Wigner's classification

<h2 id="massive-scalar-fields">Massive scalar fields</h2>
<p>As an example, let us visualize the irreducible unitary representation with 
  
    
      
         
        m
        >
        0
         
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle ~m>0~,}
  
 and 
  
    
      
         
        s
        =
        0
         
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle ~s=0~.}
  
 It corresponds to the space of <a href="/facts/Scalar_field/8MtPTGob">massive scalar fields</a>.
</p><p>Let M be the hyperboloid sheet defined by:
</p>

P
          
            0
          
          
            2
          
        
        −
        
          P
          
            1
          
          
            2
          
        
        −
        
          P
          
            2
          
          
            2
          
        
        −
        
          P
          
            3
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          m
          
            2
          
        
         
        ,
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle ~P_{0}^{2}-P_{1}^{2}-P_{2}^{2}-P_{3}^{2}=m^{2}~,\quad }
  
 
  
    
      
         
        
          P
          
            0
          
        
        >
        0
         
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle ~P_{0}>0~.}

<p>The Minkowski metric restricts to a <a href="/facts/Riemannian_metric/5KYnmEgF">Riemannian metric</a> on M, giving M the metric structure of a <a href="/facts/Hyperbolic_space/kI7tnwdk">hyperbolic space</a>, in particular it is the <a href="/facts/Hyperboloid_model/L79z8k4Q">hyperboloid model</a> of hyperbolic space,  see <a href="/facts/Minkowski_space/vDkfkQJn">geometry of Minkowski space</a> for proof. The Poincare group <i>P</i> acts on M because (forgetting the action of the translation subgroup ℝ4 with addition inside P) it preserves the <a href="/facts/Minkowski_inner_product/vDkfkQJn">Minkowski inner product</a>, and an element x of the translation subgroup ℝ4 of the Poincare group acts on

L
          
            2
          
        
        (
        M
        )
         
      
    
    {\displaystyle ~L^{2}(M)~}

by multiplication by suitable phase multipliers

exp
        ⁡
        
          (
          
            −
            i
            
              
                
                  p
                  →
                
              
            
            ⋅
            
              
                
                  x
                  →
                
              
            
          
          )
        
         
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle ~\exp \left(-i{\vec {p}}\cdot {\vec {x}}\right)~,}

where 
  
    
      
         
        p
        ∈
        M
         
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle ~p\in M~.}
  
 These two actions can be combined in a clever way using <a href="/facts/Induced_representations/Jh25PGDP">induced representations</a> to obtain an action
of P acting on 
  
    
      
         
        
          L
          
            2
          
        
        (
        M
        )
         
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle ~L^{2}(M)~,}
  
 that combines motions of M and phase multiplication.
</p><p>This yields an action of the Poincare group on the space of square-integrable functions defined on the hypersurface M in Minkowski space. These may be viewed as measures defined on Minkowski space that are concentrated on the set M defined by
</p>

E
          
            2
          
        
        −
        
          P
          
            1
          
          
            2
          
        
        −
        
          P
          
            2
          
          
            2
          
        
        −
        
          P
          
            3
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          m
          
            2
          
        
         
        ,
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle E^{2}-P_{1}^{2}-P_{2}^{2}-P_{3}^{2}=m^{2}~,\quad }
  
 
  
    
      
         
        E
         
        ≡
         
        
          P
          
            0
          
        
        >
        0
         
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle ~E~\equiv ~P_{0}>0~.}

<p>The Fourier transform (in all four variables) of such measures yields positive-energy, finite-energy solutions of the <a href="/facts/Klein%25E2%2580%2593Gordon_equation/0a5BRyy3">Klein–Gordon equation</a> defined on Minkowski space, namely
</p>

∂
              
                2
              
            
            
              ∂
              
                t
                
                  2
                
              
            
          
        
        ψ
        −
        
          ∇
          
            2
          
        
        ψ
        +
        
          m
          
            2
          
        
        ψ
        =
        0
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial t^{2}}}\psi -\nabla ^{2}\psi +m^{2}\psi =0,}

<p>without physical units. In this way, the 
  
    
      
         
        m
        >
        0
        ,
        
        s
        =
        0
         
      
    
    {\displaystyle ~m>0,\quad s=0~}
  
 irreducible representation of the Poincare group is realized by its action on a suitable space of solutions of a linear wave equation.
</p>
<h2 id="theory-of-projective-representations">Theory of projective representations</h2>
<p>Physically, one is interested in irreducible <a href="/facts/Projective_representation/qva9eFMC"><i>projective</i> unitary representations</a> of the Poincaré group. After all, two vectors in the quantum Hilbert space that differ by multiplication by a constant represent the same physical state. Thus, two unitary operators that differ by a multiple of the identity have the same action on physical states. Therefore the unitary operators that represent Poincaré symmetry are only defined up to a constant—and therefore the group composition law need only hold up to a constant.
</p><p>According to <a href="/facts/Projective_representation/qva9eFMC">Bargmann's theorem</a>, every projective unitary representation of the Poincaré group comes from an ordinary unitary representation of its universal cover, which is a double cover. (Bargmann's theorem applies because the double cover of the <a href="/facts/Poincar%25C3%25A9_group/3IerRYG1">Poincaré group</a> admits no non-trivial one-dimensional <a href="/facts/Group_extension/pGoe0l4d">central extensions</a>.)
</p><p>Passing to the double cover is important because it allows for half-odd-integer spin cases. In the positive mass case, for example, the little group is SU(2) rather than SO(3); the representations of SU(2) then include both integer and half-odd-integer spin cases.
</p><p>Since the general criterion in Bargmann's theorem was not known when Wigner did his classification, he needed to show by hand (§5 of the paper) that the phases can be chosen in the operators to reflect the composition law in the group, up to a sign, which is then accounted for by passing to the double cover of the Poincaré group.
</p>
<h2 id="further-classification">Further classification</h2>
<p>Left out from this classification are <a href="/facts/Tachyon/bqvlsfTa">tachyonic</a> solutions, solutions with no fixed mass, <a href="/facts/Infraparticle/QlIC7us5">infraparticles</a> with no fixed mass, etc. Such solutions are of physical importance, when considering virtual states. A celebrated example is the case of <a href="/facts/Deep_inelastic_scattering/0kB9Leaf">deep inelastic scattering</a>, in which a virtual space-like <a href="/facts/Photon/mFNhAEzA">photon</a> is exchanged between the incoming <a href="/facts/Lepton/X4a6MGop">lepton</a> and the incoming <a href="/facts/Hadron/C0sd1zty">hadron</a>. This justifies the introduction of transversely and longitudinally-polarized photons, and of the related concept of transverse and longitudinal structure functions, when considering these virtual states as effective probes of the internal quark and gluon contents of the hadrons. From a mathematical point of view, one considers the SO(2,1) group instead of the usual <a href="/facts/SO(3)/yXbKPzhT">SO(3)</a> group encountered in the usual massive case discussed above. This explains the occurrence of two transverse polarization vectors 
  
    
      
         
        
          ϵ
          
            T
          
          
            λ
            =
            1
            ,
            2
          
        
         
      
    
    {\displaystyle ~\epsilon _{T}^{\lambda =1,2}~}
  
 and 
  
    
      
         
        
          ϵ
          
            L
          
        
         
      
    
    {\displaystyle ~\epsilon _{L}~}

which satisfy 
  
    
      
         
        
          ϵ
          
            T
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        −
        1
         
      
    
    {\displaystyle ~\epsilon _{T}^{2}=-1~}
  
 and 
  
    
      
         
        
          ϵ
          
            L
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        +
        1
         
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle ~\epsilon _{L}^{2}=+1~,}
  
 to be compared with the usual case of a free 
  
    
      
         
        
          Z
          
            0
          
        
         
      
    
    {\displaystyle ~Z_{0}~}
  
 boson which has three polarization vectors 
  
    
      
         
        
          ϵ
          
            T
          
          
            λ
          
        
        
           for 
        
        λ
        =
        1
        ,
        2
        ,
        3
         
        ;
      
    
    {\displaystyle ~\epsilon _{T}^{\lambda }{\text{ for }}\lambda =1,2,3~;}
  
 each of them satisfying 
  
    
      
         
        
          ϵ
          
            T
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        −
        1
         
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle ~\epsilon _{T}^{2}=-1~.}

</p>
<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Induced_representation/Jh25PGDP">Induced representation</a> – Process of extending a representation of a subgroup to the parent group</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Particle_physics_and_representation_theory/D52HkxVc">Particle physics and representation theory</a> – Physics-mathematics connection</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Pauli%25E2%2580%2593Lubanski_pseudovector/r8Tnsnbc">Pauli–Lubanski pseudovector</a> – Operator in quantum field theory</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Representation_theory_of_the_diffeomorphism_group/9eMszaUs">Representation theory of the diffeomorphism group</a> – Representation theory of the symmetries of manifoldsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Representation_theory_of_the_Galilean_group/hdWQfWHD">Representation theory of the Galilean group</a> – Representation theory of the symmetries of non-relativistic quantum space</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Representation_theory_of_the_Poincar%25C3%25A9_group/HWYeyF8o">Representation theory of the Poincaré group</a> – Representation theory of an important group in physics</li>
<li><a href="/facts/System_of_imprimitivity/8AU82nWv">System of imprimitivity</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Valentine_Bargmann/U8RzbDIr">Bargmann, V.</a>; <a href="/facts/Eugene_Wigner/HvWgw4KX">Wigner, E.P.</a> (1948). <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1079095">"Group theoretical discussion of relativistic wave equations"</a>. <i><a href="/facts/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America/w75CThX0">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</a></i>. 34 (5): 211–223. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1948PNAS...34..211B">1948PNAS...34..211B</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.34.5.211">10.1073/pnas.34.5.211</a>. <a href="/facts/PMC_(identifier)/dX1zMt71">PMC</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1079095">1079095</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16578292">16578292</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/George_Mackey/uoeY23Qv">Mackey, George</a> (1978). <i>Unitary Group Representations in Physics, Probability and Number Theory</i>. Mathematics Lecture Notes Series. Vol. 55. <a href="/facts/Benjamin_Cummings/qDQI0oh4">The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0805367034.</li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Shlomo_Sternberg/IsGM8VzY">Sternberg, Shlomo</a> (1994). "§3.9. Wigner classification". <a href="https://archive.org/details/grouptheoryphysi0000ster"><i>Group Theory and Physics</i></a>. <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0521248709.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Tung, Wu-Ki (1985). "Chapter 10. Representations of the Lorentz group and of the Poincare group; Wigner classification". <i>Group Theory in Physics</i>. <a href="/facts/World_Scientific_Publishing_Company/qJPTP0Yk">World Scientific Publishing Company</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-9971966577.</li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Steven_Weinberg/G61D6kJw">Weinberg, S.</a> (2002). "Chapter 2. Relativistic quantum mechanics". <i>The Quantum Theory of Fields</i>. Vol. I. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-521-55001-7.</li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Eugene_Wigner/HvWgw4KX">Wigner, E.P.</a> (1939). "On unitary representations of the inhomogeneous Lorentz group". <i><a href="/facts/Annals_of_Mathematics/CUYktUqD">Annals of Mathematics</a></i>. 40 (1): 149–204. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1939AnMat..40..149W">1939AnMat..40..149W</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1968551">10.2307/1968551</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1968551">1968551</a>. <a href="/facts/MR_(identifier)/uP137L11">MR</a> <a href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1503456">1503456</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121773411">121773411</a>.</li></ul>

Wigner's classification open-in-new

Wigner's classification