Ruth Gruber

<h2 id="early-life">Early life</h2>
Ruth Gruber was born in <a href="/facts/Brooklyn/UnUzxCFe">Brooklyn</a>, <a href="/facts/New_York_City/YlyvFmVC">New York</a>, one of five children of <a href="/facts/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia/q6sN2WA8">Russian Jewish</a> immigrant parents, Gussie (Rockower) and David Gruber.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1">1</a> She dreamed of becoming a writer and was encouraged by her parents to obtain higher education. She <a href="/facts/Matriculation/l01e6eGM">matriculated</a> at <a href="/facts/New_York_University/4UnIkThy">New York University</a> at the age of 15. At eighteen she won a postgraduate fellowship at the <a href="/facts/University_of_Wisconsin%25E2%2580%2593Madison/Rfj54YvS">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2">2</a> 
In 1931, she won another fellowship from the <a href="/facts/Institute_of_International_Education/kc4E96AA">Institute of International Education</a> to study in Germany,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a> at the <a href="/facts/University_of_Cologne/PrcKaGv2">University of Cologne</a>, where she took courses in German philosophy, modern English literature, and art history.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a> She completed a Ph.D. in one year, with a dissertation on Virginia Woolf,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> becoming (at that time) the youngest person in the world to receive a doctorate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a> 
While in Germany, Gruber witnessed Nazi rallies and after completing her studies and returning to America, she brought the awareness of the dangers of <a href="/facts/Nazism/JjsMI4lE">Nazism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a>
Gruber's writing career began in 1932. In 1935, the <a href="/facts/New_York_Herald_Tribune/p3DRaNaM">New York Herald Tribune</a> asked her to write a feature series <a href="/facts/Women_studies/M63aICxC">about women</a> under <a href="/facts/Fascism/EhQWcPsE">Fascism</a> and <a href="/facts/Communism/PkUwa9xK">Communism</a>. While working for the Herald Tribune, she became the first foreign correspondent to fly through <a href="/facts/Siberia/oaCoPEjF">Siberia</a> into the <a href="/facts/Soviet_Union/m7wWsPto">Soviet</a> <a href="/facts/Arctic/bxbuUz7Q">Arctic</a>.

<h2 id="special-assistant-to-the-secretary-of-the-interior">Special Assistant to the Secretary of the Interior</h2>
During <a href="/facts/World_War_II/2efV5L1U">World War II</a>, <a href="/facts/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior/8lHgezNK">Secretary of the Interior</a> <a href="/facts/Harold_L._Ickes/U1RnVlH8">Harold L. Ickes</a> appointed Gruber as his Special Assistant.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> In this role, she carried out a study on the prospects of Alaska for homesteading <a href="/facts/United_States_Army/WACWBEK9">G.I.s</a> after the war.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> In 1944, she was assigned a secret mission to Europe to bring one thousand Jewish refugees and wounded American soldiers from Italy to the US.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> Ickes made her "a simulated general" so in case the military aircraft she flew in was shot down and she was caught by the Nazis, she would be kept alive according to the <a href="/facts/Geneva_Convention/692ICAy0">Geneva Convention</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> Throughout the voyage, the Army troop transport <a href="/facts/USNS_Henry_Gibbins/29C2eMnH">USNS Henry Gibbins</a> was hunted by Nazi <a href="/facts/Seaplane/kKKu3sEF">seaplanes</a> and <a href="/facts/U-boat/GgjbMzMT">U-boats</a>. Gruber's book <a href="https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/bib41697">Haven: The Dramatic Story of 1000 World War II Refugees and How They Came to America</a> was based on case histories she recorded as she interviewed the refugees.
Since the <a href="/facts/U.S._Congress/mJlU46K7">U.S. Congress</a> refused to lift the <a href="/facts/Emergency_Quota_Act/n0Wb0G9q">quota</a> on Jewish immigration to the United States from Europe, President <a href="/facts/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt/HtG9vMQv">Roosevelt</a> acted by executive authority and invited the group of one thousand to visit America. The refugees were to be guests of the president and upon arriving in New York, they were transferred to <a href="/facts/Fort_Ontario_Emergency_Refugee_Shelter/aY4dTa2y">Fort Ontario Emergency Refugee Shelter</a>, formerly a decommissioned Army training base in <a href="/facts/Oswego%2c_New_York/RdtBeCIF">Oswego, New York</a>, and locked behind a chain link fence with barbed wire. While U.S. government agencies argued about whether they should be allowed to stay or, at some point, be deported to Europe, Gruber lobbied to keep them through the end of the war. It was not until January 1946 that the decision was made to allow them to apply for American residency. This was the only attempt by the United States to shelter Jewish refugees during the war.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a>
The <a href="/facts/Safe_Haven_Museum_and_Education_Center/GqmBn23n">Safe Haven Museum and Education Center</a> was set up in Oswego, New York dedicated to keeping alive the stories of the 982 refugees from World War II who were allowed into the United States as "guests" of President Franklin D. Roosevelt.

<h2 id="post-war-career">Post-war career</h2>

In 1946, Gruber took leave from her federal post to return to journalism. <a href="/facts/The_New_York_Post/zl4I0L2U">The New York Post</a> asked her to cover the work of a newly created <a href="/facts/Anglo-American_Committee_of_Inquiry/3INwNBEq">Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry</a> on Palestine. The Committee was to decide the fate of 100,000 European Jewish refugees who were living in European camps as <a href="/facts/Displaced_person/lKjCS4R2">displaced persons</a> (DP). <a href="/facts/Harry_Truman/2E2LmMoB">Harry Truman</a> pressed Great Britain to open the doors of <a href="/facts/Mandatory_Palestine/mv0NGUBy">British Mandate of Palestine</a>. The committee members spent four months in Europe, Palestine, and the Arab countries and another month in Switzerland digesting their experiences. At the end of its deliberations, the committee's twelve members unanimously agreed that Britain should allow 100,000 Jewish immigrants to settle in Palestine. British foreign minister <a href="/facts/Ernest_Bevin/Xnk56Hx1">Ernest Bevin</a> rejected the finding.
Eventually the issue was taken up by the recently established <a href="/facts/United_Nations/fgXLnmgT">United Nations</a>, which appointed a Special Committee on Palestine (<a href="/facts/UNSCOP/DSu6nAxe">UNSCOP</a>). Gruber accompanied UNSCOP as a correspondent for the <a href="/facts/New_York_Herald/MUYnwRe2">New York Herald</a>.

<h3>Exodus 1947</h3>
Gruber witnessed the ship <a href="/facts/Exodus_(ship)/wfEHJ5Lv">Exodus 1947</a> entering the Haifa harbor after it was intercepted by the <a href="/facts/Royal_Navy/Xdy8YCH7">Royal Navy</a> while making an attempt to deliver 4,500 Jewish refugees. To meet the refugees, Gruber flew to Cyprus, where she witnessed and photographed refugees detained by the British. The British then sent the refugees to <a href="/facts/Port-de-Bouc/89I09lm9">Port-de-Bouc</a> in France and Gruber went there.
The refugees refused to disembark, however, and, after 18 days' standoff, the British decided to ship the Jews back to Germany. Out of many journalists from around the world reporting on the affair, Gruber alone was allowed by the British to accompany the DPs back to Germany. Aboard the prison ship Runnymede Park, Gruber photographed the refugees, confined in a wire cage with barbed wire on top, defiantly raising a <a href="/facts/Union_Jack/3MGCpelS">Union Jack</a> flag on which they had painted a swastika.

<h3>After 1950</h3>
In 1951, Gruber married Philip H. Michaels, a community leader in the South Bronx. She gave birth to two children, one of whom is former Assistant Secretary of Labor for <a href="/facts/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration/dCGbW5Ax">Occupational Safety and Health</a> <a href="/facts/David_Michaels_(epidemiologist)/6rgjqb0E">David Michaels</a>, and continued her journalistic travels. She wrote a popular column for Hadassah Magazine, "Diary of an American Housewife."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> Her niece is science writer <a href="/facts/Dava_Sobel/SEz63DFx">Dava Sobel</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a>
Some years after Philip Michaels' death in 1968, Gruber married longtime New York City Social Services administrator <a href="/facts/Henry_J._Rosner/6d9ck4uD">Henry J. Rosner</a> in 1974.
In 1978, she spent a year in Israel writing Raquela: A Woman of Israel, about an Israeli nurse, <a href="/facts/Raquela_Prywes/Dhgzk9vz">Raquela Prywes</a>, who worked in a British detention camp and in a hospital in <a href="/facts/Beersheba/dKXzMLaC">Beersheba</a>. This book won the <a href="/facts/National_Jewish_Book_Award/HLMQ3PEG">National Jewish Book Award</a> in 1979 for Best Book on Israel.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a>
In 1985, at the age of 74, she visited isolated Jewish villages in <a href="/facts/Ethiopia/LVujNp5v">Ethiopia</a> and described the rescue of the <a href="/facts/Beta_Israel/KINATX1J">Ethiopian Jews</a> in Rescue: The Exodus of the Ethiopian Jews. Gruber received many awards for her writing and humanitarian acts, including the Na'amat <a href="/facts/Golda_Meir/SJWUyDUP">Golda Meir</a> Human Rights Award and awards from the <a href="/facts/Simon_Wiesenthal_Center/uUPQ8HIW">Simon Wiesenthal Center</a>'s <a href="/facts/Museum_of_Tolerance/9hvTunWH">Museum of Tolerance</a>.
On October 21, 2008, Gruber was honored for her work defending free expression by the <a href="/facts/National_Coalition_Against_Censorship/foHk8soq">National Coalition Against Censorship</a>. In 2016, an exhibit of her photographs titled Ruth Gruber: Photojournalist was on display at the Oregon Jewish Museum in Portland.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a>
In 2009, a documentary film on Gruber premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival. Entitled "Ahead of Time," the film was directed by Bob Richman and produced by Zeva Oelbaum and chronicled Gruber's early life and groundbreaking career until 1948. 
She died at the age of 105 on November 17, 2016.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a>
In 2011, at the age of 100, Ruth Gruber's work as a photojournalist - spanning six decades on four continents - was the subject of a retrospective exhibition at the International Center of Photography in New York. The exhibition, <a href="https://www.icp.org/exhibitions/ruth-gruber-photojournalist">Ruth Gruber: Photojournalist</a>, curated by Maya Benton, is traveling internationally through 2020. Gruber's photographs, organized chronologically, include Soviet Arctic (1935-1936); Alaska Territory (1941–43); Henry Gibbons/Oswego, New York (1944); Exodus 1947; Runnymede Park (1947); Cyprus Internment Camp (1947); Israel/Middle East (1949–51); North Africa (1951-51); Ethiopia (1985).
Gruber's first volume of her autobiography Ahead of Time: My Early Years as a Foreign Correspondent was published in 1991.

<h2 id="portrayals">Portrayals</h2>
The 2001 television film Haven is based on Gruber's life story. The film stars <a href="/facts/Natasha_Richardson/dQdhAP1I">Natasha Richardson</a> as Gruber and <a href="/facts/Anne_Bancroft/U6EF29yf">Anne Bancroft</a> as her mother Gussie. Bancroft was nominated for an <a href="/facts/Emmy_Award/M6GvMDJc">Emmy Award</a> for her role. A documentary about Gruber's life, titled Ahead of Time, was released in 2010.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a>

<h2 id="publications">Publications</h2>
<ul><li>I Went to the Soviet Arctic, 1939, 1991</li>
<li>I Went To The Soviet Union, 1944</li>
<li>Destination Palestine: The story of the Haganah ship Exodus 1947, 1948</li>
<li>Israel without tears, 1950</li>
<li>Israel today: Land of many nations, 1958</li>
<li>Israel on the seventh day, 1968</li>
<li>Puerto Rico: island of promise</li>
<li>Felisa Rincon De Gautier: The Mayor of San Juan, 1972</li>
<li>Die Bauern-Passion Von Waal (coauthors: Ursula Zeidler, Gerhard Eberts), 1976</li>
<li>They Came to Stay (coauthor: Marjorie Margolies-Mezvinsky), 1976</li>
<li>Raquela: A Woman of Israel, 1978, 1985, 1993, 2000</li>
<li>Haven: The Dramatic Story of 1000 World War II Refugees and How They Came to America, 1983, 2000</li>
<li>Rescue: The Exodus of the Ethiopian Jews, 1987</li>
<li>Ahead of Time: My Early Years As a Foreign Correspondent, 1991, 2001</li>
<li>Exodus 1947: The Ship That Launched the Nation, 1999 (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-8129-3154-8), 2007</li>
<li>Inside of Time: My Journey from Alaska to Israel, 2002, 2004</li>
<li>Virginia Woolf: The Will To Create As A Woman, 2005</li>
<li>Witness: One of the Great Correspondents of the Twentieth Century Tells Her Story Schocken, 2007 (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-8052-4243-0)</li></ul>

<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>
 
<ul><li><a href="http://ruthgruberthemovie.com/">Ahead of Time</a> 2009 documentary film about Ruth Gruber — official site</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090506000543/http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/focus/antisemitism/voices/transcript/?content=20080117">Voices on Antisemitism Interview with Ruth Gruber</a> from the <a href="http://www.ushmm.org/">United States Holocaust Memorial Museum</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.theworld.org/?q=node/9985">Ruth Gruber interview May 9, 2007</a> - BBC news, "The World" radio show.</li>
<li><a href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/gruber.html">Ruth Gruber</a> (<a href="/facts/Jewish_Virtual_Library/e8npIEVD">Jewish Virtual Library</a>)</li>
<li><a href="http://www.jwa.org/discover/today/news/gruber/">Ruth Gruber</a> (Jewish Women's Archive)</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">"Miriam's Cup: Biography of Ruth Gruber". Miriamscup.com. Retrieved December 6, 2018. <a href="http://www.miriamscup.com/GruberBiog.htm" target="_blank">http://www.miriamscup.com/GruberBiog.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">"Breaking Ground: Dr. Ruth Gruber". Womenworking.com. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved November 22, 2016. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928094558/http://www.womenworking.com/feature/index.php?id=86" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20070928094558/http://www.womenworking.com/feature/index.php?id=86</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">"Ruth Gruber". Institute of International Education. Iie.org. Archived from the original on September 17, 2008. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080917214009/http://www.iie.org/Content/NavigationMenu/Programs7/SRF/Ruth_Gruber.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20080917214009/http://www.iie.org/Content/NavigationMenu/Programs7/SRF/Ruth_Gruber.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">"Dr. Ruth Gruber receives IIE's First Annual Fritz Redlich Alumni Award". Institute of International Education. Iie.org. Archived from the original on September 17, 2008. Retrieved December 6, 2018. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080917191005/http://www.iie.org/Content/NavigationMenu/Faces_of_IIE1/Ruth_Gruber1.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20080917191005/http://www.iie.org/Content/NavigationMenu/Faces_of_IIE1/Ruth_Gruber1.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Seaman, Barbara (February 27, 2009). "Ruth Gruber." Shalvi/Hyman Encyclopedia of Jewish Women. Jewish Women's Archive. Retrieved 2025-06-02. <a href="https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/gruber-ruth" target="_blank">https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/gruber-ruth</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Seaman, Barbara (February 27, 2009). "Ruth Gruber." Shalvi/Hyman Encyclopedia of Jewish Women. Jewish Women's Archive. Retrieved 2025-06-02. <a href="https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/gruber-ruth" target="_blank">https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/gruber-ruth</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Mills, Jean (2006), "Review: Virginia Woolf: the will to create as a woman by Ruth Gruber". Virginia Woolf Miscellany, no. 69, p. 14-15; here: 14. "Gruber's dissertation entitled 'Virginia Woolf: a study,' written in 1931-32 and published here in the United States for the first time in a facsimile reproduction of the original 1935 Tauchnitz of Leipzig edition, is at the center of Virginia Woolf: The will to create as a woman". <a href="https://virginiawoolfmiscellany.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/vwm69spring2006.pdf" target="_blank">https://virginiawoolfmiscellany.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/vwm69spring2006.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">"Chapter 107. 'Mother' Ruth's Journeys". American Jewish Historical Society. Archived from the original on March 1, 2012. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120301010355/www.ajhs.org/scholarship/chapters/chapter.cfm?documentID=297" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120301010355/www.ajhs.org/scholarship/chapters/chapter.cfm?documentID=297</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">"Chapter 107. 'Mother' Ruth's Journeys". American Jewish Historical Society. Archived from the original on March 1, 2012. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120301010355/www.ajhs.org/scholarship/chapters/chapter.cfm?documentID=297" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120301010355/www.ajhs.org/scholarship/chapters/chapter.cfm?documentID=297</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">"A Trouble-Shooter for Mr. Ickes," by Mary Braggiotti, New York Post, November 17, 1944 <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Building the Alaska Highway. Americans and Others Travel to Alaska (PBS) <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/alaska/peopleevents/e_travelers.html" target="_blank">https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/alaska/peopleevents/e_travelers.html</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">"Journalist and author Ruth Gruber dies in NY at age 105". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on November 19, 2016. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161119062152/https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/journalist-and-author-ruth-gruber-dies-in-ny-at-age-105/2016/11/17/7a7aece8-ad2c-11e6-8f19-21a1c65d2043_story.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20161119062152/https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/journalist-and-author-ruth-gruber-dies-in-ny-at-age-105/2016/11/17/7a7aece8-ad2c-11e6-8f19-21a1c65d2043_story.html</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Gruber, Ruth (1999): Exodus 1947: The Ship That Launched the Nation, p.4 ISBN 0-8129-3154-8 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Allen, John (2002). "Finding Safe Harbor". Waa.uwalumni.com. Archived from the original on March 5, 2012. Retrieved January 25, 2013. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120305031157/http://waa.uwalumni.com/onwisconsin/spring02/harbor.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120305031157/http://waa.uwalumni.com/onwisconsin/spring02/harbor.html</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Chapter 108. Ruth Gruber's Exodus: Part II (American Jewish Historical Society) <a href="http://www.ajhs.org/scholarship/chapters/chapter.cfm?documentID=298" target="_blank">http://www.ajhs.org/scholarship/chapters/chapter.cfm?documentID=298</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Brawarsky, Sandee (November 22, 2016). "100 Years Of Asking Questions". The New York Jewish Week. Retrieved March 14, 2019. <a href="https://jewishweek.timesofisrael.com/100-years-of-asking-questions-2/" target="_blank">https://jewishweek.timesofisrael.com/100-years-of-asking-questions-2/</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Chapter 108. Ruth Gruber's Exodus: Part II (American Jewish Historical Society) <a href="http://www.ajhs.org/scholarship/chapters/chapter.cfm?documentID=298" target="_blank">http://www.ajhs.org/scholarship/chapters/chapter.cfm?documentID=298</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">"Past Winners". Jewish Book Council. Retrieved January 21, 2020. <a href="https://www.jewishbookcouncil.org/awards/national-jewish-book-awards/past-winners?year=1979" target="_blank">https://www.jewishbookcouncil.org/awards/national-jewish-book-awards/past-winners?year=1979</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">"Ruth Gruber, Photojournalist". Icp.org. August 23, 2016. <a href="https://www.icp.org/exhibitions/ruth-gruber-photojournalist-traveling-exhibition" target="_blank">https://www.icp.org/exhibitions/ruth-gruber-photojournalist-traveling-exhibition</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">"Journalist and author Ruth Gruber dies in NY at age 105". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on November 19, 2016. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161119062152/https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/journalist-and-author-ruth-gruber-dies-in-ny-at-age-105/2016/11/17/7a7aece8-ad2c-11e6-8f19-21a1c65d2043_story.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20161119062152/https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/journalist-and-author-ruth-gruber-dies-in-ny-at-age-105/2016/11/17/7a7aece8-ad2c-11e6-8f19-21a1c65d2043_story.html</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">McFadden, Robert D. (November 17, 2016). "Ruth Gruber, a Fearless Chronicler of the Jewish Struggle, Dies at 105". The New York Times. Retrieved December 6, 2018. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/18/nyregion/ruth-gruber-dead.html" target="_blank">https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/18/nyregion/ruth-gruber-dead.html</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Michel, Karen (October 15, 2011). "A Woman Of Photos And Firsts, Ruth Gruber At 100". NPR. Retrieved October 16, 2011. <a href="https://www.npr.org/blogs/pictureshow/2011/10/15/141325143/a-woman-of-photos-and-firsts-ruth-gruber-at-100" target="_blank">https://www.npr.org/blogs/pictureshow/2011/10/15/141325143/a-woman-of-photos-and-firsts-ruth-gruber-at-100</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Ruth Gruber open-in-new

Ruth Gruber