Phaseolus vulgaris

<h2 id="description">Description</h2>
Bush varieties form erect bushes 20–60 centimetres (8–20 inches) tall, while pole or running varieties form <a href="/facts/Vine/3nVRIAws">vines</a> 2–3 metres (7–10 feet) long. All varieties bear alternate, green or purple <a href="/facts/Leaf/1m6wCNTg">leaves</a>, which are divided into three oval, smooth-edged leaflets, each 6–15 cm (2–6 in) long and 3–11 cm (1–4 in) wide. The white, pink, or purple <a href="/facts/Flower/7gI5Kefw">flowers</a> are about 1 cm long and have 10 <a href="/facts/Stamens/MzNPVK3D">stamens</a>. The flowers are <a href="/facts/Self-pollinating/zvnJrYSx">self-pollinating</a>, which facilitates the selection of stable cultivars. The flowers give way to pods 8–20 cm (3–8 in) long and 1–1.5 cm wide. These may be green, yellow, black, or purple, each containing 4–8 beans. Some varieties develop a string along the pod; these are generally cultivated for dry beans, as green stringy beans are not commercially desirable. The beans are smooth, plump, kidney-shaped, up to 1.5 cm long, range widely in color and are often mottled in two or more colors. The beans maintain their germination capacity for up to 5 years.
Like most species from Phaseolus, the genome of P. vulgaris has 11 chromosomal pairs (2n = 22). Its genome is one of the smallest in the legume family at 625 Mbp per haploid genome.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a>
Raw or undercooked beans contain a toxic protein called <a href="/facts/Phytohaemagglutinin/Nl8AMfW4">phytohaemagglutinin</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a>: 254

<h2 id="taxonomy">Taxonomy</h2>
The common bean, like all species of <a href="/facts/Phaseolus/3JLzd8wX">Phaseolus</a> is a member of the <a href="/facts/Legume/x6s6gVHY">legume</a> family <a href="/facts/Fabaceae/uxuHNdAr">Fabaceae</a>.
In Species Plantarum in 1753, <a href="/facts/Carl_Linnaeus/gy5HWkHS">Carl Linnaeus</a> classified the beans known by him into genus <a href="/facts/Phaseolus/3JLzd8wX">Phaseolus</a> and genus Dolichos, naming 11 species of Phaseolus,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> including 6 cultivated species and 5 "wild" species.
The beans cultivated in Europe prior to the <a href="/facts/Columbian_Exchange/xaYrED8p">Columbian Exchange</a> were of Asian origin and are unrelated to New World Phaseolus species. The Eurasian species were transferred to other genera including <a href="/facts/Vigna/UGJddS7s">Vigna</a>, <a href="/facts/Vicia/qmeT2Kq7">Vicia</a> and <a href="/facts/Lablab/NoAA2nIw">Lablab</a>, so members of the Phaseolus genus are now all from the Americas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a>

<h3>Etymology</h3>
<a href="/facts/Ancient_Greeks/PTVBrWXq">Ancient Greeks</a> used the word φάσηλος (phasēlos) to refer to the beans of Asian origins that were cultivated in Europe at the time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> The <a href="/facts/Roman_people/3UUhAFTy">Romans</a> used both the Latinized phaseolus and their own faba to refer to different pre-Columbian species of beans,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> presumably using the word faseolus for smaller seeds like those belonging to the genus Vigna such as the <a href="/facts/Black-eyed_peas/2fv40jnt">black-eyed peas</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> and the word faba for larger seeds, such as the <a href="/facts/Fava_beans/KPxa7j4I">fava beans</a>. This latter word, faba, was related to the <a href="/facts/Proto-Germanic/LJrKRx5A">Proto-Germanic</a> bauno, from which the <a href="/facts/Old_English/9rsmQG2a">Old English</a> word bean is derived and has the meaning of "bean, pea, legume".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> When Phaseolus vulgaris arrived in Europe in the <a href="/facts/16th_century/1LF6RNzn">16th century</a>, this species was yet another seed in a pod, thus there were already words in the European languages describing it.
In the <a href="/facts/Americas/hEuUTL4K">Americas</a>, P. vulgaris is also known as ayacotl in <a href="/facts/Nahuatl/MTVHtb8U">nahuatl</a> (<a href="/facts/Aztec/Tn5vj064">Aztec</a> language), búul in <a href="/facts/Mayan_language/5J0QpcLa">Mayan</a> (<a href="/facts/Maya_civilization/JMynpRSR">Maya</a> language) and purutu in <a href="/facts/Quechuan_languages/XuYYuTkJ">Quechua</a> (<a href="/facts/Inca/GjNowI6t">Inca</a> language). In Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay, the Spanish name 'poroto' is used, being derived from its corresponding Quechua word. Additional names include the <a href="/facts/Spanish_language/95BgYNfv">Castilian Spanish</a> frijol, the <a href="/facts/Portuguese_language/vr3Fwzw3">Portuguese</a> feijão, and the <a href="/facts/Catalan_language/W2uTbK8Q">Catalan</a> fesol.

<h2 id="distribution">Distribution</h2>

Wild P. vulgaris is native to the Americas. It was originally believed that it had been <a href="/facts/Domestication/tWB5s52s">domesticated</a> separately in <a href="/facts/Mesoamerica/cFjUFklr">Mesoamerica</a> and in the southern <a href="/facts/Andes/a4wlgG3e">Andes</a> region some 8,000 years ago, giving the domesticated bean two <a href="/facts/Gene_pool/kYRN6qIa">gene pools</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> However, recent genetic analyses show that it was domesticated in Mexico first, then split into the Mesoamerican and Andean P. vulgaris gene pools.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a>
Beans, <a href="/facts/Squash_(fruit)/obYd9RFa">squash</a> and <a href="/facts/Maize/lJ6c5xMH">maize</a> (corn) are the three Mesoamerican crops that constitute the <a href="/facts/Three_Sisters_(agriculture)/Rboj4Ybk">"Three Sisters"</a>, central to <a href="/facts/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas/LG2r6wXm">indigenous American agriculture</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a>
The common bean arrived in Europe as part of the <a href="/facts/Columbian_exchange/xaYrED8p">Columbian exchange</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a>

<h2 id="cultivation">Cultivation</h2>
Good commercial yield in favorable environments under irrigation is 6 to 8 ton/ha fresh and 1.5 to 2 ton/ha dry seed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a>

<h3>Cultivars and varieties</h3>
Archeologists found large-seeded varieties of the domesticated bean in the highlands of Peru, dating to 2300 BC, and spreading to the coastal regions by around 500 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> Small-seeded varieties were found in sites in Mexico, dating to 300 BC, which then spread north and east of the <a href="/facts/Mississippi_River/RduarPzj">Mississippi River</a> by 1000 AD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a>
Many well-known bean <a href="/facts/Cultivar/nfaLJJM3">cultivars</a> and varieties belong to this species, and the list below is in no way exhaustive. Both bush and running (pole) cultivars/varieties exist. The colors and shapes of pods and seeds vary over a wide range.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a>

<table><tbody><tr><th>Name</th><th>Image</th><th>Description</th></tr><tr><td>Anasazi</td><td></td><td>Anasazi beans are a dappled red and white bean first cultivated by <a href="/facts/Ancestral_Puebloans/KBn3XUVd">Ancestral Puebloan</a> people around 130 CE in what is now the <a href="/facts/Four_Corners/LlMUhNY4">Four Corners</a> region of the United States. Anasazi Bean is often confused with Jacob's Cattle variety, but Anasazi has splashes of color, whereas Jacob's Cattle has splashes and small spots. Anasazi beans were adopted by commercial growers beginning in the 1980s and marketed under the name "Anasazi"; traditionally they were known by the Spanish names frijol conejo (rabbit bean), vaquita (little cow), or pájaro carpintero (woodpecker).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Appaloosa_bean/SnX2zqFk">Appaloosa</a></td><td></td><td>Front portion of the bean is ivory colored; the other end is speckled with reddish-purple and mocha. The bean is named after the <a href="/facts/Appaloosa/7kQfHv6f">Appaloosa</a> ponies of the <a href="/facts/Nez_Perce_people/jIyYWGB5">Nez Perce tribe</a>. The seed was cultivated near the <a href="/facts/Palouse_River/P7Lpn96d">Palouse River</a> in Eastern <a href="/facts/Washington_(state)/7tCrTFnN">Washington</a> and Northern <a href="/facts/Idaho/68ELs9Um">Idaho</a>.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Black_turtle_bean/nrYc9sCu">Black turtle</a></td><td></td><td>The black turtle bean has small, shiny black seeds. It is especially popular in Latin American cuisine.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Bolita_bean/tvnaV7cq">Bolita bean</a></td><td></td><td>Bolita beans are a traditional variety utilized in <a href="/facts/New_Mexican_cuisine/yunI65c4">New Mexican cuisine</a> by <a href="/facts/Hispanos_of_New_Mexico/EX41uwyV">New Mexican Hispanos</a> from northern <a href="/facts/New_Mexico/wosJCGaW">New Mexico</a> and southern <a href="/facts/Colorado/IgIHrJI5">Colorado</a>. They can range from whitish-tan to beige and even pinkish-purple in color.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Calypso_bean/8w3nVKmG">Calypso</a></td><td></td><td>Calypso beans, also called Panda beans or Yin Yang beans, are half black and half white, with one or two black dots in the white area. When young, the pods can be harvested as green beans. But when full-grown, they are used as a bean for drying.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Cranberry_bean/MJcKFtX0">Cranberry</a></td><td></td><td>The <a href="/facts/Cranberry_bean/MJcKFtX0">cranberry beans</a> originated in <a href="/facts/Colombia/nl7r8Q2u">Colombia</a> as the cargamanto bean. Borlotti or Roman beans are a variety of cranberry beans bred in Italy to have a thicker skin. They are much used in Mediterranean cuisine. A widespread cultivar of European borlotti is 'Borlotto Lingua di Fuoco' (Tongue of Fire).</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Dragon_tongue_bean/y2PsCymp">Dragon tongue</a></td><td></td><td>Dragon tongue bean is a type of <a href="/facts/Cranberry_bean/MJcKFtX0">cranberry bean</a>. It is a flavorful, juicy bean whose seeds are encased in a buffed, colorful pod with mottled burgundy patterns throughout the shell's surface. The shelled beans are pale pistachio green in color, their size, petite, and their shape, ovate and slightly curved.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Flageolet_bean/3NSgVmyV">Flageolet</a></td><td></td><td>Flageolet beans are picked before full maturity and dried in the shade to retain a green color and a distinct taste. The seeds are small, light green, and kidney-shaped. If shelled and cooked when fresh but semi-dry, the texture is firm yet creamy. They are often eaten in France, where they traditionally accompany lamb.</td></tr><tr><td>Great northern beans</td><td></td><td>Great northern beans are a large, flat, kidney-shaped white bean. They have a mild, nutty flavor. They are popular in North America and often added to <a href="/facts/Soup_beans/vu1rml6h">soups</a> and casseroles.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Kidney_bean/H8gTv5k1">Kidney</a></td><td></td><td>Kidney beans, also known as red beans, are named for their visual resemblance in shape and color to <a href="/facts/Kidney/HBspPrv9">kidneys</a>. They are sometimes used in <a href="/facts/Chili_con_carne/qAT3MuKB">chili con carne</a> and are an integral part of the cuisine in northern regions of India. They are also used in New Orleans and much of southern Louisiana for the Monday Creole dish of <a href="/facts/Red_beans_and_rice/r5I4CcHa">red beans and rice</a> as well as the Caribbean habichuelas guisadas and Central American <a href="/facts/Gallo_pinto/FlvSWS3h">gallo pinto</a>.</td></tr><tr><td>Jacob's Cattle</td><td></td><td>Similar to Anasazi in appearance, with the exception of having also dots. Legend says the <a href="/facts/Passamaquoddy/4qFL3khN">Passamaquoddy</a> indigenous people of <a href="/facts/Maine/7ww4UY8B">Maine</a> gave these beans as a gift to Joseph Clark, the first Caucasian child born in Lubec, Maine in the 1600s. Also known as Trout.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a></td></tr><tr><td>Mocha with Cherry</td><td></td><td>"Mocha with Cherry" is a polebean. This variety is said to come from the Rodope area in Bulgaria, and to be related to "Papa de Rola" and "Dove's Breast".</td></tr><tr><td>North Holland Brown</td><td></td><td>This bean is an old Dutch Heirloom bush variety primarily used for dried beans.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Pea_bean/VgmXILY1">Pea</a>, Painted Pony</td><td></td><td>A type of P. vulgaris called pea bean has been recorded in Britain since the 16th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a> In the US, the name "pea bean" is also used to describe small white beans and the same name is used for <a href="/facts/Vigna_unguiculata_subsp._sesquipedalis/xjNjETll">Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis</a>, also called yard-long bean and cowpea.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a> The seeds of the British pea bean are bicolored red-brown and white (not to be confused with Jacob's Cattle, which is darker red than reddish-brown). The plants are typical climbing beans. The beans are either eaten in the pod-like French beans or may be harvested when mature and eaten as other dried beans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a></td></tr><tr><td>Peruano</td><td></td><td>Also known as mayocoba, canary, canario, Peruvian, Mexican yellow bean. A light green to jaundice yellow kidney-shaped bean that is preferred in certain regions of Mexico (such as Jalisco<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a>) for making frijoles refritos, and in Peru for making tacu tacu, a pan-fried cake of leftover beans and rice.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> Often described as having a "buttery" and "creamy" texture.</td></tr><tr><td>Pink</td><td></td><td>Pink beans are small, pale pink, oval-shaped beans also known by the Spanish name habichuelas rosadas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a> The <a href="/facts/Santa_Maria%2c_California/2mg8IhH7">Santa Maria</a> pinquito (<a href="/facts/Spanglish/ejyJrKMJ">Spanglish</a> = pink and small), is commercially grown on the mesas above Santa Maria, California, and is a necessary ingredient in <a href="/facts/Santa_Maria-style_barbecue/bWwWGXmt">Santa Maria-style barbecue</a>.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Pinto_bean/hoyrXq0K">Pinto</a></td><td></td><td>Pinto beans are named for their mottled skin (<a href="/facts/Spanish_language/95BgYNfv">Spanish</a>: pinto = painted or mottled). They are the most common bean in the United States<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> and northwestern Mexico,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> and are most often eaten whole in broth or mashed and <a href="/facts/Refried_beans/WJq0jmIr">refried</a>. Either whole or mashed, they are a common filling for <a href="/facts/Burrito/umJJDrYg">burritos</a>. The young pods may also be harvested and cooked as green pinto beans.</td></tr><tr><td>Polish Eagle Beans</td><td></td><td>Also called by the Independence bean by the Polish people because the brown pattern on the inner side of the bean resembles and Eagle - the Polish emblem. This bean variety was cultivated in the XIX century as an act of patriotism by the Polish people.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Rattlesnake_bean/SaPfQuHE">Rattlesnake</a></td><td></td><td>A medium-sized, oblong bean with light brown seeds striped with brown markings. Named for the snake-like manner in which their pods coil around the vine.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a></td></tr><tr><td>Sulphur</td><td></td><td>aka China Yellow Bean: A thin-skinned, nearly round <a href="/facts/Maine/7ww4UY8B">Maine</a> heirloom bean that has a tawny yellow color but cooks white and has a distinctly unique flavor.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a> This is a choice variety for use in the traditional Bean Hole style.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a></td></tr><tr><td>Tiger's Eye</td><td></td><td>A bush variety, thought to have originated in Chile or Argentina.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a></td></tr><tr><td>White</td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Navy_bean/KWwrQUCM">Navy beans</a> or haricot beans are particularly popular in the United Kingdom and the United States. White beans are the most abundant plant-based source of <a href="/facts/Phosphatidylserine/LLq1N91L">phosphatidylserine</a> known.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a></td></tr><tr><td>Yellow (Enola type)</td><td></td><td>'Sinaloa Azufrado,' 'Mayocoba,' and 'Peruano' (also called canary) are yellow beans. Peruano beans (see above) are small, oval, yellow beans about 1/2 in (1 cm) long with a thin skin. They have a creamy texture when cooked. Despite the name ('Peruvian beans' in Spanish), they are native to Mexico. Yellow beans are uncommon in the United States due to a controversial patent issued in 1999 to John Proctor, who selected and named a strain of yellow beans from seeds he brought back from Mexico. U.S. Patent No. 5,894,079 (the <a href="/facts/Enola_bean/BS5HezHj">Enola or yellow bean patent</a>) granted POD-NERS, LLC., exclusive right to import and sell yellow beans in the United States from 1999 through 2008 when the patent was rejected after reexamination.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a></td></tr><tr><td>Yellow Eye</td><td></td><td>aka Maine Yellow Eye, this is the most popular baking bean in <a href="/facts/Maine/7ww4UY8B">Maine</a>, which comes in several strains, including the 'Steuben,' one of the oldest heirloom beans. It has a wide appeal for its clean, mild taste and is considered the baked bean of choice for church and grange suppers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a></td></tr></tbody></table>
Dry bean production – 2022<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a><table><tbody><tr><th>Country</th><th>Millions of <a href="/facts/Tonne/gMymLmWv">tonnes</a></th></tr><tr><td> <a href="/facts/India/QW4TV4sy">India</a></td><td>6.6</td></tr><tr><td> <a href="/facts/Brazil/QHkG46GL">Brazil</a></td><td>2.8</td></tr><tr><td> <a href="/facts/Myanmar/zcqQH2oE">Myanmar</a></td><td>2.7</td></tr><tr><td> <a href="/facts/China/lTjIXY5p">China</a></td><td>1.3</td></tr><tr><td> <a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td>1.2</td></tr><tr><td> <a href="/facts/Mexico/IT5bwhdh">Mexico</a></td><td>1.0</td></tr><tr><td>World</td><td>28.3</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">Source: <a href="/facts/FAOSTAT/bnNaSDqw">FAOSTAT</a> of the <a href="/facts/United_Nations/fgXLnmgT">United Nations</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<h3>Production</h3>
In 2022, world production of dry common beans was 28 million tonnes, led by India with 23% of the total. <a href="/facts/Brazil/QHkG46GL">Brazil</a> and <a href="/facts/Myanmar/zcqQH2oE">Myanmar</a> were secondary producers.

<h2 id="toxicity">Toxicity</h2>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Phytohaemagglutinin/Nl8AMfW4">Phytohaemagglutinin</a>
The toxic compound phytohaemagglutinin, a <a href="/facts/Lectin/I7Clqx4X">lectin</a>, is present in many common bean varieties but is especially concentrated in red kidney beans. White kidney beans contain about a third as many toxins as the red variety; broad beans (Vicia faba) contain 5 to 10% as much as red kidney beans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a>
Phytohaemagglutinin can be inactivated by cooking beans for ten minutes at <a href="/facts/Boiling_point/E2BK9QoS">boiling point</a> (100 °C, 212 °F). Insufficient cooking, such as in a <a href="/facts/Slow_cooker/vpTAdxoG">slow cooker</a> at 80 °C/ 176 °F, is insufficient to deactivate all toxins. To safely cook the beans, the U.S. <a href="/facts/Food_and_Drug_Administration/rCEnh9WB">Food and Drug Administration</a> recommends boiling for 30 minutes to ensure they reach a sufficient temperature for long enough to destroy the toxin completely.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a> For dry beans, the FDA also recommends an initial soak of at least 5 hours in water which should then be discarded.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a> Outbreaks of poisoning have been associated with cooking kidney beans in <a href="/facts/Slow_cooker/vpTAdxoG">slow cookers</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a>
The primary <a href="/facts/Symptom/BzP6MrTN">symptoms</a> of phytohaemagglutinin poisoning are nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Onset is from one to three hours after consumption of improperly prepared beans, and symptoms typically resolve within a few hours.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a> Consumption of as few as four or five raw, soaked kidney beans can cause symptoms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a> Canned red kidney beans are safe to use immediately, as they have already been cooked.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a>

Beans are high in <a href="/facts/Purine/9ogLp0Wc">purines</a>, which are metabolized to <a href="/facts/Uric_acid/gPMSfLcT">uric acid</a>. Uric acid is not a toxin but may promote the development or exacerbation of <a href="/facts/Gout/ktWD69YP">gout</a>. However, more recent research has questioned this association, finding that moderate intake of purine-rich foods is not associated with an increased risk of gout.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a>
<h2 id="uses">Uses</h2>
<h3>Nutrition</h3>

Raw green beans are 90% water, 7% <a href="/facts/Carbohydrate/Geuuzxsf">carbohydrates</a>, 1% <a href="/facts/Protein_(nutrient)/JTsv4Rhw">protein</a>, and contain negligible <a href="/facts/Fat/87HcP11s">fat</a>. In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), raw green beans supply 36 <a href="/facts/Calorie/ntNMPx65">calories</a>, and are a rich source (20% or more of the <a href="/facts/Daily_Value/TemwCsC3">Daily Value</a>, DV) of <a href="/facts/Vitamin_K/dpTFSa4J">vitamin K</a> (41% DV) and a moderate source (10–19% DV) of <a href="/facts/Vitamin_C/IA2f1fTm">vitamin C</a>, <a href="/facts/Vitamin_B6/9IavWjwM">vitamin B6</a>, and <a href="/facts/Manganese/j9ELd1TL">manganese</a>.
Dry white common beans, after boiling, are 63% water, 25% carbohydrates, 10% protein, and contain little fat. In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), boiled white common beans supply 139 calories and are a rich source of <a href="/facts/Folate/8Eb7An6D">folate</a> and manganese, with moderate amounts of <a href="/facts/Thiamine/37RC4MCS">thiamine</a> and several dietary <a href="/facts/Mineral_(nutrient)/ACv8EG7f">minerals</a>.

<h3>Dry beans</h3>
Dry beans will keep indefinitely if stored in a cool, dry place, but as time passes, their <a href="/facts/Nutrition/SMJ3Dhfs">nutritive</a> value and <a href="/facts/Flavor_(taste)/mdB8ysuK">flavor</a> degrade, and cooking times lengthen. Dried beans are almost always cooked by <a href="/facts/Boiling/BHxWzT2k">boiling</a>, often after being soaked in water for several hours. While the soaking is not strictly necessary, it shortens cooking time and results in more evenly textured beans. In addition, soaking beans removes 5 to 10% of the gas-producing sugars that can cause <a href="/facts/Flatulence/XMAcIUru">flatulence</a> for some people.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a> The methods include simple overnight soaking and the power soak method, in which beans are boiled for three minutes and then set aside for 2–4 hours. Before cooking, the soaking water is drained off and discarded. Dry common beans take longer to cook than most <a href="/facts/Pulse_(legume)/x6s6gVHY">pulses</a>: cooking times vary from one to four hours but are substantially reduced with <a href="/facts/Pressure_cooking/ugtHltbF">pressure cooking</a>.
In Mexico, Central America, and South America, the traditional spice used with beans is <a href="/facts/Epazote/eWdt8w8C">epazote</a>, which is also said to aid digestion. In East Asia, a type of seaweed, <a href="/facts/Kombu/aHk04M1L">kombu</a>, is added to beans as they cook for the same purpose. Salt, sugar, and acidic foods such as tomatoes may harden uncooked beans, resulting in seasoned beans at the expense of slightly longer cooking times.
Dry beans may also be bought cooked and <a href="/facts/Canning/3v7LsDuY">canned</a> as <a href="/facts/Refried_beans/WJq0jmIr">refried beans</a>, or whole with <a href="/facts/Water/0lkXnJPK">water</a>, <a href="/facts/Edible_salt/SCplalQ3">salt</a>, and sometimes <a href="/facts/Sugar/jb5KXRHT">sugar</a>.

<h3>Green beans and wax beans</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Green_bean/Mf27XFPC">Green bean</a>
The three commonly known types of green beans are string or snap beans, which may be round or have a flat pod; stringless or French beans, which lack a tough, fibrous string running along the length of the pod; and runner beans, which belong to a separate species, <a href="/facts/Phaseolus_coccineus/B3rtgMx6">Phaseolus coccineus</a>. Green beans may have a purple rather than green pod, which changes to green when cooked.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a> Wax beans are P. vulgaris beans that have a yellow<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> or white pod. Wax bean cultivars are commonly grown;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a> the plants are often of the bush or dwarf form.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a>
As the name implies, snap beans break easily when the pod is bent, giving off a distinct audible snapping sound. The pods of snap beans (green, yellow, and purple) are harvested when they are rapidly growing, fleshy, tender (not tough and stringy), and bright in color, and the seeds are small and underdeveloped (8 to 10 days after flowering).
Green beans and wax beans are often <a href="/facts/Steaming/7M5xHcG3">steamed</a>, boiled, <a href="/facts/Stir_frying/hkdPVhI1">stir-fried</a>, or <a href="/facts/Baking/SU8Cb6Wa">baked</a> in <a href="/facts/Casserole/JCuQCINk">casseroles</a>.

<h3>Shelling beans</h3>
Shell, shelled, or shelling beans are beans removed from their pods before being cooked or dried. Common beans can be used as shell beans, but the term also refers to other species of beans whose pods are not typically eaten, such as <a href="/facts/Lima_bean/kcIQTwoU">lima beans</a>, <a href="/facts/Soybean/reNwxvo2">soybeans</a>, <a href="/facts/Pea/hlndxpId">peas</a>, and <a href="/facts/Fava_bean/KPxa7j4I">fava beans</a>. Fresh shell beans are nutritionally similar to dry beans but are prepared more like vegetables, often steamed, fried, or made into soups.

<h3>Popping beans</h3>
The nuña is an Andean subspecies, P. v. subsp. nunas (formerly P. vulgaris Nuñas group), with round, multicolored seeds that resemble pigeon eggs. When cooked on high heat, the bean explodes, exposing the inner part in the manner of <a href="/facts/Popcorn/9MMa8fCz">popcorn</a> and other <a href="/facts/Puffed_grain/2BNesgyj">puffed grains</a>.

<h3>Other uses</h3>
Bean leaves have been used to trap <a href="/facts/Bed_bug/H4m2HbjR">bedbugs</a> in houses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a> Microscopic hairs (<a href="/facts/Trichome/tLjKSfvm">trichomes</a>) on the bean leaves entrap the insects.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a>
Beans have been used as devices in various methods of <a href="/facts/Divination/b8gLkFfv">divination</a> since ancient times. Fortune-telling using beans is called <a href="/facts/Favomancy/WlQ0r87X">favomancy</a>.
P. vulgaris has been found to bio-accumulate <a href="/facts/Zinc/80b1qgk3">zinc</a>, <a href="/facts/Manganese/j9ELd1TL">manganese</a>, and <a href="/facts/Iron/DkICCKIC">iron</a> and have some tolerance to their respective toxicities, suggesting suitability for natural bio-remediation of heavy-metal-contaminated soils.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a>[non-primary source needed]

<h2 id="in-culture">In culture</h2>
In 1528, Pope <a href="/facts/Pope_Clement_VII/LtYJwhAe">Clemente VII</a> received some white beans, which thrived. Five years later, he gave a bag of beans as a present to his niece, <a href="/facts/Catherine_de%25E2%2580%2599_Medici/rVVuaIcu">Catherine</a>, on her wedding to <a href="/facts/Henry_II_of_France/ceVVB9Ll">Prince Henri of France</a>, along with the county of the <a href="/facts/Lauragais/eRPAHlA6">Lauragais</a>, whose county town is <a href="/facts/Castelnaudary/hDh4Dz5x">Castelnaudary</a>, now synonymous with the white bean dish of <a href="/facts/Cassoulet/p6dquMK5">cassoulet</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a>

<h2 id="gallery">Gallery</h2>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Adzuki_bean/AaQz9D3x">Adzuki bean</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Chickpea/gRKRpqWp">Chickpea</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Dal/3AFTyjk2">Dal</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Lentil/GUuCEt0o">Lentil</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_dried_foods/4DoLkxef">List of dried foods</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_diseases_of_the_common_bean/1yFQSE3H">List of diseases of the common bean</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Mung_bean/wAlAaUsW">Mung bean</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Organic_beans/3azFYY6d">Organic beans</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Vicia_faba/KPxa7j4I">Vicia faba</a>, or broad bean</li></ul>

<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

<ul><li> Data related to Phaseolus vulgaris at Wikispecies</li>
<li> Food portal</li>
<li> Agriculture portal</li>
<li> Botany portal</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
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<li id="fn:17">Rendón-Anaya, M.; et al. (2017). "Genomic history of the origin and domestication of common bean unveils its closest sister species". Genome Biology. 18 (1). Article number: 60. doi:10.1186/s13059-017-1190-6. PMC 5370463. PMID 28356141. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5370463" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5370463</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Hill, Christina Gish (2020-11-20). "Returning the 'three sisters' – corn, beans, and squash – to Native American farms nourishes people, land and cultures". The Conversation. Retrieved 2021-01-08. <a href="https://theconversation.com/returning-the-three-sisters-corn-beans-and-squash-to-native-american-farms-nourishes-people-land-and-cultures-149230" target="_blank">https://theconversation.com/returning-the-three-sisters-corn-beans-and-squash-to-native-american-farms-nourishes-people-land-and-cultures-149230</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:21">Pearman, Georgina (2005). Prance, Ghillean; Nesbitt, Mark (eds.). The Cultural History of Plants. Routledge. pp. 143–144. ISBN 0-415-92746-3. <a href="0-415-92746-3" target="_blank">0-415-92746-3</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Pearman, Georgina (2005). Prance, Ghillean; Nesbitt, Mark (eds.). The Cultural History of Plants. Routledge. pp. 143–144. ISBN 0-415-92746-3. <a href="0-415-92746-3" target="_blank">0-415-92746-3</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">"Taxon - Legume Data Portal". www.legumedata.org. Retrieved 2024-10-01. <a href="https://www.legumedata.org/taxonomy/taxon/2537710" target="_blank">https://www.legumedata.org/taxonomy/taxon/2537710</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Wittenberg, Margaret M. (2013). The Essential Good Food Guide (3 ed.). Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-1-60774-434-4. Retrieved June 10, 2019. <a href="978-1-60774-434-4" target="_blank">978-1-60774-434-4</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Wood, Rebecca (May 2, 1993). "Oh, Beans! The Anasazi is 7,000 years old and still growing". Albuquerque Journal. Retrieved June 11, 2019 – via Newspapers.com. <a href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/32589402/albuquerque_journal/" target="_blank">https://www.newspapers.com/clip/32589402/albuquerque_journal/</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">"Dragon Tongue Shelling Beans". Specialty Produce. Retrieved 17 November 2023. <a href="http://www.specialtyproduce.com/produce/Dragon_Tongue_Shelling_Beans_4301.php" target="_blank">http://www.specialtyproduce.com/produce/Dragon_Tongue_Shelling_Beans_4301.php</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">"Jacob's Cattle Bean". Slow Food USA.org. 2 April 2020. Retrieved 17 April 2023. Slow Food USA tends the Ark of Taste catalog, a repository of critically important but increasinglycritically important but increasingly endangered food sources. <a href="https://slowfoodusa.org/jacobs-cattle-bean/" target="_blank">https://slowfoodusa.org/jacobs-cattle-bean/</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">"The Herball or Generall Historie of Plantes (1597)". mpg.de. p. 1040. The party coloured kidney bean of Egypt Phaseolus aegypticus <a href="http://caliban.mpiz-koeln.mpg.de/gerarde/high/IMG_1020.html" target="_blank">http://caliban.mpiz-koeln.mpg.de/gerarde/high/IMG_1020.html</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">"Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis". Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved September 22, 2013. <a href="https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=41646" target="_blank">https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=41646</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">– The National Vegetable Society – the Pea bean Archived January 25, 2007, at the Wayback Machine <a href="http://www.nvsuk.org.uk/growing_show_vegetables_1/pea-bean.php" target="_blank">http://www.nvsuk.org.uk/growing_show_vegetables_1/pea-bean.php</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">Sando, Steve; Barrington, Vanessa (2008). Heirloom Beans (1 ed.). San Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-8118-6069-7. <a href="978-0-8118-6069-7" target="_blank">978-0-8118-6069-7</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Yonan, Joe (2020). Cool Beans: The Ultimate Guide to Cooking with the World's Most Versatile Plant-Based Protein (3 ed.). Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-399-58149-6. <a href="978-0-399-58149-6" target="_blank">978-0-399-58149-6</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">"Pink Bean – Definition and Cooking Information". RecipeTips.com. Retrieved 2012-01-14. <a href="http://www.recipetips.com/glossary-term/t--36058/pink-bean.asp" target="_blank">http://www.recipetips.com/glossary-term/t--36058/pink-bean.asp</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">"Maize 2003 CGC Meeting". Ars-grin.gov. Archived from the original on 2012-09-15. Retrieved 2012-01-14. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120915081355/http://www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/cgc_reports/phascgc.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120915081355/http://www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/cgc_reports/phascgc.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">"Situación actual y perspectiva de la producción de Frijol en México 1990-2000" [Current situation and perspective of bean production in Mexico 1990-2000] (PDF). Federal government of Mexico (in Mexican Spanish). May 28, 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 10, 2005. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050410212553/http://www.siea.sagarpa.gob.mx/Publicaciones/Archivos/Frijol90-00.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20050410212553/http://www.siea.sagarpa.gob.mx/Publicaciones/Archivos/Frijol90-00.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Slurrp Editorial (Jan 7, 2023). "Uncovering The History Behind Poland's Iconic Eagle Bean: A Symbol Of Independence". Retrieved 16 November 2023. <a href="https://www.slurrp.com/article/the-history-polands-iconic-eagle-bean-a-symbol-of-independence-1673090956063" target="_blank">https://www.slurrp.com/article/the-history-polands-iconic-eagle-bean-a-symbol-of-independence-1673090956063</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">Ron Herbst; Sharon Tyler Herbst (2015). The Deluxe Food Lover's Companion, 2nd edition. Barron's Educational Series. pp. 1439–. ISBN 978-1-4380-7621-8. <a href="978-1-4380-7621-8" target="_blank">978-1-4380-7621-8</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">"A Taste of Maine". The University of Maine Folklife Center. Retrieved 2021-02-22. <a href="https://umaine.edu/folklife/what-we-do/exhibits/foodways-research-a-taste-of-maine/" target="_blank">https://umaine.edu/folklife/what-we-do/exhibits/foodways-research-a-taste-of-maine/</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">"A Maine Tradition: Bean-Hole Beans". The University of Maine Folklife Center. Retrieved 2021-02-22. <a href="https://umaine.edu/folklife/what-we-do/exhibits/bean-hole-beans/" target="_blank">https://umaine.edu/folklife/what-we-do/exhibits/bean-hole-beans/</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">Seed Savers Exchange. "Tiger's Eye Bean". seedsavers.org/. Retrieved 16 April 2023. <a href="https://www.seedsavers.org/tigers-eye-bean" target="_blank">https://www.seedsavers.org/tigers-eye-bean</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">Souci SW, Fachmann E, Kraut H (2008). Food Composition and Nutrition Tables. Medpharm Scientific Publishers Stuttgart. <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">"The Enola Bean Patent Controversy: Biopiracy, Novelty And Fish-And-Chips". Law.duke.edu. Archived from the original on 2012-04-02. Retrieved 2012-01-14. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120402201831/http://www.law.duke.edu/journals/dltr/articles/2002dltr0008.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120402201831/http://www.law.duke.edu/journals/dltr/articles/2002dltr0008.html</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">"Appeal 2007-3938" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-01-14. <a href="http://www.uspto.gov/ip/boards/bpai/decisions/inform/fd073938.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.uspto.gov/ip/boards/bpai/decisions/inform/fd073938.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">"A Taste of Maine". The University of Maine Folklife Center. Retrieved 2021-02-22. <a href="https://umaine.edu/folklife/what-we-do/exhibits/foodways-research-a-taste-of-maine/" target="_blank">https://umaine.edu/folklife/what-we-do/exhibits/foodways-research-a-taste-of-maine/</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">"Dry bean production in 2022, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2024. Retrieved 20 February 2024. <a href="http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC" target="_blank">http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">"Dry bean production in 2022, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2024. Retrieved 20 February 2024. <a href="http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC" target="_blank">http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:47">"Bad Bug Book: Handbook of Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins: Phytohaemagglutinin" (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-18. Retrieved 2020-04-17. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130418013247/http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/UCM297627.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20130418013247/http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/UCM297627.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:48">"Bad Bug Book (2012)" (PDF). Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook: Phytohaemagglutinin. Food and Drug Administration. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 18, 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2013. Consumers should boil the beans for at least 30 minutes to ensure that the product reaches sufficient temperature <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130418013247/http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/UCM297627.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20130418013247/http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/UCM297627.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:49">"Bad Bug Book: Handbook of Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins: Phytohaemagglutinin" (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-18. Retrieved 2020-04-17. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130418013247/http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/UCM297627.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20130418013247/http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/UCM297627.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:50">"Bad Bug Book: Handbook of Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins: Phytohaemagglutinin" (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-18. Retrieved 2020-04-17. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130418013247/http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/UCM297627.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20130418013247/http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/UCM297627.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:51">"Bad Bug Book: Handbook of Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins: Phytohaemagglutinin" (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-18. Retrieved 2020-04-17. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130418013247/http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/UCM297627.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20130418013247/http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/UCM297627.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:52">"Bad Bug Book: Handbook of Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins: Phytohaemagglutinin" (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-18. Retrieved 2020-04-17. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130418013247/http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/UCM297627.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20130418013247/http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/UCM297627.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:53">"Be Careful With Red Kidney Beans in The Slow Cooker". Mother Earth News. 31 January 2013. <a href="http://www.motherearthnews.com/real-food/be-careful-with-red-kidney-beans-in-the-slow-cooker.aspx" target="_blank">http://www.motherearthnews.com/real-food/be-careful-with-red-kidney-beans-in-the-slow-cooker.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:54">"Cooking safely with slow cookers and crock pots". foodsmart.govt.nz. Archived from the original on 2016-01-02. Retrieved 2014-01-06. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160102081731/http://www.foodsmart.govt.nz/elibrary/cooking_safely_with.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20160102081731/http://www.foodsmart.govt.nz/elibrary/cooking_safely_with.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:55">"Raw Kidney Beans". Home Food Preservation (Penn State Extension). <a href="http://extension.psu.edu/food/preservation/faq/raw-kidney-beans" target="_blank">http://extension.psu.edu/food/preservation/faq/raw-kidney-beans</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:56">Choi HK, Atkinson K, Karlson EW, Willett W, Curhan G (March 2004). "Purine-rich foods, dairy and protein intake, and the risk of gout in men". N. Engl. J. Med. 350 (11): 1093–103. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa035700. PMID 15014182. S2CID 6478950. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMoa035700" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMoa035700</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:57">Rombauer, Irma S. The Joy of Cooking. Scribner, ISBN 0-684-81870-1, p. 271. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:58">Press, L. (2002). The Bean Book: Over Seventy Incredible Recipes. Guilford, Conn.: Globe Pequot Press. ISBN 978-1-58574-473-2.[page needed] <a href="978-1-58574-473-2" target="_blank">978-1-58574-473-2</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:60">Phillips, R.; Rix, M. (1993). Vegetables. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-679-75024-6.[page needed] <a href="978-0-679-75024-6" target="_blank">978-0-679-75024-6</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">Phillips, R.; Rix, M. (1993). Vegetables. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-679-75024-6.[page needed] <a href="978-0-679-75024-6" target="_blank">978-0-679-75024-6</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">Szyndler, M.W.; Haynes, K.F.; Potter, M.F.; Corn, R.M.; Loudon, C. (2013). "Entrapment of bed bugs by leaf trichomes inspires microfabrication of biomimetic surfaces". Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 10 (83): 20130174. doi:10.1098/rsif.2013.0174. ISSN 1742-5662. PMC 3645427. PMID 23576783. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3645427" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3645427</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:64">Mazumdar, K.; Das, S. (2015). "Phytoremediation of Pd, Zn, Fe, and Mg with 25 wetland plant species from a paper mill contaminated site in North East India". Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 22 (1): 197–209. Bibcode:2015ESPR...22..701M. doi:10.1007/s11356-014-3377-7. PMID 25103945. S2CID 3482592. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:65">Taylor, Colin Duncan (2021). Menu from the Midi: A Gastronomic Journey through the South of France. Matador. ISBN 978-1-80046-496-4. <a href="978-1-80046-496-4" target="_blank">978-1-80046-496-4</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Phaseolus vulgaris open-in-new

Phaseolus vulgaris