Critical theory

<h2 id="history">History</h2>
<a href="/facts/Max_Horkheimer/w2wG10VH">Max Horkheimer</a> first defined critical theory (<a href="/facts/German_language/oWaQIDA8">German</a>: kritische Theorie) in his 1937 essay "Traditional and Critical Theory", as a <a href="/facts/Social_theory/vJF8Fp5m">social theory</a> oriented toward <a href="/facts/Critique/Bcz9k97j">critiquing</a> and changing <a href="/facts/Society/PulvrYfa">society</a> as a whole, in contrast to traditional theory oriented only toward understanding or explaining it. Wanting to distinguish critical theory as a radical, emancipatory form of <a href="/facts/Marxist_philosophy/p8VPKaTD">Marxist philosophy</a>, Horkheimer critiqued both the model of science put forward by <a href="/facts/Logical_positivism/Dc6XMTsc">logical positivism</a>, and what he and his colleagues saw as the covert <a href="/facts/Positivism/on887AuJ">positivism</a> and <a href="/facts/Authoritarianism/88Kfm2gU">authoritarianism</a> of <a href="/facts/Orthodox_Marxism/tmIwPHKv">orthodox Marxism</a> and <a href="/facts/Communism/PkUwa9xK">Communism</a>. He described a theory as critical insofar as it seeks "to liberate human beings from the circumstances that enslave them".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a> Critical theory involves a <a href="/facts/Norm_(sociology)/Qu2jGBz3">normative</a> dimension, either by criticizing society in terms of some general theory of <a href="/facts/Value_(personal_and_cultural)/f2RW9TXW">values</a> or norms (oughts), or by criticizing society in terms of its own espoused values (i.e. <a href="/facts/Immanent_critique/pfQLsKQb">immanent critique</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a> Significantly, critical theory not only conceptualizes and critiques societal power structures, but also establishes an empirically grounded model to link society to the human subject.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a> It defends the universalist ambitions of the tradition, but does so within a specific context of social-scientific and historical research.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a>
The core concepts of critical theory are that it should:

<ul><li>be directed at the totality of society in its historical specificity (i.e., how it came to be configured at a specific point in time)</li>
<li>improve understanding of society by integrating all the major <a href="/facts/Social_science/hAbm1xtD">social sciences</a>, including <a href="/facts/Geography/TRd1Toyo">geography</a>, <a href="/facts/Economics/HYctA2Dn">economics</a>, <a href="/facts/Sociology/d2Fd0N87">sociology</a>, <a href="/facts/History/bSKgXaCA">history</a>, <a href="/facts/Political_science/Gqy5EoRX">political science</a>, <a href="/facts/Anthropology/W6WK1C3a">anthropology</a>, and <a href="/facts/Psychology/duoqW7Sz">psychology</a></li></ul>
<a href="/facts/Postmodern/aBgbw8QJ">Postmodern</a> critical theory is another major product of critical theory. It analyzes the fragmentation of <a href="/facts/Cultural_identity/YLUfbbIC">cultural identities</a> in order to challenge <a href="/facts/Modernism/AfPDL45X">modernist-era</a> constructs such as <a href="/facts/Metanarrative/x96mkbXV">metanarratives</a>, <a href="/facts/Rationality/ueS0w9lk">rationality</a>, and universal truths, while politicizing social problems "by situating them in historical and cultural contexts, to implicate themselves in the process of collecting and analyzing data, and to relativize their findings".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a>

<h3>Marx</h3>
Marx explicitly developed the notion of critique into the <a href="/facts/Critique_of_ideology/dD612UqE">critique of ideology</a>, linking it with the practice of <a href="/facts/Social_revolution/NjFCDlg3">social revolution</a>, as stated in the 11th section of his <a href="/facts/Theses_on_Feuerbach/V1AS2XfV">Theses on Feuerbach</a>: "The philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point is to change it."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a> In early works, including The German Ideology, Marx developed his concepts of false consciousness and of ideology as the interests of one section of society masquerading as the interests of society as a whole.

<h3>Adorno and Horkheimer</h3>
One of the distinguishing characteristics of critical theory, as <a href="/facts/Theodor_W._Adorno/fAX1ymyr">Theodor W. Adorno</a> and <a href="/facts/Max_Horkheimer/w2wG10VH">Max Horkheimer</a> elaborated in their <a href="/facts/Dialectic_of_Enlightenment/VSD49Y5a">Dialectic of Enlightenment</a> (1947), is an ambivalence about the ultimate source or foundation of social domination, an ambivalence that gave rise to the "<a href="/facts/Pessimism/LyqFNUJb">pessimism</a>" of the new critical theory about the possibility of <a href="/facts/Emancipation/v2ndla0h">human emancipation</a> and <a href="/facts/Political_freedom/QElv3Bmc">freedom</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a> This ambivalence was rooted in the historical circumstances in which the work was originally produced, particularly the rise of <a href="/facts/Nazism/JjsMI4lE">Nazism</a>, <a href="/facts/State_capitalism/7UDnqIWs">state capitalism</a>, and <a href="/facts/Culture_industry/B4L4xbw9">culture industry</a> as entirely new forms of social domination that could not be adequately explained in the terms of traditional <a href="/facts/Marxist_sociology/MjD4lFzU">Marxist sociology</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a>
For Adorno and Horkheimer, <a href="/facts/State_intervention/ogcBsRWI">state intervention</a> in the economy had effectively abolished the traditional tension between Marxism's "<a href="/facts/Relations_of_production/3kVWL1q3">relations of production</a>" and "material <a href="/facts/Productive_forces/kU2E2Coa">productive forces</a>" of society. The market (as an "unconscious" mechanism for the distribution of goods) had been replaced by <a href="/facts/Centralized_planning/TCMJrC5M">centralized planning</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a>
Contrary to Marx's prediction in the <a href="/facts/Preface_to_A_Contribution_to_the_Critique_of_Political_Economy/EWU6N2YN">Preface to a Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy</a>, this shift did not lead to "an era of <a href="/facts/Social_revolution/NjFCDlg3">social revolution</a>" but to <a href="/facts/Fascism/EhQWcPsE">fascism</a> and <a href="/facts/Totalitarianism/Txc6sJvM">totalitarianism</a>. As a result, critical theory was left, in Habermas's words, without "anything in reserve to which it might appeal, and when the forces of production enter into a baneful symbiosis with the relations of production that they were supposed to blow wide open, there is no longer any dynamism upon which critique could base its hope".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a> For Adorno and Horkheimer, this posed the problem of how to account for the apparent persistence of domination in the absence of the very contradiction that, according to traditional critical theory, was the source of domination itself.

<h3>Habermas</h3>
In the 1960s, <a href="/facts/J%25C3%25BCrgen_Habermas/R4mKqACW">Habermas</a>, a proponent of critical social theory,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a> raised the <a href="/facts/Epistemology/NsDwpcYH">epistemological</a> discussion to a new level in his <a href="/facts/Knowledge_and_Human_Interests/alpkt3R1">Knowledge and Human Interests</a> (1968), by identifying critical <a href="/facts/Knowledge/joozoaup">knowledge</a> as based on principles that differentiated it either from the <a href="/facts/Natural_sciences/8hg81Q2p">natural sciences</a> or the <a href="/facts/Humanities/nErauGkd">humanities</a>, through its orientation to <a href="/facts/Self-reflection/hqjoJcRx">self-reflection</a> and emancipation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a> Although unsatisfied with Adorno and Horkheimer's thought in <a href="/facts/Dialectic_of_Enlightenment/VSD49Y5a">Dialectic of Enlightenment</a>, Habermas shares the view that, in the form of <a href="/facts/Instrumental_rationality/vVIW5IG5">instrumental rationality</a>, the era of <a href="/facts/Modernity/kkpjFrpr">modernity</a> marks a move away from the liberation of enlightenment and toward a new form of enslavement.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a>: 6  In Habermas's work, critical theory transcended its theoretical roots in <a href="/facts/German_idealism/SStyy9Bx">German idealism</a>, and progressed closer to <a href="/facts/Pragmatism/v1zMTt3m">American pragmatism</a>.
Habermas's ideas about the relationship between modernity and <a href="/facts/Rationalization_(sociology)/su2ahaho">rationalization</a> are in this sense strongly influenced by <a href="/facts/Max_Weber/MF3HU6bN">Max Weber</a>. He further dissolved the elements of critical theory derived from <a href="/facts/Hegelian/vh0s6AAK">Hegelian</a> <a href="/facts/German_idealism/SStyy9Bx">German idealism</a>, though his epistemology remains broadly Marxist. Perhaps his two most influential ideas are the concepts of the <a href="/facts/Public_sphere/nxQL43at">public sphere</a> and <a href="/facts/Communicative_action/afSIohbh">communicative action</a>, the latter arriving partly as a reaction to new <a href="/facts/Post-structural/N1GPxB42">post-structural</a> or so-called "<a href="/facts/Postmodernism/aBgbw8QJ">postmodern</a>" challenges to the discourse of modernity. Habermas engaged in regular correspondence with <a href="/facts/Richard_Rorty/Nctm9MdV">Richard Rorty</a>, and a strong sense of philosophical <a href="/facts/Pragmatism/v1zMTt3m">pragmatism</a> may be felt in his thought, which frequently traverses the boundaries between sociology and philosophy.

<h3>Modern critical theorists</h3>
Contemporary philosophers and researchers who have focused on understanding and critiquing critical theory include <a href="/facts/Nancy_Fraser/IhJ5tgkp">Nancy Fraser</a>, <a href="/facts/Axel_Honneth/keAqRhBl">Axel Honneth</a>, <a href="/facts/Judith_Butler/stbGjgkf">Judith Butler</a>, and <a href="/facts/Rahel_Jaeggi/dnN5SqIc">Rahel Jaeggi</a>. Honneth is known for his works Pathology of Reason and The Legacy of Critical Theory, in which he attempts to explain critical theory's purpose in a modern context.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a> Jaeggi focuses on both critical theory's original intent and a more modern understanding that some argue has created a new foundation for modern usage of critical theory.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a> Butler contextualizes critical theory as a way to rhetorically challenge oppression and inequality, specifically concepts of gender.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a>
Honneth established a theory that many use to understand critical theory, the theory of recognition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a> In this theory, he asserts that in order for someone to be responsible for themselves and their own identity they must be also recognized by those around them: without recognition in this sense from peers and society, individuals can never become wholly responsible for themselves and others, nor experience true freedom and emancipation—i.e., without recognition, the individual cannot achieve <a href="/facts/Self-actualization/EMhRR6BJ">self-actualization</a>.
Like many others who put stock in critical theory, Jaeggi is vocal about capitalism's cost to society. Throughout her writings, she has remained doubtful about the necessity and use of capitalism in regard to critical theory.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a> Most of Jaeggi's interpretations of critical theory seem to work against the foundations of Habermas and follow more along the lines of Honneth in terms of how to look at the economy through the theory's lens.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a> She shares many of Honneth's beliefs, and many of her works try to defend them against criticism Honneth has received.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a>
To provide a dialectical opposite to Jaeggi's conception of alienation as 'a relation of relationlessness', <a href="/facts/Hartmut_Rosa/9jbGqvkP">Hartmut Rosa</a> has proposed the concept of <a href="/facts/Resonance_(sociology)/QCnSYjM2">resonance</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a> Rosa uses this term to refer to moments when late modern subjects experience momentary feelings of <a href="/facts/Self-efficacy/ufFkUcTl">self-efficacy</a> in society, bringing them into a temporary moment of relatedness with some aspect of the world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a> Rosa describes himself as working within the critical theory tradition of the Frankfurt School, providing an extensive critique of late modernity through his concept of <a href="/facts/Social_acceleration/U1UgueeH">social acceleration</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a> However his resonance theory has been questioned for moving too far beyond the Adornoian tradition of "looking coldly at society".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a>

<h2 id="fields">Fields</h2>
<h3>Postmodern critical social theory</h3>
Focusing on <a href="/facts/Language/IRcTok2q">language</a>, symbolism, communication, and <a href="/facts/Social_construction/NeGDLvKL">social construction</a>, critical theory has been applied in the social sciences as a critique of social construction and <a href="/facts/Postmodernity/D4wEBYuJ">postmodern society</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a>
While <a href="/facts/Modernist/AfPDL45X">modernist</a> critical theory (as described above) concerns itself with "forms of authority and injustice that accompanied the evolution of industrial and <a href="/facts/Corporate_capitalism/VjzkzwJA">corporate capitalism</a> as a <a href="/facts/Political_economy/P753k3It">political-economic</a> system", <a href="/facts/Postmodern/aBgbw8QJ">postmodern</a> critical theory politicizes social problems "by situating them in historical and cultural contexts, to implicate themselves in the process of collecting and analyzing data, and to relativize their findings".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a> Meaning itself is seen as unstable due to social structures' rapid transformation. As a result, research focuses on local manifestations rather than broad generalizations.
Postmodern critical research is also characterized by the crisis of representation, which rejects the idea that a researcher's work is an "objective depiction of a stable other". Instead, many postmodern scholars have adopted "alternatives that encourage reflection about the 'politics and poetics' of their work. In these accounts, the embodied, collaborative, dialogic, and improvisational aspects of qualitative research are clarified."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a>
The term critical theory is often <a href="/facts/Appropriation_of_knowledge/BAUrcsfV">appropriated</a> when an author works in <a href="/facts/Sociology/d2Fd0N87">sociological</a> terms, yet attacks the social or human sciences, thus attempting to remain "outside" those frames of inquiry. <a href="/facts/Michel_Foucault/rWu19rjx">Michel Foucault</a> has been described as one such author.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a> <a href="/facts/Jean_Baudrillard/zJKeaxEy">Jean Baudrillard</a> has also been described as a critical theorist to the extent that he was an unconventional and critical sociologist;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a> this appropriation is similarly casual, holding little or no relation to the <a href="/facts/Frankfurt_School/g0h4LpEH">Frankfurt School</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a> In contrast, Habermas is one of the key critics of postmodernism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a>

<h4>Communication studies</h4>
When, in the 1970s and 1980s, Habermas redefined critical social theory as a <a href="/facts/Communication_studies/5H7v0uMg">study of communication</a>, with communicative competence and <a href="/facts/Communicative_rationality/vGLv6pBA">communicative rationality</a> on the one hand, and distorted communication on the other, the two versions of critical theory began to overlap to a much greater degree than before.

<h3>Critical disability theory</h3>
These paragraphs are an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Disability_studies/DeYNBVWN">Disability studies § Critical disability theory</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disability_studies&action=edit#Critical_disability_theory">edit</a>]
At the intersection of disability studies and critical theory is critical disability theory.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108">108</a> The term crip theory originates in Carrie Sandahl's article "Queering the Crip or Crippling the Queer?: Intersections of Queer and <a href="/facts/Crip_(disability_term)/sfH14FVc">Crip</a> Identities in Solo Autobiographical Performance". It was published in 2003 as part of a journal issue titled "Desiring Disability: Queer Theory Meets Disability Studies".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109">109</a> <a href="/facts/Christopher_Bell_(scholar)/7eaScqI5">Christopher Bell</a>'s <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110">110</a> Blackness and Disability;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111">111</a> and the work of <a href="/facts/Robert_McRuer/S15H9bah">Robert McRuer</a> both explore <a href="/facts/Queer_theory/bpJPktky">queerness</a> and disability. Work includes the intersections of race and ethnicity with disability in the field of education studies and has attempted to bridge <a href="/facts/Critical_race_theory/5tBpe6Kw">critical race theory</a> with disability studies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112">112</a>
<h3>Critical legal studies</h3>
These paragraphs are an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Critical_legal_studies/NznQmqVe">Critical legal studies</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Critical_legal_studies&action=edit">edit</a>]
<a href="/facts/Critical_legal_studies/NznQmqVe">Critical legal </a> (CLS) is a school of critical theory that developed in the United States during the 1970s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113">113</a> CLS adherents claim that laws are devised to maintain the <a href="/facts/Status_quo/kMsM2X2s">status quo</a> of society and thereby codify its <a href="/facts/Prejudice/vYetboqd">biases against marginalized groups</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114">114</a>
<h4>Immigration studies</h4>
Critical theory can be used to interpret the <a href="/facts/Right_of_asylum/NAAKtbUs">right of asylum</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115">115</a> and <a href="/facts/Immigration_law/4LPyQRVH">immigration law</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116">116</a>

<h3>Critical finance studies</h3>
Critical finance studies apply critical theory to <a href="/facts/Financial_market/T8g8qFT5">financial markets</a> and <a href="/facts/Central_banks/5j5xg3s2">central banks</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117">117</a>

<h3>Critical management studies</h3>
These paragraphs are an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Critical_management_studies/TlVIhj2q">Critical management studies</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Critical_management_studies&action=edit">edit</a>]
<a href="/facts/Critical_management_studies/TlVIhj2q">Critical management studies</a> (CMS) is a loose but extensive grouping of theoretically informed critiques of <a href="/facts/Management/8KMV9yMM">management</a>, business and organisation, grounded originally in a critical theory perspective. Today it encompasses a wide range of perspectives that are critical of traditional theories of management and the business schools that generate these theories.
<h3>Critical international relations theory</h3>
These paragraphs are an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Critical_international_relations_theory/nqxpEMaR">Critical international relations theory</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Critical_international_relations_theory&action=edit">edit</a>]
<a href="/facts/Critical_international_relations_theory/nqxpEMaR">Critical international relations theory</a> is a diverse set of schools of thought in <a href="/facts/International_relations/FgLEX3Cy">international relations</a> (IR) that have criticized the theoretical, meta-theoretical and/or political <a href="/facts/Status_quo/kMsM2X2s">status quo</a>, both in IR theory and in international politics more broadly – from <a href="/facts/Positivism/on887AuJ">positivist</a> as well as <a href="/facts/Postpositivism/ybrG196h">postpositivist</a> positions. Positivist critiques include <a href="/facts/Marxism/sgnnLfax">Marxist</a> and <a href="/facts/Neo-Marxism/g1H59gDj">neo-Marxist</a> approaches and certain ("conventional") strands of <a href="/facts/Constructivism_in_international_relations/8v18xr86">social constructivism</a>. Postpositivist critiques include <a href="/facts/Poststructuralism/N1GPxB42">poststructuralist</a>, <a href="/facts/Postcolonialism_(international_relations)/2FI5nVeF">postcolonial</a>, "critical" constructivist, critical theory (in the strict sense used by the <a href="/facts/Frankfurt_School/g0h4LpEH">Frankfurt School</a>), <a href="/facts/Neo-Gramscianism/DDud2fvX">neo-Gramscian</a>, most <a href="/facts/Feminism_(international_relations)/HRctQwpD">feminist</a>, and some <a href="/facts/English_school_of_international_relations_theory/FYCgyw8C">English School</a> approaches, as well as non-Weberian <a href="/facts/Historical_sociology/dJcjzMSV">historical sociology</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118">118</a> "<a href="/facts/International_Political_Sociology_(security_studies)/6Q5p7UFw">international political sociology</a>", "<a href="/facts/Critical_geopolitics/eXCeCPAB">critical geopolitics</a>", and the so-called "<a href="/facts/New_materialism/VKAovnPt">new materialism</a>"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119">119</a> (partly inspired by <a href="/facts/Actor%25E2%2580%2593network_theory/Gb3QXJfo">actor–network theory</a>). All of these latter approaches differ from both <a href="/facts/Realism_(international_relations)/wgCXWYJs">realism</a> and <a href="/facts/Liberalism_(international_relations)/zJ9PNUSj">liberalism</a> in their <a href="/facts/Epistemology/NsDwpcYH">epistemological</a> and <a href="/facts/Ontology/QJKTsEIJ">ontological</a> premises.
<h3>Critical race theory</h3>
These paragraphs are an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Critical_race_theory/5tBpe6Kw">Critical race theory</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Critical_race_theory&action=edit">edit</a>]
<a href="/facts/Critical_race_theory/5tBpe6Kw">Critical race theory</a> (CRT) is an <a href="/facts/Academic_field/pKoQHpYL">academic field</a> focused on the relationships between <a href="/facts/Social_constructionism/NeGDLvKL">social conceptions</a> of <a href="/facts/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census/TmVxjULy">race and ethnicity</a>, <a href="/facts/Law_in_the_United_States/qVcQjGCe">social and political laws</a>, and <a href="/facts/Mass_media_in_the_United_States/3sv5kXoy">mass media</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120">120</a> CRT also considers <a href="/facts/Racism/SfrqGbu8">racism</a> to be <a href="/facts/Systemic_racism/k8pjbfYq">systemic</a> in various laws and rules, not based only on individuals' prejudices.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121">121</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122">122</a> The word critical in the name is an academic reference to critical theory, not criticizing or blaming individuals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123">123</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124">124</a>
<h3>Critical pedagogy</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Critical_pedagogy/K8zu22JY">Critical pedagogy</a>
Critical theorists have widely credited <a href="/facts/Paulo_Freire/Kg8zt3nz">Paulo Freire</a> for the first applications of critical theory to education/<a href="/facts/Pedagogy/t1LIfLeC">pedagogy</a>, considering his best-known work to be <a href="/facts/Pedagogy_of_the_Oppressed/XY4FjSk2">Pedagogy of the Oppressed</a>, a seminal text in what is now known as the philosophy and social movement of <a href="/facts/Critical_pedagogy/K8zu22JY">critical pedagogy</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125">125</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126">126</a> Dedicated to the oppressed and based on his own experience helping Brazilian adults learn to read and write, Freire includes a detailed class analysis in his exploration of the relationship between the colonizer and the colonized. In the book, he calls traditional pedagogy the "<a href="/facts/Banking_model_of_education/LygLDRPX">banking model of education</a>", because it treats the student as an empty vessel to be filled with knowledge. He argues that pedagogy should instead treat the learner as a co-creator of knowledge.
In contrast to the banking model, the teacher in the critical-theory model is not the dispenser of all knowledge, but a participant who learns with and from the students—in conversation with them, even as they learn from the teacher. The goal is to liberate the learner from an oppressive construct of teacher versus student, a dichotomy analogous to colonizer and colonized. It is not enough for the student to analyze societal power structures and hierarchies, to merely recognize imbalance and inequity; critical theory pedagogy must also empower the learner to reflect and act on that reflection to challenge an oppressive status quo.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127">127</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128">128</a>

<h4>Critical consciousness</h4>
These paragraphs are an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Critical_consciousness/awv2HHDY">Critical consciousness</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Critical_consciousness&action=edit">edit</a>]
<a href="/facts/Critical_consciousness/awv2HHDY">Critical consciousness</a>, conscientization, or conscientização in <a href="/facts/Portuguese_language/vr3Fwzw3">Portuguese</a> (Portuguese pronunciation: [kõsjẽtʃizaˈsɐ̃w]), is a popular education and social concept developed by Brazilian <a href="/facts/Pedagogue/t1LIfLeC">pedagogue</a> and <a href="/facts/Educational_theory/Ta6UTGBb">educational theorist</a> <a href="/facts/Paulo_Freire/Kg8zt3nz">Paulo Freire</a>, grounded in <a href="/facts/Neo-Marxism/g1H59gDj">neo-Marxist</a> critical theory. Critical consciousness focuses on achieving an in-depth understanding of the world, allowing for the perception and exposure of social and political contradictions. Critical consciousness also includes taking action against the oppressive elements in one's life that are illuminated by that understanding.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129">129</a>
<h4>Critical university studies</h4>
These paragraphs are an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Critical_university_studies/3sUQal5T">Critical university studies</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Critical_university_studies&action=edit">edit</a>]
<a href="/facts/Critical_university_studies/3sUQal5T">Critical university studies</a> is a field examining the role of <a href="/facts/Higher_education/6GjdtJap">higher education</a> in contemporary society and its relation to culture, politics, and labor. Arising primarily from <a href="/facts/Cultural_studies/nzGG7c5V">cultural studies</a>, it applies critical theory toward the university since the 1970s, particularly the shift away from a strong <a href="/facts/Public_university/Avsc2TmM">public model</a> of higher education to a <a href="/facts/Neoliberal/UfqKadhe">neoliberal</a> <a href="/facts/Privatized/TAtreKqK">privatized</a> model. Emerging largely in the United States, which has the most extensive system of higher education, the field has also seen significant work in the United Kingdom, as well as in other countries confronting neoliberalism. Key themes of CUS research are <a href="/facts/Corporatization/dIpf4ura">corporatization</a>, academic labor, and <a href="/facts/Student_debt/KNMmv2IV">student debt</a>, among other issues.
<h3>Critical psychology</h3>
These paragraphs are an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Critical_psychology/tmnIQ6QJ">Critical psychology</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Critical_psychology&action=edit">edit</a>]
<a href="/facts/Critical_psychology/tmnIQ6QJ">Critical psychology</a> is a perspective on psychology that draws extensively on critical theory. Critical psychology challenges the assumptions, <a href="/facts/Theory/9vrNS1Rr">theories</a> and methods of mainstream <a href="/facts/Psychology/duoqW7Sz">psychology</a> and attempts to apply psychological understandings in different ways.
<h3>Critical criminology</h3>
These paragraphs are an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Critical_criminology/tt4jLuEn">Critical criminology</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Critical_criminology&action=edit">edit</a>]
<a href="/facts/Critical_criminology/tt4jLuEn">Critical criminology</a> applies critical theory to <a href="/facts/Criminology/vu3fwnut">criminology</a>. Critical criminology examines the genesis of crime and the nature of justice in relation to power, privilege, and social status. These include factors such as <a href="/facts/Social_class/gJbHDVNc">class</a>, <a href="/facts/Race_(human_categorization)/cDPnrdXn">race</a>, <a href="/facts/Gender/LfjRHcJy">gender</a>, and <a href="/facts/Human_sexuality/fjnqcFxP">sexuality</a>. Legal and penal systems are understood to reproduce and uphold systems of <a href="/facts/Social_inequality/mSlMBETI">social inequality</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130">130</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131">131</a> Additionally, critical criminology works to uncover possible biases within traditional criminological research.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132">132</a>
<h3>Critical animal studies</h3>
These paragraphs are an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Critical_animal_studies/sEW759yx">Critical animal studies</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Critical_animal_studies&action=edit">edit</a>]
<a href="/facts/Critical_animal_studies/sEW759yx">Critical animal studies</a> (CAS) (not to be confused with <a href="/facts/Animal_Studies/fdTuHKgk">Animal Studies</a>) is an educational field that critically examines human relationships with nonhuman animals, with a focus on social justice and <a href="/facts/Abolitionism_(animal_rights)/lTd5EyLU">animal liberation</a>. Challenging the conventional <a href="/facts/Anthropocentrism/P9uozsxS">anthropocentric</a> views of humans on animals, it recognizes and acknowledges the inherent value of nonhuman animals and aims to create a more equitable and ethical relationship between humans and other animals. CAS applies critical theory<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133">133</a> to <a href="/facts/Animal_studies/fdTuHKgk">animal studies</a> and <a href="/facts/Animal_ethics/hBNYbdVD">animal ethics</a>. It emerged in 2001 with the founding of the Centre for Animal Liberation Affairs by Anthony J. Nocella II and <a href="/facts/Steven_Best/GTKnx4U6">Steven Best</a>, which in 2007 became the Institute for Critical Animal Studies (ICAS).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134">134</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135">135</a> The core interest of CAS is <a href="/facts/Animal_ethics/hBNYbdVD">animal ethics</a>, firmly grounded in trans-species <a href="/facts/Intersectionality/55jgWfs5">intersectionality</a>, <a href="/facts/Environmental_justice/et7xtoQv">environmental justice</a>, <a href="/facts/Social_justice/yPVcRR0w">social justice</a> politics and critical analysis of the underlying role played by the <a href="/facts/Capitalist/FbPc6TTw">capitalist</a> system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136">136</a> Scholars in the field seek to integrate academic research with political engagement and activism.
<h3>Critical social work</h3>
These paragraphs are an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Critical_social_work/Q9ckhyyr">Critical social work</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Critical_social_work&action=edit">edit</a>]
<a href="/facts/Critical_social_work/Q9ckhyyr">Critical social work</a> is the application to <a href="/facts/Social_work/u5mbNfYo">social work</a> of a critical theory perspective. Critical <a href="/facts/Social_work/u5mbNfYo">social work</a> seeks to address social injustices, as opposed to focusing on individualized issues. Critical theories explain social problems as arising from various forms of <a href="/facts/Oppression/7Mp3lUwq">oppression</a> and injustice in globalized capitalist societies and forms of neoliberal governance.

This approach to social work theory is formed by a polyglot of theories from across the <a href="/facts/Humanities/nErauGkd">humanities</a> and <a href="/facts/Social_sciences/hAbm1xtD">social sciences</a>, borrowing from various schools of thought, including <a href="/facts/Anarchism/4a262gvQ">anarchism</a>, <a href="/facts/Anti-capitalism/UWDht7eJ">anti-capitalism</a>, <a href="/facts/Anti-racism/YP5XEMwH">anti-racism</a>, <a href="/facts/Marxism/sgnnLfax">Marxism</a>, <a href="/facts/Feminism/RRqUvGmk">feminism</a>, <a href="/facts/Biopolitics/8W5DDxWQ">biopolitics</a>, and <a href="/facts/Social_democracy/Ttb0ryDT">social democracy</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137">137</a>
<h3>Critical ethnography</h3>
These paragraphs are an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Critical_ethnography/654mfRgq">Critical ethnography</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Critical_ethnography&action=edit">edit</a>]
<a href="/facts/Critical_ethnography/654mfRgq">Critical ethnography</a> applies a critical theory based approach to <a href="/facts/Ethnography/qxJRLSwJ">ethnography</a>. It focuses on the implicit values expressed within ethnographic studies and, therefore, on the unacknowledged biases that may result from such implicit values.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138">138</a> It has been called critical theory in practice.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139">139</a> In the spirit of critical theory, this approach seeks to determine symbolic mechanisms, to extract ideology from action, and to understand the cognition and behaviour of research subjects within historical, cultural, and social frameworks.
<h3>Critical data studies</h3>
These paragraphs are an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Critical_data_studies/und7omzA">Critical data studies</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Critical_data_studies&action=edit">edit</a>]
<a href="/facts/Critical_data_studies/und7omzA">Critical data studies</a> is the exploration of and engagement with social, cultural, and ethical challenges that arise when working with <a href="/facts/Big_data/XGtrVg4z">big data</a>. It is through various unique perspectives and taking a critical approach that this form of study can be practiced.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140">140</a> As its name implies, critical data studies draws heavily on the influence of critical theory, which has a strong focus on addressing the organization of power structures. This idea is then applied to the study of data.
<h3>Critical environmental justice</h3>
<a href="/facts/Environmental_justice/et7xtoQv">Critical environmental justice</a> applies critical theory to <a href="/facts/Environmental_justice/et7xtoQv">environmental justice</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141">141</a>

<h2 id="criticism">Criticism</h2>
While critical theorists have often been called Marxist intellectuals, their tendency to denounce some Marxist concepts and to combine Marxian analysis with other sociological and philosophical traditions has resulted in accusations of <a href="/facts/Revisionism_(Marxism)/6zeco0fo">revisionism</a> by <a href="/facts/Orthodox_Marxism/tmIwPHKv">Orthodox Marxist</a> and by <a href="/facts/Marxist%25E2%2580%2593Leninist/bXD3yf3m">Marxist–Leninist</a> philosophers. <a href="/facts/Martin_Jay/AhT5l2Uh">Martin Jay</a> has said that the first generation of critical theory is best understood not as promoting a specific philosophical agenda or ideology, but as "a <a href="/facts/Social_gadfly/GvQvzmSv">gadfly</a> of other systems".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142">142</a>
Critical theory has been criticized for not offering any clear road map to political action (<a href="/facts/Praxis_(process)/Lrb2zfEe">praxis</a>), often explicitly repudiating any solutions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143">143</a> Those objections mostly apply to first-generation Frankfurt School, while the issue of politics is addressed in a much more assertive way in contemporary theory.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144">144</a>
Another criticism of critical theory "is that it fails to provide rational standards by which it can show that it is superior to other theories of knowledge, science, or practice." <a href="/facts/Rex_Gibson/DGYxLkDg">Rex Gibson</a> argues that critical theory suffers from being cliquish, conformist, elitist, immodest, anti-individualist, naive, too critical, and contradictory. Hughes and Hughes argue that Habermas' theory of ideal public discourse "says much about rational talkers talking, but very little about actors acting: Felt, perceptive, imaginative, bodily experience does not fit these theories".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145">145</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146">146</a>
Some feminists argue that critical theory "can be as narrow and oppressive as the rationalization, bureaucratization, and cultures they seek to unmask and change.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147">147</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148">148</a>
Critical theory's language has been criticized as being too dense to understand, although "Counter arguments to these issues of language include claims that a call for clearer and more accessible language is anti-intellectual, a new 'language of possibility' is needed, and oppressed peoples can understand and contribute to new languages."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149">149</a>
Bruce Pardy, writing for the <a href="/facts/National_Post/MNTuVGP8">National Post</a>, argued that any challenges to the "legitimacy [of critical theory] can be interpreted as a demonstration of their [critical theory's proponents'] thesis: the assertion of reason, logic and evidence is a manifestation of privilege and power. Thus, any challenger risks the stigma of a bigoted oppressor."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:150" href="#fn:150">150</a>
Robert Danisch, writing for <a href="/facts/The_Conversation_(website)/Tz3zxIxq">The Conversation</a>, argued that critical theory, and the modern humanities more broadly, focus too much on criticizing the current world rather than trying to make a better world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:151" href="#fn:151">151</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Modernism/AfPDL45X">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Antipositivism/vu8yqKPP">Antipositivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Critical_military_studies/L86XUNa9">Critical military studies</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Cultural_studies/nzGG7c5V">Cultural studies</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Information_criticism/AqYp1USh">Information criticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Marxist_cultural_analysis/pTyp3hKe">Marxist cultural analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Outline_of_critical_theory/tEbEtpCG">Outline of critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Popular_culture_studies/eBGXtqAb">Popular culture studies</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Outline_of_organizational_theory/eFuQJXmA">Outline of organizational theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Postcritique/magS2n4x">Postcritique</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Quare_theory/xejRMHXp">Quare theory</a></li></ul>
<h3>Lists</h3>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/List_of_critical_theorists/ndghtc0A">List of critical theorists</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_works_in_critical_theory/P19904wQ">List of works in critical theory</a></li></ul>
<h3>Journals</h3>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Constellations_(journal)/mrd2jf0Y">Constellations</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Representations/VULMc6Rn">Representations</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Critical_Inquiry/E238bl6T">Critical Inquiry</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Telos_(journal)/AqtvhhCP">Telos</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Law_and_Critique/EoQgtImq">Law and Critique</a></li></ul>

<h3>Footnotes</h3>

<h3>Works cited</h3>

<ul><li>Bell, Christopher, ed. (2011). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2N8uMz6g02gC">Blackness and Disability: Critical Examinations and Cultural Interventions</a>. Forecaast Series. LIT Verlag Münster. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-643-10126-6. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1147991080">1147991080</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/William_E._Connolly/KqjG87YI">Connolly, William E.</a> (2013). "The 'New Materialism' and the Fragility of Things". Millennium: Journal of International Studies. 41 (3): 399–412. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0305829813486849">10.1177/0305829813486849</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1477-9021">1477-9021</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143725752">143725752</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Diana_Coole/LK7UI5Rs">Coole, Diana</a>; Frost, Samantha, eds. (2010). New Materialisms: Ontology, Agency, and Politics. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8223-4753-8.</li>
<li>Hobden, Stephen; <a href="/facts/John_M._Hobson/6cLGxdhf">Hobson, John M.</a>, eds. (2002). Historical Sociology of International Relations. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-80870-5.</li>
<li>Lindlof, Thomas R.; Taylor, Bryan C. (2002). <a href="https://archive.org/details/qualitativecommu00lind">Qualitative Communication Research Methods</a>. <a href="/facts/SAGE_Publications/myamBVEB">SAGE Publications</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0761924944.</li>
<li>Van der Tuin, Iris; Dolphijn, Rick (2012). New Materialism: Interviews and Cartographies. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Open Humanities Press. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.3998%2Fohp.11515701.0001.001">10.3998/ohp.11515701.0001.001</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-60785-281-0.</li></ul>

<h3>Bibliography</h3>
<ul><li>"Problematizing Global Knowledge." <a href="/facts/Theory%2c_Culture_%2526_Society/JJHRUgft">Theory, Culture & Society</a> 23(2–3). 2006. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0263-2764">0263-2764</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Craig_Calhoun/ms8n3qox">Calhoun, Craig</a>. 1995. Critical Social Theory: Culture, History, and the Challenge of Difference. Blackwell. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 1557862885 – A survey of and introduction to the current state of critical social theory.</li>
<li>Charmaz, K. 1995. "Between positivism and postmodernism: Implications for methods." Studies in Symbolic Interaction 17:43–72.</li>
<li>Conquergood, D. 1991. "<a href="http://www.csun.edu/~vcspc00g/301/RethinkingEthnog.pdf">Rethinking ethnography: Towards a critical cultural politics</a>." <a href="/facts/Communication_Monographs/dBkDR6PR">Communication Monographs</a> 58(2):179–94. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03637759109376222">10.1080/03637759109376222</a>.</li>
<li>Corchia, Luca. 2010. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U56Sag72eSoC">La logica dei processi culturali. Jürgen Habermas tra filosofia e sociologia</a>. Genova: Edizioni ECIG. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-8875441951.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Harry_F._Dahms/7cITLsBa">Dahms, Harry</a>, ed. 2008. No Social Science Without Critical Theory, (Current Perspectives in Social Theory 25). <a href="/facts/Emerald_Publishing/56TuuLpH">Emerald</a>/JAI.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Stefan_Gandler/WFmPTrf7">Gandler, Stefan</a>. 2009. Fragmentos de Frankfurt. Ensayos sobre la Teoría crítica. México: 21st Century Publishers/<a href="/facts/Autonomous_University_of_Queretaro/qrH1YauR">Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-6070300707.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Raymond_Geuss/S6wbtVv8">Geuss, Raymond</a>. 1981. The Idea of a Critical Theory. Habermas and the Frankfurt School. <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0521284228.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Axel_Honneth/keAqRhBl">Honneth, Axel</a>. 2006. La société du mépris. Vers une nouvelle Théorie critique, La Découverte. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-2707147721.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Max_Horkheimer/w2wG10VH">Horkheimer, Max</a>. 1982. Critical Theory Selected Essays. New York: <a href="/facts/Continuum_Publishing/CXulDSkV">Continuum Publishing</a>.</li>
<li>Morgan, Marcia. 2012. <a href="https://philpapers.org/rec/MORKAC">Kierkegaard and Critical Theory</a>. New York: <a href="/facts/Lexington_Books/NJNX9xwH">Lexington Books</a>.</li>
<li>Rolling, James H. 2008. "<a href="https://surface.syr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1014&context=tl">Secular blasphemy: Utter(ed) transgressions against names and fathers in the postmodern era</a>." <a href="/facts/Qualitative_Inquiry/IRdXcluD">Qualitative Inquiry</a> 14(6):926–48. – An example of critical postmodern work.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Stuart_Sim/qm6BfKrK">Sim, Stuart</a>, and <a href="/facts/Borin_Van_Loon/524qKvQ8">Borin Van Loon</a>. 2001. Introducing Critical Theory. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 1840462647. – A short introductory volume with illustrations.</li>
<li>Thomas, Jim. 1993. Doing Critical Ethnography. London: Sage. pp. 1–5 & 17–25.</li>
<li>Tracy, S. J. 2000. "<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sarah_Tracy3/publication/34040485_Emotion_labor_and_correctional_officers_A_study_of_emotion_norms_performances_and_unintended_consequences_in_a_total_institution/links/57ba215608aedfe0ec96ebc2.pdf">Becoming a character for commerce: Emotion labor, self subordination and discursive construction of identity in a total institution</a>." <a href="/facts/Management_Communication_Quarterly/fz2R9Nou">Management Communication Quarterly</a> 14(1):90–128. – An example of critical qualitative research.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Charles_Arthur_Willard/psXToXHr">Willard, Charles Arthur</a>. 1982. <a href="https://philpapers.org/rec/WILAAT-22">Argumentation and the Social Grounds of Knowledge</a>. <a href="/facts/University_of_Alabama_Press/HrFhSIe3">University of Alabama Press</a>.</li>
<li>— 1989. A Theory of Argumentation. University of Alabama Press.</li>
<li>— 1996. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OU75AafuhvcC">Liberalism and the Problem of Knowledge: A New Rhetoric for Modern Democracy</a>. Chicago: <a href="/facts/University_of_Chicago_Press/6se0Ezfb">University of Chicago Press</a>.</li>
<li>Chapter 9. Critical Theory <a href="/facts/Robert_C._Solomon/C7ubMspX">Solomon, Robert C.</a>, ed. (2007). <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/437147422">The Blackwell Guide to Continental Philosophy</a>. David L. Sherman. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1405143042. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/437147422">437147422</a>.</li></ul>
<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

Wikiquote has quotations related to Critical theory.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Critical theory.

<ul><li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/frankfur">"The Frankfurt School and Critical Theory"</a>. <a href="/facts/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy/tmS0Sylv">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</li>
<li><a href="http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode.html?id=g9781405184649_chunk_g9781405184649586">Gerhardt, Christina. "Frankfurt School". The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest. Ness, Immanuel (ed). Blackwell Publishing, 2009. Blackwell Reference Online</a>.</li>
<li><a href="https://nplusonemag.com/issue-2/the-intellectual-situation/death-is-not-the-end/">"Theory: Death Is Not the End"</a> <a href="/facts/N%252B1/cYaERNkR">N+1</a> magazine's short history of academic Critical Theory.</li>
<li><a href="http://www.criticallegalthinking.com/">Critical Legal Thinking</a> A <a href="/facts/Critical_Legal_Studies/NznQmqVe">Critical Legal Studies</a> website which uses Critical Theory in an analysis of law and politics.</li>
<li>L. Corchia, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-T14AQAAQBAJ">Jürgen Habermas. A Bibliography: works and studies (1952–2013)</a>, Pisa, Edizioni Il Campano – Arnus University Books, 2013, 606 pages.</li>
<li>Sim, S.; Van Loon, B. (2009). Introducing Critical Theory: A Graphic Guide. Icon Books Ltd.</li></ul>
<h3>Archival collections</h3>
<ul><li><a href="http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf5q2nb391">Guide to the Critical Theory Offprint Collection.</a> Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, Cali <a href="http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt5k403303">Guide to the Critical Theory Institute Audio and Video Recordings, University of California, Irvine.</a> Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.</li>
<li><a href="http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt9x0nf6pd">University of California, Irvine, Critical Theory Institute Manuscript Materials.</a> Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">"Critical theory". Britannica. Retrieved 11 January 2025. Marxist-inspired movement in social and political philosophy originally associated with the work of the Frankfurt School. Drawing particularly on the thought of Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud, critical theorists maintain that a primary goal of philosophy is to understand and to help overcome the social structures through which people are dominated and oppressed. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/critical-theory" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/topic/critical-theory</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Ludovisi, S.G. ed., 2015. Critical theory and the challenge of praxis: Beyond reification. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Bohman; Flynn, Jeffrey; Celikates, Robin. "Critical Theory". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2016 ed.). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Elizabeth, Depoy (2016). Naturalistic Designs. Critical theory represents a complex set of strategies that are united by the commonality of sociopolitical purpose. Critical theorists seek to understand human experience as a means to change the world. <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Horkheimer, M., Adorno, T.W. and Noeri, G., 2002. Dialectic of enlightenment. Stanford University Press. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Continuum, 1970. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Horkheimer, M., 1972. Traditional and critical theory. Critical theory: Selected essays, 188(243), pp.1-11. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Marcuse, H., 2013. One-dimensional man: Studies in the ideology of advanced industrial society. Routledge. <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">How, A., 2017. Critical theory. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Bohman; Flynn, Jeffrey; Celikates, Robin. "Critical Theory". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2016 ed.). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Naturalistic Designs (2016). Critical theory is a response to post-Enlightenment philosophies and positivism in particular. Critical theorists 'deconstruct' the notion that there is a unitary truth that can be known by using one way or method. <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" target="_blank">/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Frankfurt School and Critical Theory. "Horkheimer and his followers rejected the notion of objectivity in knowledge by pointing, among other things, to the fact that the object of knowledge is itself embedded into a historical and social process: 'The facts which our senses present to us are socially preformed in two ways: through the historical character of the object perceived and through the historical character of the perceiving organ' (Horkheimer [1937] in Ingram and Simon-Ingram 1992, p. 242). Further, with a rather Marxist twist, Horkheimer noticed also that phenomenological objectivity is a myth because it is dependent upon 'technological conditions' and the latter are sensitive to the material conditions of production. Critical Theory aims thus to abandon naïve conceptions of knowledge-impartiality. Since intellectuals themselves are not disembodied entities observing from a God's viewpoint, knowledge can be obtained only from a societal embedded perspective of interdependent individuals." <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Horkheimer, M., 1972. Traditional and critical theory. Critical theory: Selected essays, 188(243), pp.1-11. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish. Pantheon Books, 1977. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Bohman; Flynn, Jeffrey; Celikates, Robin. "Critical Theory". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2016 ed.). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">McKerrow, R.E., 1989. Critical rhetoric: Theory and praxis. Communications Monographs, 56(2), pp.91-111. <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Bronner, S.E., 2017. Critical theory: A very short introduction (Vol. 263). Oxford University Press. <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Steffy, B., & Grimes, A., 1986. A Critical Theory of Organization Science. Academy of Management Review, 11, pp. 322-336. <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Masschelein, J., 2004. How to Conceive of Critical Educational Theory Today. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 38, pp. 351-367 <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Rush, F.L. and Rush, F. eds., 2004. The Cambridge companion to critical theory. Cambridge University Press. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">"Critical theory". Britannica. Retrieved 11 January 2025. Marxist-inspired movement in social and political philosophy originally associated with the work of the Frankfurt School. Drawing particularly on the thought of Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud, critical theorists maintain that a primary goal of philosophy is to understand and to help overcome the social structures through which people are dominated and oppressed. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/critical-theory" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/topic/critical-theory</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Bronner, S.E., 2017. Critical theory: A very short introduction (Vol. 263). Oxford University Press. <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">"The Frankfurt School and Critical Theory". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/critical-theory-frankfurt-school/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/critical-theory-frankfurt-school/</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Kellner, D., 1989. Critical Theory, Marxism and Modernity. Polity. <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Bohman; Flynn, Jeffrey; Celikates, Robin. "Critical Theory". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2016 ed.). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Outhwaite, William (2009) [1988]. Habermas: Key Contemporary Thinkers (2nd ed.). Polity. pp. 5–8. ISBN 978-0745643281. <a href="978-0745643281" target="_blank">978-0745643281</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Horkheimer, M., 1972. Traditional and critical theory. Critical theory: Selected essays, 188(243), pp.1-11. <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Marcuse, H., 2013. One-dimensional man: Studies in the ideology of advanced industrial society. Routledge. <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Adorno, T.W., 1990. Negative dialectics. Routledge. <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Bohman; Flynn, Jeffrey; Celikates, Robin. "Critical Theory". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2016 ed.). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">"Critical theory". Britannica. Retrieved 11 January 2025. Marxist-inspired movement in social and political philosophy originally associated with the work of the Frankfurt School. Drawing particularly on the thought of Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud, critical theorists maintain that a primary goal of philosophy is to understand and to help overcome the social structures through which people are dominated and oppressed. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/critical-theory" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/topic/critical-theory</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">"The Frankfurt School and Critical Theory". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/critical-theory-frankfurt-school/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/critical-theory-frankfurt-school/</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Genel, K., 2016. The Frankfurt School and Freudo-Marxism: On the Plurality of Articulations between Psychoanalysis and Social Theory. Actuel Marx, pp. 10-25. <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Whitebook J. The marriage of Marx and Freud: Critical Theory and psychoanalysis. In: Rush F, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Critical Theory. Cambridge Companions to Philosophy. Cambridge University Press; 2004:74-102. <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">"The Frankfurt School and Critical Theory". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/critical-theory-frankfurt-school/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/critical-theory-frankfurt-school/</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Genel, K., 2016. The Frankfurt School and Freudo-Marxism: On the Plurality of Articulations between Psychoanalysis and Social Theory. Actuel Marx, pp. 10-25. <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">Whitebook J. The marriage of Marx and Freud: Critical Theory and psychoanalysis. In: Rush F, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Critical Theory. Cambridge Companions to Philosophy. Cambridge University Press; 2004:74-102. <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">Bohman; Flynn, Jeffrey; Celikates, Robin. "Critical Theory". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2016 ed.). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">Rush, F.L. and Rush, F. eds., 2004. The Cambridge companion to critical theory. Cambridge University Press. <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">Landry, L.Y., 2000. Beyond the 'French Fries and the Frankfurter' An agenda for critical theory. Philosophy & social criticism, 26(2), pp.99-129. <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:42">Bronner, S.E., 2017. Critical theory: A very short introduction (Vol. 263). Oxford University Press. <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">Rush, F.L. and Rush, F. eds., 2004. The Cambridge companion to critical theory. Cambridge University Press. <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">Ritzer, George (2008). "Sociological Theory". From Modern to Postmodern Social Theory (and Beyond). New York, New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. pp. 567–568. <a href="/wiki/McGraw-Hill" target="_blank">/wiki/McGraw-Hill</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">Agger, Ben (2012), "Ben Agger", North American Critical Theory After Postmodernism, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 128–154, doi:10.1057/9781137262868_7, ISBN 978-1349350391. <a href="978-1349350391" target="_blank">978-1349350391</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">Critical Theory and Society: A Reader. Routledge. 1990. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" target="_blank">/wiki/Routledge</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:48">Abromeit, J. and Cobb, W.M. eds., 2014. Herbert Marcuse: A critical reader. Routledge. <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:50">Wiggershaus, R. (1995). The Frankfurt School: Its History, Theories, and Political Significance (M. Robertson, Trans.). MIT Press <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:51">"The Left Hemisphere". Verso. Retrieved 18 May 2023. <a href="https://www.versobooks.com/products/2321-the-left-hemisphere" target="_blank">https://www.versobooks.com/products/2321-the-left-hemisphere</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:52">"Critical Theory Today: A User-Friendly Guide". Routledge & CRC Press. Retrieved 18 May 2023. <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Critical-Theory-Today-A-User-Friendly-Guide/Tyson/p/book/9780367709426" target="_blank">https://www.routledge.com/Critical-Theory-Today-A-User-Friendly-Guide/Tyson/p/book/9780367709426</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:58">Disco, Cornelis. "Critical theory as ideology of the new class: Rereading Jürgen Habermas." Theory and Society (1979): 159-214. <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:59">Anderson, P. (1976). Considerations on Western Marxism. <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:60">Kolakowski, L., 1978. Main currents of Marxism: its rise, growth, and dissolution. Philosophy, 54(210). <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">Morrow, R.A., Morrow, R.A. and Brown, D.D., 1994. Critical theory and methodology (Vol. 3). Sage. <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">Thompson, M.J., 2016. The domestication of critical theory. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">Oliveira, G.C., 2018. Reconstructive methodology and critical international relations theory. Contexto Internacional, 40(01), pp.09-32. <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:64">Latour, B., 2004. Why has critique run out of steam? From matters of fact to matters of concern. Critical inquiry, 30(2), pp.225-248. <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:65">Crews, F. 1986, Skeptical engagements, Oxford University Press, New York. <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:69">Fuller, S. (2017). Post-Truth: Knowledge as a Power Game <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:70">"Bruce Pardy, "How Canada's secular religion of cultural self-hate took hold"". Retrieved 10 January 2025. <a href="https://nationalpost.com/opinion/bruce-pardy-how-canadas-secular-religion-of-cultural-self-hate-took-hold" target="_blank">https://nationalpost.com/opinion/bruce-pardy-how-canadas-secular-religion-of-cultural-self-hate-took-hold</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:71">Horkheimer 1982, p. 244. <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:72">Bohman, James (8 March 2005). "Critical Theory". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2016 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 13 June 2019. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/critical-theory/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/critical-theory/</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:73">Bohman, James; Flynn, Jeffrey; Celikates, Robin (2021), "Critical Theory", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2021 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 10 June 2022 <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2021/entries/critical-theory/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2021/entries/critical-theory/</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:74">Bohman, James; Flynn, Jeffrey; Celikates, Robin (2021), "Critical Theory", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2021 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 10 June 2022 <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2021/entries/critical-theory/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2021/entries/critical-theory/</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:75">Lindlof & Taylor 2002, p. 49: "forms of authority and injustice that accompanied the evolution of industrial and corporate capitalism as a political-economic system. - Lindlof, Thomas R.; Taylor, Bryan C. (2002). Qualitative Communication Research Methods. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-0761924944. <a href="https://archive.org/details/qualitativecommu00lind" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/qualitativecommu00lind</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:76">"Theses on Feuerbach". §XI. Marxists Internet Archive. Archived from the original on 16 April 2015. Retrieved 11 April 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link) <a href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/theses/theses.htm" target="_blank">https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/theses/theses.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:77">Adorno, Theodor W., and Max Horkheimer. [1947] 2002. Dialectic of Enlightenment, translated by E. Jephcott. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 242. <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" target="_blank">/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno</a> <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:78">Habermas, Jürgen. 1987. "The Entwinement of Myth and Enlightenment: Horkheimer and Adorno". In The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures, translated by F. Lawrence. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. p. 116: "Critical Theory was initially developed in Horkheimer's circle to think through political disappointments at the absence of revolution in the West, the development of Stalinism in Soviet Russia, and the victory of fascism in Germany. It was supposed to explain mistaken Marxist prognoses, but without breaking Marxist intentions." <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" target="_blank">/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas</a> <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:79">Dubiel, Helmut. 1985. Theory and Politics: Studies in the Development of Critical Theory, translated by B. Gregg. Cambridge, MA. <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:80">Dialectic of Enlightenment. p. 38: "[G]one are the objective laws of the market which ruled in the actions of the entrepreneurs and tended toward catastrophe. Instead the conscious decision of the managing directors executes as results (which are more obligatory than the blindest price-mechanisms) the old law of value and hence the destiny of capitalism." <a href="/wiki/Dialectic_of_Enlightenment" target="_blank">/wiki/Dialectic_of_Enlightenment</a> <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:81">"The Entwinement of Myth and Enlightenment", p. 118. <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:82">Katsiaficas, George N., Robert George Kirkpatrick, and Mary Lou Emery. 1987. Introduction to Critical Sociology. Irvington Publishers. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/George_Katsiaficas" target="_blank">/wiki/George_Katsiaficas</a> <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:83">Laurie, Timothy, Hannah Stark, and Briohny Walker. 2019. "Critical Approaches to Continental Philosophy: Intellectual Community, Disciplinary Identity, and the Politics of Inclusion". Archived 11 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Parrhesia 30:1–17. doi:10.1007/s10691-011-9167-4. (Discusses critical social theory as a form of self-reflection.) <a href="https://www.academia.edu/38122177" target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/38122177</a> <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:84">Outhwaite, William (2009) [1988]. Habermas: Key Contemporary Thinkers (2nd ed.). Polity. pp. 5–8. ISBN 978-0745643281. <a href="978-0745643281" target="_blank">978-0745643281</a> <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:85">Fazio, Giorgio (21 May 2021). "Situating Rahel Jaeggi in the Contemporary Frankfurt Critical Theory". Critical Horizons. 22 (2): 116. doi:10.1080/14409917.2019.1676943. S2CID 210490119. <a href="/wiki/Critical_Horizons" target="_blank">/wiki/Critical_Horizons</a> <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:86">Nancy Fraser (1985). What's critical about critical theory? The case of Habermas and gender. New German Critique, 35, 97-131. <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:87">Fazio, Giorgio (21 May 2021). "Situating Rahel Jaeggi in the Contemporary Frankfurt Critical Theory". Critical Horizons. 22 (2): 116. doi:10.1080/14409917.2019.1676943. S2CID 210490119. <a href="/wiki/Critical_Horizons" target="_blank">/wiki/Critical_Horizons</a> <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:88">Gessen, Masha (9 February 2020). "Judith Butler Wants Us to Reshape Our Rage". The New Yorker. <a href="/wiki/Masha_Gessen" target="_blank">/wiki/Masha_Gessen</a> <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:89">Boston, Timothy (May 2018). "New Directions for a Critical Theory of Work: Reading Honneth Through Deranty". Critical Horizons. 19 (2): 111. doi:10.1080/14409917.2018.1453287. S2CID 149532362. <a href="/wiki/Critical_Horizons" target="_blank">/wiki/Critical_Horizons</a> <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:90">Condon, Roderick (April 2021). "Nancy Fraser and Rahel Jaeggi, Capitalism: A Conversation in Critical Theory". Irish Journal of Sociology. 29 (1): 129. doi:10.1177/0791603520930989. hdl:10468/10810. S2CID 225763936. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Irish_Journal_of_Sociology&action=edit&redlink=1" target="_blank">/w/index.php?title=Irish_Journal_of_Sociology&action=edit&redlink=1</a> <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:91">Marco, Marco; Testa, Italo (May 2021). "Immanent Critique of Capitalism as a Form of Life: On Rahel Jaeggi's Critical Theory". Critical Horizons. 22 (2): 111. doi:10.1080/14409917.2020.1719630. S2CID 214465382. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14409917.2020.1719630" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14409917.2020.1719630</a> <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:92">Fazio, Giorgio (21 May 2021). "Situating Rahel Jaeggi in the Contemporary Frankfurt Critical Theory". Critical Horizons. 22 (2): 116. doi:10.1080/14409917.2019.1676943. S2CID 210490119. <a href="/wiki/Critical_Horizons" target="_blank">/wiki/Critical_Horizons</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:93">Jaeggi, Rahel; Neuhouser, Frederick (2014). Alienation. New directions in critical theory. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-15198-6. <a href="978-0-231-15198-6" target="_blank">978-0-231-15198-6</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:94">Rosa, Hartmut (2016). Resonanz: eine Soziologie der Weltbeziehung (3. Aufl ed.). Berlin: Suhrkamp. ISBN 978-3-518-58626-6. <a href="978-3-518-58626-6" target="_blank">978-3-518-58626-6</a> <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:95">Rosa, Hartmut (2016). Resonanz: eine Soziologie der Weltbeziehung (3. Aufl ed.). Berlin: Suhrkamp. ISBN 978-3-518-58626-6. <a href="978-3-518-58626-6" target="_blank">978-3-518-58626-6</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:96">Rosa, Hartmut (31 December 2013). Social Acceleration: A New Theory of Modernity. Columbia University Press. doi:10.7312/rosa14834. ISBN 978-0-231-51988-5. <a href="978-0-231-51988-5" target="_blank">978-0-231-51988-5</a> <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:97">Brumlik, Micha (2016). Resonanz oder: Das Ende der kritischen Theorie [Resonance or: The end of critical theory.] (in German). pp. 120–123. <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:98">Agger, Ben (2012), "Ben Agger", North American Critical Theory After Postmodernism, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 128–154, doi:10.1057/9781137262868_7, ISBN 978-1349350391. <a href="978-1349350391" target="_blank">978-1349350391</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:99">Lindlof & Taylor 2002, p. 49: "forms of authority and injustice that accompanied the evolution of industrial and corporate capitalism as a political-economic system. - Lindlof, Thomas R.; Taylor, Bryan C. (2002). Qualitative Communication Research Methods. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-0761924944. <a href="https://archive.org/details/qualitativecommu00lind" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/qualitativecommu00lind</a> <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:100">Lindlof & Taylor 2002, p. 53. - Lindlof, Thomas R.; Taylor, Bryan C. (2002). Qualitative Communication Research Methods. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-0761924944. <a href="https://archive.org/details/qualitativecommu00lind" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/qualitativecommu00lind</a> <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:101">Rivera Vicencio, E. (2012). "Foucault: His influence over accounting and management research. Building of a map of Foucault's approach". International Journal of Critical Accounting. 4 (5/6): 728–756. doi:10.1504/IJCA.2012.051466. Archived from the original on 9 September 2018. Retrieved 4 July 2015. <a href="http://www.inderscience.com/info/inarticle.php?artid=51466" target="_blank">http://www.inderscience.com/info/inarticle.php?artid=51466</a> <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:102">"Introduction to Jean Baudrillard, Module on Postmodernity". www.cla.purdue.edu. Archived from the original on 9 September 2018. Retrieved 16 June 2017. <a href="https://www.cla.purdue.edu/english/theory/postmodernism/modules/baudrillardpostmodernity.html" target="_blank">https://www.cla.purdue.edu/english/theory/postmodernism/modules/baudrillardpostmodernity.html</a> <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:103">Kellner, Douglas (22 April 2005). "Jean Baudrillard". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2015 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 18 March 2019. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2015/entries/baudrillard/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2015/entries/baudrillard/</a> <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:104">Aylesworth, Gary. "Postmodernism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2015 ed.). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/postmodernism/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/postmodernism/</a> <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:105">Hall, Melinda C. (2019). "Critical Disability Theory". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2019 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 28 December 2019. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/disability-critical/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/disability-critical/</a> <a href="#fnref:105" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:106">Pothier, Dianne; Devlin, Richard, eds. (2006). Critical Disability Theory: Essays in Philosophy, Politics, Policy, and Law. Law and Society Series. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-1204-7. <a href="978-0-7748-1204-7" target="_blank">978-0-7748-1204-7</a> <a href="#fnref:106" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:107">Bell, Christopher, ed. (2011). Blackness and Disability: Critical Examinations and Cultural Interventions. Forecaast Series. LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-643-10126-6. OCLC 1147991080. <a href="978-3-643-10126-6" target="_blank">978-3-643-10126-6</a> <a href="#fnref:107" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:108">Meekosha, Helen; Shuttleworth, Russell (November 2009). "What's so 'critical' about critical disability studies?". Australian Journal of Human Rights. 15 (1): 47–75. doi:10.1080/1323238X.2009.11910861. ISSN 1323-238X. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1323238X.2009.11910861" target="_blank">https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1323238X.2009.11910861</a> <a href="#fnref:108" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:109">Wilkerson, Abby Lynn; McRuer, Robert, eds. (2003). Desiring Disability: Queer Theory Meets Disability Studies. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-6551-0. OCLC 52353836. <a href="0-8223-6551-0" target="_blank">0-8223-6551-0</a> <a href="#fnref:109" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:110">BA Haller (26 December 2009). "Media dis&dat: Obituary: Chris Bell, disability studies scholar on race, HIV/AIDS, dies". Media-dis-n-dat.blogspot.ca. Retrieved 7 May 2013. <a href="http://media-dis-n-dat.blogspot.ca/2009/12/obituary-chris-bell-disability-studies.html" target="_blank">http://media-dis-n-dat.blogspot.ca/2009/12/obituary-chris-bell-disability-studies.html</a> <a href="#fnref:110" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:111">Bell 2011 - Bell, Christopher, ed. (2011). Blackness and Disability: Critical Examinations and Cultural Interventions. Forecaast Series. LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-643-10126-6. OCLC 1147991080.Bell, Christopher, ed. (2011). Blackness and Disability: Critical Examinations and Cultural Interventions. Forecaast Series. LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-643-10126-6. OCLC 1147991080. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2N8uMz6g02gC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=2N8uMz6g02gC</a> <a href="#fnref:111" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:112">Annamma, Subini Ancy; Connor, David; Ferri, Beth (18 November 2015). "Dis/ability critical race studies (DisCrit): theorizing at the intersections of race and dis/ability". Race Ethnicity and Education. 16 (1): 1–31. doi:10.1080/13613324.2012.730511. S2CID 145739550. <a href="https://www.academia.edu/2258717" target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/2258717</a> <a href="#fnref:112" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:113">Alan Hunt, "The Theory of Critical Legal Studies," Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, Vol. 6, No. 1 (1986): 1-45, esp. 1, 5. See [1]. DOI, 10.1093/ojls/6.1.1. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151208023200/http://ojls.oxfordjournals.org/content/6/1/1.extract" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20151208023200/http://ojls.oxfordjournals.org/content/6/1/1.extract</a> <a href="#fnref:113" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:114">"Critical Legal Theory", Cornell Law School> Retrieved 2017-08-10. <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/critical_legal_theory" target="_blank">https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/critical_legal_theory</a> <a href="#fnref:114" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:115">Ingram, David (2021). "What an Ethics of Discourse and Recognition Can Contribute to a Critical Theory of Refugee Claim Adjudication: Reclaiming Epistemic Justice for Gender-Based Asylum Seekers" (PDF). Migration, Recognition and Critical Theory. Studies in Global Justice. Vol. 21. pp. 19–46. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-72732-1_2. ISBN 978-3-030-72731-4. <a href="978-3-030-72731-4" target="_blank">978-3-030-72731-4</a> <a href="#fnref:115" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:116">Pulitano, Elvira (2013). "In liberty's shadow: The discourse of refugees and asylum seekers in critical race theory and immigration law/Politics". Identities. 20 (2): 172–189. doi:10.1080/1070289X.2012.763168. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1070289X.2012.763168" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1080/1070289X.2012.763168</a> <a href="#fnref:116" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:117">Borch, Christian; Wosnitzer, Robert (2020). The Routledge Handbook of Critical Finance Studies. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315114255. ISBN 9781315114255. <a href="9781315114255" target="_blank">9781315114255</a> <a href="#fnref:117" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:118">See, e.g., Hobden & Hobson 2002. - Hobden, Stephen; Hobson, John M., eds. (2002). Historical Sociology of International Relations. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80870-5. <a href="#fnref:118" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:119">See, e.g., van der Tuin & Dolphijn 2012; Coole & Frost 2010; Connolly 2013. - Van der Tuin, Iris; Dolphijn, Rick (2012). New Materialism: Interviews and Cartographies. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Open Humanities Press. doi:10.3998/ohp.11515701.0001.001. ISBN 978-1-60785-281-0. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3998%2Fohp.11515701.0001.001" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3998%2Fohp.11515701.0001.001</a> <a href="#fnref:119" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:120">Lynn, M; Solorzano, D; Parker, L (2002). "Critical race theory and education: Qualitative research in the new millennium". Qualitative Inquiry. 8 (1): 3–6. doi:10.1177/1077800402008001001. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:120" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:121">Wallace-Wells, Benjamin (18 June 2021). "How a Conservative Activist Invented the Conflict Over Critical Race Theory". The New Yorker. Retrieved 19 June 2021. <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/annals-of-inquiry/how-a-conservative-activist-invented-the-conflict-over-critical-race-theory" target="_blank">https://www.newyorker.com/news/annals-of-inquiry/how-a-conservative-activist-invented-the-conflict-over-critical-race-theory</a> <a href="#fnref:121" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:122">Meckler, Laura; Dawsey, Josh (21 June 2021). "Republicans, spurred by an unlikely figure, see political promise in critical race theory". The Washington Post. Vol. 144. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 19 June 2021. <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2021/06/19/critical-race-theory-rufo-republicans/" target="_blank">https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2021/06/19/critical-race-theory-rufo-republicans/</a> <a href="#fnref:122" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:123">Iati, Marisa (29 May 2021). "What is critical race theory, and why do Republicans want to ban it in schools?". The Washington Post. Rather than encouraging white people to feel guilty, Thomas said critical race theorists aim to shift focus away from individual people's bad actions and toward how systems uphold racial disparities. <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2021/05/29/critical-race-theory-bans-schools/" target="_blank">https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2021/05/29/critical-race-theory-bans-schools/</a> <a href="#fnref:123" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:124">Kahn, Chris (15 July 2021). "Many Americans embrace falsehoods about critical race theory". Reuters. Retrieved 22 January 2022. <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/us/many-americans-embrace-falsehoods-about-critical-race-theory-2021-07-15/" target="_blank">https://www.reuters.com/world/us/many-americans-embrace-falsehoods-about-critical-race-theory-2021-07-15/</a> <a href="#fnref:124" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:125">"Paulo Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed : Book Summary". The Educationist. 9 July 2014. Archived from the original on 28 March 2020. Retrieved 4 June 2020. <a href="http://www.theeducationist.info/paulo-freires-pedagogy-oppressed-book-summary/" target="_blank">http://www.theeducationist.info/paulo-freires-pedagogy-oppressed-book-summary/</a> <a href="#fnref:125" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:126">For a history of the emergence of critical theory in the field of education, see Gottesman, Isaac (2016). The Critical Turn in Education: From Marxist Critique to Postructuralist Feminism to Critical Theories of Race. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" target="_blank">/wiki/Routledge</a> <a href="#fnref:126" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:127">"Paulo Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed : Book Summary". The Educationist. 9 July 2014. Archived from the original on 28 March 2020. Retrieved 4 June 2020. <a href="http://www.theeducationist.info/paulo-freires-pedagogy-oppressed-book-summary/" target="_blank">http://www.theeducationist.info/paulo-freires-pedagogy-oppressed-book-summary/</a> <a href="#fnref:127" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:128">See, e.g., Kołakowski, Leszek. [1976] 1979. Main Currents of Marxism 3. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393329437. ch. 10. <a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" target="_blank">/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski</a> <a href="#fnref:128" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:129">Mustakova-Possardt, M (2003) "Is there a roadmap to critical consciousness? Critical Consciousness: A Study of Morality in Global, Historical Context." Archived 2013-09-22 at the Wayback Machine One Country. 15(2). <a href="http://onecountry.org/e152/e15216as_Review_Consciousness_story.htm" target="_blank">http://onecountry.org/e152/e15216as_Review_Consciousness_story.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:129" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:130">Online Dictionary of the Social Sciences, Critical Criminology. Athabasca University and ICAAP. Retrieved on: 2011-10-30. <a href="http://bitbucket.icaap.org/dict.pl?term=CRITICAL%20CRIMINOLOGY" target="_blank">http://bitbucket.icaap.org/dict.pl?term=CRITICAL%20CRIMINOLOGY</a> <a href="#fnref:130" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:131">Meyer, Doug (March 2014). "Resisting Hate Crime Discourse: Queer and Intersectional Challenges to Neoliberal Hate Crime Laws". Critical Criminology. 22 (1): 113–125. doi:10.1007/s10612-013-9228-x. S2CID 143546829. <a href="/wiki/Critical_Criminology_(journal)" target="_blank">/wiki/Critical_Criminology_(journal)</a> <a href="#fnref:131" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:132">Uggen, Christopher; Inderbitzin, Michelle (2010). "Public criminologies". Criminology & Public Policy. 9 (4): 725–749. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2010.00666.x. Uggen, C. and Inderbitzin, M. (2010), Public criminologies. Criminology & Public Policy, 9: 725-749. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2010.00666.x <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:132" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:133">Allen, Michael, et al. Critical Animal Studies and Social Justice: Critical Theory, Dismantling Speciesism, and Total Liberation. Rowman & Littlefield, 2022. <a href="#fnref:133" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:134">Taylor, Nik; Twine, Richard (2014). "Introduction: Locating the 'critical' in critical animal studies". The Rise of Critical Animal Studies: From the Margins to the Centre. Abingdon and New York: Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 978-0415858571. <a href="978-0415858571" target="_blank">978-0415858571</a> <a href="#fnref:134" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:135">"About". Institute for Critical Animal Studies (ICAS). Archived from the original on 27 August 2010. Retrieved 27 July 2020. <a href="http://www.criticalanimalstudies.org/about/" target="_blank">http://www.criticalanimalstudies.org/about/</a> <a href="#fnref:135" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:136">Nibert, David, ed. (2017). Animal Oppression and Capitalism. Praeger Publishing. p. xvii. ISBN 978-1440850738. <a href="978-1440850738" target="_blank">978-1440850738</a> <a href="#fnref:136" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:137">Original material adapted from presentation by M. Hanlon, School of Social Work, ACU <a href="/wiki/Australian_Catholic_University" target="_blank">/wiki/Australian_Catholic_University</a> <a href="#fnref:137" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:138">Soyini Madison, D. (2005). Critical ethnography: method, ethics, and performance. Retrieved from http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/4957_Madison_I_Proof_Chapter_1.pdf <a href="http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/4957_Madison_I_Proof_Chapter_1.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/4957_Madison_I_Proof_Chapter_1.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:138" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:139">Thomas, J. (1993). Doing critical ethnography. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. <a href="#fnref:139" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:140">Dalton, Craig; Thatcher, Jim (12 May 2014). "What does a Critical Data Studies look like and why do we care?". Society + Space. Retrieved 17 January 2018. <a href="https://www.societyandspace.org/articles/what-does-a-critical-data-studies-look-like-and-why-do-we-care" target="_blank">https://www.societyandspace.org/articles/what-does-a-critical-data-studies-look-like-and-why-do-we-care</a> <a href="#fnref:140" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:141">Vermeylen, Saskia (2019). "Special issue: environmental justice and epistemic violence". Local Environment. 24 (2): 89–93. Bibcode:2019LoEnv..24...89V. doi:10.1080/13549839.2018.1561658. ISSN 1354-9839. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:141" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:142">Jay, Martin (1996). The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research, 1923–1950. University of California Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0520204232. Archived from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 7 May 2020. <a href="978-0520204232" target="_blank">978-0520204232</a> <a href="#fnref:142" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:143">Corradetti, Claudio. "The Frankfurt School and Critical Theory". Archived 18 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/frankfur/#SH2a" target="_blank">https://www.iep.utm.edu/frankfur/#SH2a</a> <a href="#fnref:143" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:144">Bohmann, Ulf; Sörensen, Paul (20 June 2022). "Exploring a Critical Theory of politics". Civitas - Revista de Ciências Sociais. 22: e42204. doi:10.15448/1984-7289.2022.1.42204. ISSN 1984-7289. S2CID 249915438. <a href="https://revistaseletronicas.pucrs.br/index.php/civitas/article/view/42204" target="_blank">https://revistaseletronicas.pucrs.br/index.php/civitas/article/view/42204</a> <a href="#fnref:144" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:145">"Understanding Critical Theory". 3 November 2022. Retrieved 25 June 2023. <a href="https://www.simplypsychology.org/critical-theory.html" target="_blank">https://www.simplypsychology.org/critical-theory.html</a> <a href="#fnref:145" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:146">"9.8 PROBLEMS WITH CRITICAL THEORIES OF EDUCATION". members.aect.org. Retrieved 25 June 2023. <a href="https://members.aect.org/edtech/ed1/09/09-08.html" target="_blank">https://members.aect.org/edtech/ed1/09/09-08.html</a> <a href="#fnref:146" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:147">"Understanding Critical Theory". 3 November 2022. Retrieved 25 June 2023. <a href="https://www.simplypsychology.org/critical-theory.html" target="_blank">https://www.simplypsychology.org/critical-theory.html</a> <a href="#fnref:147" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:148">"9.8 PROBLEMS WITH CRITICAL THEORIES OF EDUCATION". members.aect.org. Retrieved 25 June 2023. <a href="https://members.aect.org/edtech/ed1/09/09-08.html" target="_blank">https://members.aect.org/edtech/ed1/09/09-08.html</a> <a href="#fnref:148" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:149">"9.8 PROBLEMS WITH CRITICAL THEORIES OF EDUCATION". members.aect.org. Retrieved 25 June 2023. <a href="https://members.aect.org/edtech/ed1/09/09-08.html" target="_blank">https://members.aect.org/edtech/ed1/09/09-08.html</a> <a href="#fnref:149" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:150">Pardy, Bruce (24 June 2023). "How Canada's secular religion of cultural self-hate took hold". National Post. <a href="https://nationalpost.com/opinion/bruce-pardy-how-canadas-secular-religion-of-cultural-self-hate-took-hold" target="_blank">https://nationalpost.com/opinion/bruce-pardy-how-canadas-secular-religion-of-cultural-self-hate-took-hold</a> <a href="#fnref:150" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:151">Danisch, Robert (10 January 2023). "The humanities should teach about how to make a better world, not just criticize the existing one". The Conversation. Retrieved 25 June 2023. <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-humanities-should-teach-about-how-to-make-a-better-world-not-just-criticize-the-existing-one-190634" target="_blank">https://theconversation.com/the-humanities-should-teach-about-how-to-make-a-better-world-not-just-criticize-the-existing-one-190634</a> <a href="#fnref:151" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Critical theory open-in-new

Critical theory