpd">Jānis Endzelīns</a> elaborated the modern Latvian alphabet, which slowly replaced the old orthography used before. Another feature of the language, in common with its sister language Lithuanian, that was developed at that time is that proper names from other countries and languages are <a href="/facts/Orthographic_transcription/2TJuqvw1">altered phonetically</a> to fit the phonological system of Latvian, even if the original language also uses the Latin alphabet. Moreover, the names are modified to ensure that they have noun declension endings, declining like all other nouns. For example, a place such as <a href="/facts/Lecropt/4MU6nvVr">Lecropt</a> (a Scottish parish) is likely to become Lekropta; the Scottish village of <a href="/facts/Tillicoultry/sEbHPPak">Tillicoultry</a> becomes Tilikutrija. </p><p>After the <a href="/facts/Soviet_occupation_of_Latvia_in_1940/qLqfuSkz">Soviet occupation of Latvia</a>, the policy of <a href="/facts/Russification/D9yUd7n9">Russification</a> greatly affected the Latvian language. At the same time, the use of Latvian among the <a href="/facts/Latvians_in_Russia/3LIWDz6T">Latvians in Russia</a> had already dwindled after the so-called 1937–1938 <a href="/facts/Latvian_Operation_of_the_NKVD/2g10xGF7">Latvian Operation of the NKVD</a>, during which at least 16,573 ethnic Latvians and Latvian nationals were executed. In the 1941 <a href="/facts/June_deportation/c7lmD5aK">June deportation</a> and the 1949 <a href="/facts/Operation_Priboi/3bC1SvpI">Operation Priboi</a>, tens of thousands of Latvians and other ethnicities were deported from Latvia. Massive <a href="/facts/Immigration_to_Latvia/0l05C1Gg">immigration</a> from the <a href="/facts/Russian_SFSR/W9pC4bK6">Russian SFSR</a>, <a href="/facts/Ukrainian_SSR/MAxGCkwN">Ukrainian SSR</a>, <a href="/facts/Byelorussian_SSR/Lek6VjWC">Byelorussian SSR</a>, and other <a href="/facts/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union/slVCXCrh">republics of the Soviet Union</a> followed, primarily as a result of Stalin's plan to integrate Latvia and the other Baltic republics into the Soviet Union through <a href="/facts/Soviet_colonialism/mp9GRL94">colonization</a>. As a result, the proportion of the ethnic Latvian population within the total population was reduced from 80% in 1935 to 52% in 1989. In Soviet Latvia, most of the immigrants who settled in the country did not learn Latvian. According to the 2011 <a href="/facts/Census/dePeULsk">census</a> Latvian was the language spoken at home by 62% of the country's population.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p><p>After the re-establishment of independence in 1991, a new policy of language education was introduced. The primary declared goal was the integration of all inhabitants into the environment of the official state language while protecting the languages of Latvia's ethnic minorities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p><p>Government-funded bilingual education was available in primary schools for ethnic minorities until 2019 when Parliament decided on educating only in Latvian. Minority schools are available for <a href="/facts/Russian_language/ETXrTgHV">Russian</a>, <a href="/facts/Yiddish_language/VfmsR6pW">Yiddish</a>, <a href="/facts/Polish_language/lzpvYDvV">Polish</a>, <a href="/facts/Lithuanian_language/p0bS9M0R">Lithuanian</a>, <a href="/facts/Ukrainian_language/2zDw7rpD">Ukrainian</a>, <a href="/facts/Belarusian_language/yRuE1cfX">Belarusian</a>, <a href="/facts/Estonian_language/ywCJos4e">Estonian</a> and <a href="/facts/Romany_language/NouAKyrh">Roma</a> languages. Latvian is taught as a second language in the initial stages too, as is officially declared, to encourage proficiency in that language, aiming at avoiding alienation from the Latvian-speaking linguistic majority and for the sake of facilitating academic and professional achievements. Since the mid-1990s, the government may pay a student's tuition in public universities only provided that the instruction is in Latvian. Since 2004, the state mandates Latvian as the language of instruction in public secondary schools (Form 10–12) for at least 60% of class work (previously, a broad system of education in Russian existed).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> </p><p>The Official Language Law was adopted on 9 December 1999.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> Several regulatory acts associated with this law have been adopted. Observance of the law is monitored by the <a href="/facts/Latvian_State_Language_Center/peNATGw1">Latvian State Language Center</a> run by the Ministry of Justice. </p> <h3>21st century</h3> <p>To counter the influence of <a href="/facts/English_language/tpkxGt7b">English</a>, government organizations (namely the Terminology Commission of the Latvian Academy of Science and the State Language Center) popularize the use of Latvian terms. A debate arose over the Latvian term for <a href="/facts/Euro/NWG2nlCx">euro</a>. The Terminology Commission suggested <i>eira</i> or <i>eirs</i>, with their Latvianized and declinable ending, would be a better term for <a href="/facts/Euro/NWG2nlCx">euro</a> than the widely used <i>eiro</i>, while <a href="/facts/European_Central_Bank/Igwby5Ee">European Central Bank</a> insisted that the original name <i>euro</i> be used in all languages.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> New terms are Latvian derivatives, <a href="/facts/Calque/A9M3UtAo">calques</a> or new loanwords. For example, Latvian has two words for "telephone"—<i>tālrunis</i> and <i>telefons</i>, the former being a direct translation into Latvian of the latter international term. Still, others are older or more euphonic loanwords rather than Latvian words. For example, "computer" can be either <i>dators</i> or <i>kompjūters</i>. Both are loanwords; the native Latvian word for "computer" is <i>skaitļotājs</i>, which is also an official term. However, now <i>dators</i> has been considered an appropriate translation, <i>skaitļotājs</i> is also used. </p><p>There are several contests held annually to promote the correct use of Latvian. One of them is "Word of the year" (<i>Gada vārds</i>) organized by the Riga Latvian Society since 2003.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> It features categories such as the "Best word", "Worst word", "Best saying" and "<a href="/facts/Word_salad/pY9ogNpj">Word salad</a>". In 2018 the word <i>zibmaksājums</i> (<a href="/facts/Instant_payment/Dvu1aXhX">instant payment</a>) won the category of "Best word" and <i>influenceris</i> (<a href="/facts/Influencer/LDKWohN1">influencer</a>) won the category of "Worst word".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> The word pair of <i>straumēt</i> (<a href="/facts/Stream/S5he7Cuo">stream</a>) and <i>straumēšana</i> (streaming) were named the best words of 2017, while <i>transporti</i> as an unnecessary plural of the name for <a href="/facts/Transport/npstdhvc">transport</a> was chosen as the worst word of 2017.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="dialects">Dialects</h2> <p>There are three <a href="/facts/Dialect/gJ7uQQoj">dialects</a> in Latvian: the Livonic dialect, High Latvian and the Central dialect. Latvian dialects and their varieties should not be confused with the <a href="/facts/Livonian_language/DSxhHrgm">Livonian</a>, <a href="/facts/Curonian_language/u9gFHpjT">Curonian</a>, <a href="/facts/Semigallian_language/nPY8u1NS">Semigallian</a> and <a href="/facts/Selonian_language/fEQMaUoY">Selonian</a> languages. </p> <h3>Livonic dialect</h3> <p>The Livonic dialect (also called <i>Tamian</i> or <i>tāmnieku</i>) of Latvian was more affected by the <a href="/facts/Livonian_language/DSxhHrgm">Livonian language</a> <a href="/facts/Substrata_(linguistics)/L73fjNSr">substratum</a> than Latvian in other parts of Latvia. It is divided into the <a href="/facts/Vidzeme/V55xymwR">Vidzeme</a> <a href="/facts/Variety_(linguistics)/QyllMQha">variety</a> and the <a href="/facts/Courland/auWEb9pA">Courland</a> variety (also called <i>tāmnieku</i>). There are two syllable <a href="/facts/Intonation_(linguistics)/yzNJ9gdA">intonations</a> in the Livonic dialect, extended and broken. In the Livonic dialect, short vowels at the end of words are discarded, while long vowels are shortened. In all numbers, only one form of the <a href="/facts/Verb/zp42buvn">verb</a> is used. Due to migration and the introduction of a standardised language, this dialect has declined. It arose from assimilated <a href="/facts/Livonians/5z8R60zG">Livonians</a>, who started to speak in Latvian. </p> <h3>Central dialect</h3> <p>The Central dialect spoken in central and Southwestern Latvia is the basis of standard Latvian. The dialect is divided into the Vidzeme variety, the Curonic variety and the Semigallic variety. The Vidzeme variety and the Semigallic variety are closer to each other than to the Curonic variety, which is more archaic than the other two. There are three syllable intonations in some parts of Vidzeme variety of the Central dialect, extended, broken and falling. The Curonic and Semigallic varieties have two syllable intonations, extended and broken, but some parts of the Vidzeme variety have extended and falling intonations. In the Curonic variety, <i>ŗ</i> is still used. The <a href="/facts/Kursenieki_language/aclJYwYl">Kursenieki language</a>, a historic variety of Latvian, which used to be spoken along <a href="/facts/Curonian_Spit/9rRyc0ec">Curonian Spit</a>, is closely related to the varieties of the Central dialect spoken in <a href="/facts/Courland/auWEb9pA">Courland</a>. </p> <h3>High Latvian dialect</h3> <p>High Latvian dialect is spoken in Eastern Latvia. It is set apart from the rest of the Latvian by a number of phonological differences. The dialect has two main varieties – Selonic (two syllable intonations, falling and rising) and Non-Selonic (falling and broken syllable intonations). There is a <a href="/facts/Standard_language/1AV0uont">standard language</a>, i.e., the Standard Latgalian, another historic variety of Latvian, which is based on deep non-Selonic varieties spoken in the south of <a href="/facts/Latgale/bsG9jqRl">Latgale</a>. The term "Latgalic" is sometimes also applied to all non-Selonic varieties or even the whole dialect. However, it is unclear if using the term for any varieties besides the standard language is accurate. While the term may refer to varieties spoken in <a href="/facts/Latgale/bsG9jqRl">Latgale</a> or by <a href="/facts/Latgalians_(modern)/7BIwy7TH">Latgalians</a>, not all speakers identify as speaking Latgalic; for example, speakers of deep Non-Selonic varieties in <a href="/facts/Vidzeme/V55xymwR">Vidzeme</a> explicitly deny speaking Latgalic.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> It is spoken by approximately 15% of Latvia's population, but almost all of its speakers are also fluent in the standard Latvian language and they promote the dialect in popular culture in order to preserve their distinct culture.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> The Latvian Government since 1990 has also taken measures to protect the dialect from extinction.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="non-native-speakers">Non-native speakers</h2> <p>The history of the Latvian language (see below) has placed it in a peculiar position for a language of its size, whereby many non-native speakers speak it compared to native speakers. The immigrant and minority population in Latvia is 700,000 people: <a href="/facts/Russians/RBG9H1Rj">Russians</a>, <a href="/facts/Belarusians/GXQdoLqy">Belarusians</a>, <a href="/facts/Ukrainians/393lUkjj">Ukrainians</a>, <a href="/facts/Polish_people/SgzNqHKq">Poles</a>, and others. The majority of immigrants settled in Latvia between 1940 and 1991; supplementing pre-existing ethnic minority communities (<a href="/facts/Latvian_Germans/zjwxu4lK">Latvian Germans</a>, <a href="/facts/Latvian_Jews/eWMK0YFR">Latvian Jews</a>, <a href="/facts/Latvian_Russians/W2jvdU53">Latvian Russians</a>). The trends show that the proficiency of Latvian among its non-native speakers is gradually increasing. In a 2009 survey by the Latvian Language Agency 56% percent of respondents with Russian as their native language described having a good knowledge of Latvian, whereas for the younger generation (from 17 to 25 years) the number was 64%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> </p><p>The increased adoption of Latvian by minorities was brought about by its status as the country's only official language and other changes in the society after the <a href="/facts/Fall_of_the_Soviet_Union/Fyn5jw3n">fall of the Soviet Union</a> that mostly shifted linguistic focus away from <a href="/facts/Russian_language/ETXrTgHV">Russian</a>. As an example, in 2007, universities and colleges for the first time received applications from prospective students who had a bilingual secondary education in schools for minorities. Fluency in Latvian is expected in a variety of professions and careers. </p> <h2 id="grammar">Grammar</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Latvian_grammar/vzPWCb4e">Latvian grammar</a></p> <p>Latvian grammar represents a classic Indo-European (Baltic) system with well developed inflection and derivation. Word stress, with some exceptions in derivation and inflection, more often is on the first <a href="/facts/Syllable/Ylt7pyJe">syllable</a>. There are no articles in Latvian; definiteness is expressed by an inflection of adjectives. Basic word order in Latvian is <a href="/facts/Subject%25E2%2580%2593verb%25E2%2580%2593object/N0DS8deK">subject–verb–object</a>; however, word order is relatively free. </p> <h3>Nouns</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Latvian_declension/IHIIq2ML">Latvian declension</a></p> <p>There are two <a href="/facts/Grammatical_gender/2hEshpnP">grammatical genders</a> in Latvian (masculine and feminine) and two <a href="/facts/Grammatical_number/zzs5AV6v">numbers</a>, singular and plural. Nouns, adjectives, and declinable participles <a href="/facts/Declension/SWppkx4X">decline</a> into seven cases: <a href="/facts/Nominative_case/wXX3Vn4x">nominative</a>, <a href="/facts/Genitive_case/nMXh3StK">genitive</a>, <a href="/facts/Dative_case/bBjY0RVf">dative</a>, <a href="/facts/Accusative_case/HA1Q81qd">accusative</a>, <a href="/facts/Instrumental_case/NvGhAHWa">instrumental</a>, <a href="/facts/Locative_case/h9KCqqhq">locative</a>, and <a href="/facts/Vocative_case/xKY0N2tb">vocative</a>. There are six declensions for nouns. </p> <h3>Verbs</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Latvian_grammar/vzPWCb4e">Latvian grammar § Verb conjugation</a></p> <p>There are three conjugation classes in Latvian. Verbs are conjugated for person, tense, mood and voice. </p> <h2 id="orthography">Orthography</h2> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Latvian_orthography/x6bjPDS5">Latvian orthography</a> and <a href="/facts/Latvian_Braille/tNF3Stss">Latvian Braille</a></p> <p>Latvian in <a href="/facts/Latin_script/7EWeJjUV">Latin script</a> was first based upon the <a href="/facts/German_alphabet/wRfTdcfG">German orthography</a>, while the alphabet of the Standard Latgalian variety was based on the <a href="/facts/Polish_alphabet/Ju1Roo9c">Polish orthography</a>. At the beginning of the 20th century, it was replaced by a more phonologically consistent orthography. </p> <h3>Standard orthography</h3> <p>Today, the Latvian standard orthography employs 33 characters: </p> <table><tbody><tr><td colspan="33"><a href="/facts/Capital_letters/KQcwaUUD">Majuscule forms</a> (also called uppercase or capital letters)</td></tr><tr><td>A</td><td>Ā</td><td>B</td><td>C</td><td>Č</td><td>D</td><td>E</td><td>Ē</td><td>F</td><td>G</td><td>Ģ</td><td>H</td><td>I</td><td>Ī</td><td>J</td><td>K</td><td>Ķ</td><td>L</td><td>Ļ</td><td>M</td><td>N</td><td>Ņ</td><td>O</td><td>P</td><td>R</td><td>S</td><td>Š</td><td>T</td><td>U</td><td>Ū</td><td>V</td><td>Z</td><td>Ž</td></tr><tr><td colspan="33"><a href="/facts/Lower_case/KQcwaUUD">Minuscule forms</a> (also called lowercase or small letters)</td></tr><tr><td>a</td><td>ā</td><td>b</td><td>c</td><td>č</td><td>d</td><td>e</td><td>ē</td><td>f</td><td>g</td><td>ģ</td><td>h</td><td>i</td><td>ī</td><td>j</td><td>k</td><td>ķ</td><td>l</td><td>ļ</td><td>m</td><td>n</td><td>ņ</td><td>o</td><td>p</td><td>r</td><td>s</td><td>š</td><td>t</td><td>u</td><td>ū</td><td>v</td><td>z</td><td>ž</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The modern standard Latvian alphabet uses 22 unmodified letters of the Latin alphabet (all except ⟨q, w, x, y⟩, which are usually replaced by ⟨k(v)⟩, ⟨v⟩, ⟨ks⟩, and ⟨i/j⟩ respectively in loanwords and even in foreign names, though they may appear in certain specialized terms such as <i>status quo</i>; "W" can be found in older texts, "Y" can be found in the Latgalian language/dialect). It adds a further eleven characters by modification. The vowel letters ⟨<a href="/facts/A/2R3BU1nc">a</a>⟩, ⟨<a href="/facts/E/0G2cAFzu">e</a>⟩, ⟨<a href="/facts/I/2w7mqI7e">i</a>⟩ and ⟨<a href="/facts/U/41AF4mKp">u</a>⟩ can take a <a href="/facts/Macron_(diacritic)/41AF4mKp">macron</a> to show length, unmodified letters being short; these letters are not differentiated while sorting (e.g. in dictionaries). The letters ⟨<a href="/facts/C/2e7jmUaG">c</a>⟩, ⟨<a href="/facts/S/1DcekgEL">s</a>⟩ and ⟨<a href="/facts/Z/Bf1NUwpT">z</a>⟩ are pronounced [ts], [s] and [z] respectively, while when marked with a <a href="/facts/Caron/NSslRDsj">caron</a>, ⟨č, š, ž⟩, they are pronounced [tʃ], [ʃ] and [ʒ] respectively. The letters ⟨ģ, ķ, ļ, ņ⟩, written with a comma placed underneath (or above them for lowercase <i>g</i>), which indicate <a href="/facts/Palatalization_(phonetics)/LXAIp4TB">palatalized</a> versions of ⟨g, k, l, n⟩ representing the sounds [ɟ], [c], [ʎ] and [ɲ]. Latvian orthography also contains nine digraphs, which are written ⟨ai, au, ei, ie, iu, ui, oi, dz, dž⟩. Non-standard varieties of Latvian add extra letters to this standard set. </p><p>Latvian spelling has almost one-to-one correspondence between graphemes and phonemes. Every <a href="/facts/Phoneme/EXGHlJ7a">phoneme</a> corresponds to a letter so that the reader can almost always pronounce words by putting the letters together. There are only two exceptions to this consistency in the orthography: the letters ⟨e, ē⟩ represent two different sounds: /ɛ æ/ and /ɛː æː/. The second mismatch is that letter ⟨o⟩ indicates both the short and long [ɔ], and the <a href="/facts/Diphthong/K8tWRvsx">diphthong</a> [uɔ]. These three sounds are written as ⟨o⟩, ⟨ō⟩ and ⟨uo⟩ in Standard <a href="/facts/Latgalian_language/FpVXCT93">Latgalian</a>, and some Latvians campaign for the adoption of this system in standard Latvian. However, Latvian grammarians argue that ⟨o⟩ and ⟨ō⟩ are found only in loanwords, with the /uɔ/ sound being the only native Latvian phoneme. The digraph ⟨uo⟩ was discarded in 1914, and the letters ⟨ō⟩ and ⟨ŗ⟩ have not been used in the official Latvian language since 1946. Likewise, the digraph ⟨ch⟩ was discarded in 1957, although ⟨ō⟩, ⟨ŗ⟩, and ⟨ch⟩ are still used in some varieties and by many Latvians living beyond the borders of Latvia. The letter ⟨y⟩ is used only in Standard Latgalian, where it represents /<a href="/facts/Close-mid_central_unrounded_vowel/t5MjN7xX">ɨ</a>/, a sound not present in other dialects. </p> <h3>Old orthography</h3> <p>The old <a href="/facts/Orthography/sJPhCpsU">orthography</a> was based on German and did not represent the Latvian language phonemically. Initially, it was used to write religious texts for German priests to help them in their work with Latvians. The first writings in Latvian were chaotic: twelve variations for writing <i>Š</i> existed, for example. In 1631 the German priest <a href="/facts/Georg_Mancelius/vINkQply">Georg Mancelius</a> tried to systematize the writing. He wrote long vowels according to their position in the word – a short vowel followed by <i>h</i> for a radical vowel, a short vowel in the suffix, and vowel with a <a href="/facts/Diacritic/Rw6lMzQW">diacritic</a> mark in the ending indicating two accents. Consonants were written using multiple letters following the example of German. The old orthography was used until the 20th century when modern orthography slowly replaced it. </p> <h3>Latvian on computers</h3> <p>In late 1992, the official Latvian computing standard LVS 8-92 took effect. It was followed by LVS 24-93 (Latvian language support for computers) that also specified the way Latvian language (alphabet, numbers, currency, punctuation marks, date and time) should be represented on computers. A Latvian ergonomic keyboard standard LVS 23-93 was also announced several months later, but it did not gain popularity due to its need for a custom-built keyboard.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> </p><p>Nowadays standard <a href="/facts/QWERTY/0DCjXEa9">QWERTY</a> or the US keyboards are used for writing in Latvian; diacritics are entered by using a <a href="/facts/Dead_key/5jlo4RW5">dead key</a> (usually ', occasionally ~).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> Some keyboard layouts use the <a href="/facts/Modifier_key/uMKHvSHe">modifier key</a> <a href="/facts/AltGr_key/krEsBUjB">AltGr</a> (most notably the Windows 2000 and XP built-in layout (Latvian QWERTY), it is also default modifier in X11R6, thus a default in most Linux distributions). </p><p>In the 1990s, lack of software support of diacritics caused an unofficial style of orthography, often called <i><a href="/facts/Transliteration/1eemsW6o">translits</a></i>, to emerge for use in situations when the user is unable to access Latvian diacritic marks (e-mail, newsgroups, web user forums, chat, <a href="/facts/SMS/kacRfW0X">SMS</a> etc.). It uses the <a href="/facts/List_of_Latin_letters/NXH3yXNs">basic Modern Latin alphabet</a> only, and letters that are not used in standard orthography are usually omitted. In this style, diacritics are replaced by digraphs – a doubled letter indicates a long vowel (as in Finnish and Estonian); a following <i>j</i> indicates palatalisation of consonants, i.e., a cedilla; and the postalveolars <i>Š</i>, <i>Č</i> and <i>Ž</i> are written with <i>h</i> replacing the <a href="/facts/Caron/NSslRDsj">háček</a>, as in English. Sometimes the second letter, the one used instead of a diacritic, is changed to one of two other diacritic letters (e.g. š is written as ss or sj, not sh), and since many people may find it difficult to use these unusual methods, they write without any indication of missing diacritic marks, or they use digraphing only if the diacritic mark in question would make a semantic difference.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> Sometimes an apostrophe is used before or after the character that would properly need to be diacriticised. Also, digraph diacritics are often used and sometimes even mixed with diacritical letters of standard orthography. Although today there is software support available, diacritic-less writing is still sometimes used for financial and social reasons. As <i>š</i> and <i>ž</i> are part of the <a href="/facts/Windows-1252/eyM337y0">Windows-1252</a> coding, it is possible to input those two letters using a <a href="/facts/Numerical_keypad/S92eFIVP">numerical keypad</a>. Latvian language code for cmd and .bat files - <a href="/facts/Windows-1257/D7r331c9">Windows-1257</a> </p> <h3>Comparative orthography</h3> <p>For example, the <a href="/facts/Lord%2527s_Prayer/xhha7eyQ">Lord's Prayer</a> in Latvian written in different styles: </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>First orthography(Cosmographia Universalis, 1544)</th><th>Old orthography, 1739<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a></th><th>Modern orthography</th><th>Internet-style</th></tr><tr><td>Muuſze Thews exkan tho Debbes</td><td>Muhſu Tehvs debbeſîs</td><td>Mūsu tēvs debesīs</td><td><i>Muusu teevs debesiis</i></td></tr><tr><td>Sweetyttz thope totws waerdtcz</td><td>Swehtits lai top taws wahrds</td><td>Svētīts lai top tavs vārds</td><td><i>Sveetiits lai top tavs vaards</i></td></tr><tr><td>Enaka mums touwe walſtibe</td><td>Lai nahk tawa walſtiba</td><td>Lai nāk tava valstība</td><td><i>Lai naak tava valstiiba</i></td></tr><tr><td>Tows praetcz noteſe</td><td>Taws prahts lai noteek</td><td>Tavs prāts lai notiek</td><td><i>Tavs praats lai notiek</i></td></tr><tr><td>ka exkan Debbes tha arridtczan wuerſſon ſemmes</td><td>kà debbeſîs tà arirdſan zemes wirsû</td><td>Kā debesīs, tā arī virs zemes</td><td><i>Kaa debesiis taa arii virs zemes</i></td></tr><tr><td>Muſze beniſke mayſe bobe mums ſdjoben</td><td>Muhsu deeniſchtu maizi dod mums ſchodeen</td><td>Mūsu dienišķo maizi dod mums šodien</td><td><i>Muusu dienishkjo maizi dod mums shodien</i></td></tr><tr><td>Vnbe pammet mums muſſe parrabe</td><td>Un pametti mums muhſu parradus [later parahdus]</td><td>Un piedod mums mūsu parādus</td><td><i>Un piedod mums muusu paraadus</i></td></tr><tr><td>ka mehs pammettam muſſims parabenekims</td><td>kà arri mehs pamettam ſaweem parrahdneekeem</td><td>Kā arī mēs piedodam saviem parādniekiem</td><td><i>Kaa arii mees piedodam saviem paraadniekiem</i></td></tr><tr><td>Vnbe nhe wedde mums exkan kaerbenaſchenne</td><td>Un ne eeweddi muhs eekſch kahrdinaſchanas</td><td>Un neieved mūs kārdināšanā</td><td><i>Un neieved muus kaardinaashanaa</i></td></tr><tr><td>Seth atpeſthmums no to loune</td><td>bet atpeſti muhs no ta launa [later łauna]</td><td>Bet atpestī mūs no ļauna</td><td><i>Bet atpestii muus no ljauna</i></td></tr><tr><td>Aefto thouwa gir ta walſtibe</td><td>Jo tew peederr ta walſtiba</td><td>Jo tev pieder valstība</td><td><i>Jo tev pieder valstiiba</i></td></tr><tr><td>Vnbe tas ſpeez vnb tas Goobtcz tur muſſige.</td><td>Un tas ſpehks un tas gods muhſchigi [later muhzigi].</td><td>Spēks un gods mūžīgi. </td><td><i>Speeks un gods muuzhiigi.</i></td></tr><tr><td>Amen.</td><td>Amen.</td><td>Āmen.</td><td><i>Aamen.</i></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="phonology">Phonology</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Latvian_phonology/vevNL9yu">Latvian phonology</a></p> <h3>Consonants</h3> Latvian consonants<table><tbody><tr><th></th><th><a href="/facts/Labial_consonant/bv4MqTMf">Labial</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Dental_consonant/Yraaz9Nm">Dental</a>/<a href="/facts/Alveolar_consonant/B6VkW2EX">Alveolar</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Postalveolar_consonant/YUo5nJly">Post-alveolar</a>/<a href="/facts/Palatal_consonant/KLcKyXE8">Palatal</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Velar_consonant/blWClp79">Velar</a></th></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Nasal_stop/m6D3cVhe">Nasal</a></th><td>m</td><td>n</td><td>ɲ</td><td>[ŋ]</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Stop_consonant/okC9pztc">Stop</a></th><td>p b</td><td>t d</td><td>c ɟ</td><td>k ɡ</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Affricate_consonant/Fn2y7FIA">Affricate</a></th><td> </td><td>t͡s d͡z</td><td>t͡ʃ d͡ʒ</td><td> </td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Fricative_consonant/1FQuuhfX">Fricative</a></th><td>(f) v</td><td>s z</td><td>ʃ ʒ</td><td>(x)</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Approximant_consonant/SXrlw7zY">Central approximant</a>/<a href="/facts/Trill_consonant/GKS3ga4q">Trill</a></th><td> </td><td>r</td><td>j</td><td> </td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Approximant_consonant/SXrlw7zY">Lateral approximant</a></th><td> </td><td>l</td><td>ʎ</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Consonants in consonant sequences <a href="/facts/Consonant_voicing_and_devoicing/6PYb0Mom">assimilate to the voicing of the subsequent consonant</a>, e.g. apgabals [ˈabɡabals] or labs [ˈlaps]. Latvian does not feature <a href="/facts/Final-obstruent_devoicing/IKphdbIF">final-obstruent devoicing</a>. </p><p>Consonants can be long (written as double consonants) <i>mamma</i> [ˈmamːa], or short. Plosives and fricatives occurring between two short vowels are lengthened: <i>upe</i> [ˈupːe]. Same with 'zs' that is pronounced as /sː/, šs and žs as /ʃː/. </p> <h3>Vowels</h3> <p>Latvian has six vowels, with <a href="/facts/Vowel_length/BhBqJJu3">length</a> as distinctive feature: </p> Latvian vowels<table><tbody><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Front_vowel/htKQs3AT">Front</a></th><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Central_vowel/IFSaKUe9">Central</a></th><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Back_vowel/gyHoGCH0">Back</a></th></tr><tr><th>short</th><th>long</th><th>short</th><th>long</th><th>short</th><th>long</th></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Close_vowel/Ne6tHQHR">Close</a></th><td>i</td><td>iː</td><td></td><td></td><td>u</td><td>uː</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Close-mid_vowel/rK07wQEd">Close-mid</a></th><td>e</td><td>eː</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Open-mid_vowel/qkco8QqT">Open-mid</a></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>(ɔ)</td><td>(ɔː)</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Near-open_vowel/B2lug7oV">Near-open</a></th><td>æ</td><td>æː</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Open_vowel/roS0Y7lA">Open</a></th><td></td><td></td><td>ä</td><td>äː</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>/ɔ ɔː/, and the diphthongs involving it other than /uɔ/, are confined to loanwords. </p><p>Latvian also has 10 <a href="/facts/Diphthong/K8tWRvsx">diphthongs</a>, four of which are only found in loanwords (/ai ui ɛi au iɛ uɔ iu (ɔi) ɛu (ɔu)/), although some diphthongs are mostly limited to proper names and interjections. </p> <h3>Syllable accent</h3> <p>Standard Latvian and, with some exceptions in derivation and inflection, all of the Latvian dialects have fixed initial stress. Long vowels and diphthongs have a tone, regardless of their position in the word. This includes the so-called "mixed diphthongs" composed of a short vowel followed by a <a href="/facts/Sonorant/D1kkuEby">sonorant</a>. </p> <h2 id="loanwords">Loanwords</h2> <p>During the period of <a href="/facts/Livonia/GV0Kd6qw">Livonia</a>, many <a href="/facts/Middle_Low_German/DgYHFD1c">Middle Low German</a> words such as <i>amats</i> (profession), <i>dambis</i> (dam), <i>būvēt</i> (to build) and <i>bikses</i> (trousers) were borrowed into Latvian, while the period of <a href="/facts/Swedish_Livonia/JXpzpY2S">Swedish Livonia</a> brought loanwords like <i>skurstenis</i> (chimney) from <a href="/facts/Swedish_language/1DkSIXkH">Swedish</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> It also has loanwords from the <a href="/facts/Finnic_languages/aQQTgyeP">Finnic languages</a>, mainly from <a href="/facts/Livonian_language/DSxhHrgm">Livonian</a> and <a href="/facts/Estonian_language/ywCJos4e">Estonian</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> There are about 500 to 600 borrowings from Finnic languages in Latvian, for example: <i>māja</i> ‘house’ (Liv. <i>mōj</i>), <i>puika</i> ‘boy’ (Liv. <i>pūoga</i>), <i>pīlādzis</i> ‘mountain ash’ (Liv. <i>pī’lõg</i>), <i>sēne</i> ‘mushroom’ (Liv. <i>sēņ</i>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> </p><p>Loanwords from other Baltic language include <i>ķermenis</i> (body) from <a href="/facts/Old_Prussian_language/FKlDSyfc">Old Prussian</a>, as well as <i>veikals</i> (store) and <i>paģiras</i> (hangover) from <a href="/facts/Lithuanian_language/p0bS9M0R">Lithuanian</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="history-of-the-study">History of the study</h2> <p>The first Latvian dictionary <i>Lettus</i> compiled by <a href="/facts/Georg_Mancelius/vINkQply">Georg Mancelius</a> was published in 1638.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> </p><p>The first grammar of the Latvian language is a short “Manual on the Latvian language” (<a href="/facts/Latin_language/pM3Kge85">Latin</a>: <i>Manuductio ad linguam lettonicam</i>) by Johans Georgs Rehehūzens [lv], published in 1644 in Riga.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="bibliography">Bibliography</h2> <ul><li>Bielenstein, <i>Die lettische Sprache</i> (Berlin, 1863–64)</li> <li>Bielenstein, <i>Lettische Grammatik</i> (Mitau, 1863)</li> <li>Bielenstein, <i>Die Elemente der lettischen Sprache</i> (Mitau, 1866), popular in treatment</li> <li>Ulmann and Brasche, <i>Lettisches Wörterbuch</i> (Riga, 1872–80)</li> <li>Bielenstein, <i>Tausend lettische Räthsel, übersetzt und erklärt</i> (Mitau, 1881)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Adalbert_Bezzenberger/9nyjr6mQ">Bezzenberger</a>, <i>Lettische Dialekt-Studien</i> (Göttingen, 1885)</li> <li>Bezzenberger, <i>Ueber die Sprach der preussischen Letten;; (Göttingen, 1888)</i></li> <li>Thomsen, <i>Beröringer melem de Finske og de Baltiske Sprog</i> (Copenhagen, 1890)</li> <li>Bielenstein, <i>Grenzen des lettischen Volksstammes und der lettischen Sprache</i> (St. Petersburg, 1892)</li> <li>Baron and Wissendorff, <i>Latwju dainas</i> (Latvian Folksongs, Mitau, 1894)</li> <li>Andreianov, <i>Lettische Volkslieder und Mythen</i> (Halle, 1896 )</li> <li>Bielenstein, <i>Ein glückliches Leben</i> (Riga, 1904)</li> <li>Brentano, <i>Lehrbuch der lettischen Sprache</i> (Vienna, c. 1907)</li> <li>Holst, <i>Lettische Grammatik</i> (Hamburg, 2001)</li> <li>Wolter, "Die lettische Literatur," in <i>Die ost-europäische Literaturen</i> (Berlin, 1908)</li> <li>Kalning, <i>Kurzer Lettischer Sprachführer</i> (Riga, 1910)</li></ul> <h3>Literary histories in Latvian</h3> <ul><li>Klaushush, <i>Latweeschu rakstneezibas wehsture</i> (Riga, 1907)</li> <li>Pludons, <i>Latwiju literaturas vēsture</i> (Jelgava, 1908–09)</li> <li>Lehgolnis, <i>Latweeschu literaturas wehsture</i> (Riga, 1908)</li> <li>Prande, <i>Latviešu Rakstniecība Portrejās</i> (Rīga, 1923)</li></ul> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/List_of_Latvian_words_borrowed_from_Old_East_Slavic/oLu25jeE">List of Latvian words borrowed from Old East Slavic</a></li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Rick_Derksen/E1nCb3qq">Derksen, Rick</a> (1996). <i>Metatony in Baltic</i>. Amsterdam: Rodopi.</li> <li>Kalnača, Andra; Lokmane, Ilze (2021). <a href="https://dspace.lu.lv/dspace/handle/7/54312"><i>Latvian Grammar</i></a>. Rīga: University of Latvia Press. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.22364%2Flatgram.2021">10.22364/latgram.2021</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-9934-18-635-6.</li> <li>Prauliņš, Dace (2012). <i>Latvian: An Essential Grammar</i>. London: Routeledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780415576925.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <i>Latvian edition</i> of <a href="/facts/Wikipedia/KDRNKWnc">Wikipedia</a>, the free encyclopedia Wikimedia Commons has media related to Latvian language. For a list of words relating to Latvian language, see the Latvian languagecategory of words in <a href="/facts/Wiktionary/CkYghv2h">Wiktionary</a>, the free dictionary. Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for <i>Latvian</i>. <ul><li><a href="http://www.latvijasradio.lv/lapas/lv_tiesraide.htm">Live Latvian-language radio streams online</a></li> <li><a href="https://likumi.lv/ta/en/en/id/14740-official-language-law">Official Language Law in English</a></li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927004152/http://www.latvianstuff.com/Language.html">Overview of the Latvian Language (en)</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.vvk.lv/">State (Official) Language Commission (linguistic articles, applicable laws, etc.)</a></li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060410080305/http://www.letonika.lv/dictionary/">English–Latvian / Latvian–English dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.acl.lv/en/">English-Latvian and Latvian–English online translation</a></li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070916092434/http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Latvian-english/">Latvian–English Dictionary</a> from <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120223164907/http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/">Webster's Online Dictionary</a> – <a href="/facts/The_Rosetta_Edition/G5B8VzTC">The Rosetta Edition</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.lvavp.lv/">National Agency for Latvian Language Training</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.languagehelpers.com">Examples of Latvian words and phrases (with sound)</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.nvtc.gov/lotw/months/december/Latvian.html#stru">Languages of the World:Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.dicts.info/dictlist1.php?l=Latvian">Latvian bilingual dictionaries</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Latvian_Swadesh_list">Latvian Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words</a> (from Wiktionary's <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists">Swadesh-list appendix</a>)</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Prauliņš (2012), p. 1 - Prauliņš, Dace (2012). Latvian: An Essential Grammar. London: Routeledge. ISBN 9780415576925. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Prauliņš (2012), p. 1 - Prauliņš, Dace (2012). Latvian: An Essential Grammar. London: Routeledge. ISBN 9780415576925. <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>"EU official languages". European-union.europa.eu. 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Retrieved 30 October 2014. <a href="https://www.csb.gov.lv/en/statistics/statistics-by-theme/population/census/search-in-theme/1442-home-latvian-spoken-62-latvian-population" target="_blank">https://www.csb.gov.lv/en/statistics/statistics-by-theme/population/census/search-in-theme/1442-home-latvian-spoken-62-latvian-population</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>"Latvian Language Is Spoken by 62% of the Population". Baltic News Network. 26 September 2013. Retrieved 30 October 2014. <a href="https://bnn-news.com/latvian-language-spoken-62-population-103604" target="_blank">https://bnn-news.com/latvian-language-spoken-62-population-103604</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Žemaitis, Augustinas. "Languages". OnLatvia.com. Retrieved 1 August 2022. <a href="https://www.onlatvia.com/languages-718" target="_blank">https://www.onlatvia.com/languages-718</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Dahl, Östen; Koptjevskaja-Tamm, Maria, eds. (2001). The Circum-Baltic Languages. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 9027230579. OCLC 872451315. <a href="9027230579" target="_blank">9027230579</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>"How Latgale chose to join Latvia". Public Broadcasting of Latvia. 2 May 2017. Retrieved 27 October 2017. The Latgalian language falls within the High Latvian dialect and is of course mutually intelligible with the other dialects. <a href="https://eng.lsm.lv/article/culture/history/how-latgale-chose-to-join-latvia.a234437/" target="_blank">https://eng.lsm.lv/article/culture/history/how-latgale-chose-to-join-latvia.a234437/</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>"Latgalian Language in Latvia: Between Politics, Linguistics and Law". International Centre for Ethnic and Linguistic Diversity. 30 March 2018. Retrieved 6 August 2018. <a href="http://www.icelds.org/2018/03/30/latgalian-language-in-latvia-between-politics-linguistics-and-law/" target="_blank">http://www.icelds.org/2018/03/30/latgalian-language-in-latvia-between-politics-linguistics-and-law/</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>For example the Latvian debitive verb form (man ir jāmācās “I must study” or “it is necessary for me to study”) and the Lithuanian frequentative past (jie eidavo “they used to go”).Baltic languages - Comparison of Lithuanian and Latvian Archived 2021-10-25 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopedia Britannica <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Baltic-languages/Comparison-of-Lithuanian-and-Latvian" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Baltic-languages/Comparison-of-Lithuanian-and-Latvian</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>"Livones.net - Mutual influence between Livonian and Latvian". <a href="http://www.livones.net/en/valoda/mutual-influence-between-livonian-and-latvian" target="_blank">http://www.livones.net/en/valoda/mutual-influence-between-livonian-and-latvian</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>International Business Publications, Usa. 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Archived from the original on 24 April 2012. Retrieved 3 September 2019. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120424153605/http://www.lituanus.org/1973/73_3_02.htm#Ref" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120424153605/http://www.lituanus.org/1973/73_3_02.htm#Ref</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>"National treasure: The oldest Latvian-language book in Rīga". Public Broadcasting of Latvia. 25 August 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2017. <a href="https://eng.lsm.lv/article/society/society/national-treasure-the-oldest-latvian-language-book-in-riga.a197919/" target="_blank">https://eng.lsm.lv/article/society/society/national-treasure-the-oldest-latvian-language-book-in-riga.a197919/</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Rozenberga, Māra; Sprēde, Antra (24 August 2016). "National treasure: The first Bible in Latvian". Public Broadcasting of Latvia. 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Retrieved 3 September 2019. <a href="http://providus.lv/article_files/1500/original/Min-LatviaEN.pdf?1331720008" target="_blank">http://providus.lv/article_files/1500/original/Min-LatviaEN.pdf?1331720008</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Latvian Centre for Human Rights and Ethnic Studies (2004). Analytical Report PHARE RAXEN_CC - Minority Education (PDF). Vienna: Minority Education in Latvia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2022. Retrieved 3 September 2019. <a href="https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/275-edu-latvia-final.pdf" target="_blank">https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/275-edu-latvia-final.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>"Official Language Law". likumi.lv. 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"Latviešu valodas izmaiņas un funkcijas interneta vidē". politika.lv (in Latvian). Archived from the original on 24 May 2012. Retrieved 28 July 2007.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) <a href="https://archive.today/20120524124909/http://politika.lv/" target="_blank">https://archive.today/20120524124909/http://politika.lv/</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>BIBLIA, published Riga, 1848 (reprint), original edition 1739; "modern" old orthographies published into the 20th century do not double consonants <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Veips, Lauris (13 May 2017). "From the Language of Serfs to Official EU Communication – the Journey of Latvian". LSM.lv. 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"Baltic and Finnic linguistic relations reflected in geolinguistic studies of the Baltic languages". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290838706" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290838706</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Veips, Lauris (13 May 2017). "From the Language of Serfs to Official EU Communication – the Journey of Latvian". LSM.lv. Retrieved 27 October 2017. <a href="https://eng.lsm.lv/article/features/features/from-the-language-of-serfs-to-official-eu-communication-the-journey-of-latvian.a236321/" target="_blank">https://eng.lsm.lv/article/features/features/from-the-language-of-serfs-to-official-eu-communication-the-journey-of-latvian.a236321/</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Viiding, Kristi (2004). "Das Porträt eines liv- und kurländischen orthodoxen Theologen (Georg Mancelius), anhand der ihm gewidmeten Geleit und Begrüßungsgedichte". In Sträter, Udo (ed.). Orthodoxie und Poesie (in German). Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt. ISBN 3-374-01997-8. <a href="3-374-01997-8" target="_blank">3-374-01997-8</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Kabelka, J. (1982). Baltų filologijos įvadas: Vadovėlis respublikos aukštųjų mokyklų filologijos specialybės studentams [Introduction to Baltic Philology: A Textbook for Philology Students of Higher Education in the Republic] (in Latvian). Vilnius: Mokslas. p. 101. <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>