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Logic in Islamic philosophy
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<h2 id="islamic-law-and-theology">Islamic law and theology</h2> <p>Early forms of <a href="/facts/Analogy/LYcGaTdm">analogical reasoning</a>, <a href="/facts/Inductive_reasoning/EJ992JJ9">inductive reasoning</a> and categorical <a href="/facts/Syllogism/cgpmd6jB">syllogism</a> were introduced in <a href="/facts/Fiqh/YBmxekkY">Fiqh</a> (Islamic jurisprudence), <a href="/facts/Sharia/H9cG0yCF">Sharia</a> (Islamic law) and <a href="/facts/Kalam/86GebkgK">Kalam</a> (Islamic theology) from the 7th century with the process of <i><a href="/facts/Qiyas/rWe8mtVg">Qiyas</a></i>, before the Arabic translations of Aristotle's works. Later during the <a href="/facts/Islamic_Golden_Age/yAeG2rBA">Islamic Golden Age</a>, there was a logical debate among Islamic philosophers, logicians and theologians over whether the term <i>Qiyas</i> refers to analogical reasoning, inductive reasoning or categorical syllogism. Some Islamic scholars argued that <i>Qiyas</i> refers to inductive reasoning, which <a href="/facts/Ibn_Hazm/h72LYD7E">Ibn Hazm</a> (994-1064) disagreed with, arguing that <i>Qiyas</i> does not refer to inductive reasoning, but refers to categorical syllogism in a <a href="/facts/Reality/oC1xokDB">real</a> sense and analogical reasoning in a <a href="/facts/Metaphor/xwsLaqJI">metaphorical</a> sense. On the other hand, <a href="/facts/Al-Ghazali/haPCCftt">al-Ghazali</a> (1058–1111) and <a href="/facts/Ibn_Qudamah/9pYb1qhI">Ibn Qudamah al-Maqdisi</a> (1147-1223) argued that <i>Qiyas</i> refers to analogical reasoning in a real sense and categorical syllogism in a metaphorical sense. Other Islamic scholars at the time, however, argued that the term <i>Qiyas</i> refers to both analogical reasoning and categorical syllogism in a real sense.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="aristotelian-logic">Aristotelian logic</h2> <p>The first original Arabic writings on logic were produced by <a href="/facts/Al-Kindi/JBAlstwD">al-Kindi</a> (Alkindus) (805–873), who produced a summary on earlier logic up to his time. The first writings on logic with non-Aristotelian elements was produced by <a href="/facts/Al-Farabi/8tnl33pR">al-Farabi</a> (Alfarabi) (873–950), who discussed the topics of future <a href="/facts/Contingency_(philosophy)/cCyDDBmw">contingents</a>, the <a href="/facts/Number/auQSAE2m">number</a> and relation of the <a href="/facts/Categories_(Aristotle)/RhVSFAIG">categories</a>, the relation between <a href="/facts/Logic/8JnpJLtt">logic</a> and <a href="/facts/Grammar/vprQsHIR">grammar</a>, and non-Aristotelian forms of <a href="/facts/Inference/RBbe95bP">inference</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> He is also credited for categorizing logic into two separate groups, the first being "idea" and the second being "<a href="/facts/Logical_argument/1K1e3Xg4">proof</a>". </p><p><a href="/facts/Averroes/kPezHDV7">Averroes</a> (1126–98) was the last major logician from <a href="/facts/Al-Andalus/JTNmWTzP">al-Andalus</a>, who wrote the most elaborate commentaries on Aristotelian logic.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="avicennian-logic">Avicennian logic</h2> <p>Avicenna (980–1037) developed his own system of logic known as "Avicennian logic" as an alternative to Aristotelian logic. By the 12th century, Avicennian logic had replaced Aristotelian logic as the dominant system of logic in the Islamic world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p><p>The first criticisms of Aristotelian logic were written by Avicenna, who produced independent treatises on logic rather than commentaries. He criticized the logical school of Baghdad for their devotion to Aristotle at the time. He investigated the theory of <a href="/facts/Definition/5SlGKKDJ">definition</a> and <a href="/facts/Classification_theorems/NWGgtNm6">classification</a> and the <a href="/facts/Quantification_(logic)/bgmvwxoo">quantification</a> of the <a href="/facts/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)/5WazAvKF">predicates</a> of categorical <a href="/facts/Proposition_(philosophy)/0877MFMD">propositions</a>, and developed an original theory on "<a href="/facts/Temporal_logic/vANP39lc">temporal</a> <a href="/facts/Modal_logic/I7uXvYYT">modal</a>" syllogism. Its premises included <a href="/facts/Grammatical_modifier/BRk4Hoxs">modifiers</a> such as "at all times", "at most times", and "at some time". </p><p>While Avicenna often relied on <a href="/facts/Deductive_reasoning/HadA1zWS">deductive reasoning</a> in philosophy, he used a different approach in medicine. Avicenna contributed inventively to the development of <a href="/facts/Inductive_reasoning/EJ992JJ9">inductive logic</a>, which he used to pioneer the idea of a <a href="/facts/Syndrome/JFVb3x8f">syndrome</a>. In his medical writings, Avicenna was the first to describe the <a href="/facts/Mill%2527s_Methods/JYQRRhAn">methods of agreement, difference and concomitant variation</a> which are critical to inductive logic and the <a href="/facts/Scientific_method/182j8RWE">scientific method</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Ibn_Hazm/h72LYD7E">Ibn Hazm</a> (994–1064) wrote the <i>Scope of Logic</i>, in which he stressed on the importance of <a href="/facts/Sense/n9kYQ3rf">sense</a> <a href="/facts/Perception/xLK0n2q4">perception</a> as a source of knowledge.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Al-Ghazali/haPCCftt">Al-Ghazali</a> (Algazel) (1058–1111) had an important influence on the use of logic in theology, making use of Avicennian logic in <a href="/facts/Kalam/86GebkgK">Kalam</a>. </p><p><a href="/facts/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi/sfstIFsD">Fakhr al-Din al-Razi</a> (b. 1149) criticised Aristotle's "<a href="/facts/Syllogism/cgpmd6jB">first figure</a>" and developed a form of <a href="/facts/Inductive_reasoning/EJ992JJ9">inductive logic</a>, foreshadowing the system of inductive logic developed by <a href="/facts/John_Stuart_Mill/0QxUR9l7">John Stuart Mill</a> (1806–1873). Systematic refutations of Greek logic were written by the <a href="/facts/Illuminationist_philosophy/3AsaQJXW">Illuminationist school</a>, founded by <a href="/facts/Shahab_al-Din_Suhrawardi/oAkwh5mk">Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi</a> (1155–1191), who developed the idea of "decisive <a href="/facts/Modal_logic/I7uXvYYT">necessity</a>", an important innovation in the history of logical philosophical speculation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> Another systematic refutation of Greek logic was written by <a href="/facts/Ibn_Taymiyyah/UIRPbN8T">Ibn Taymiyyah</a> (1263–1328), the <i>Ar-Radd 'ala al-Mantiqiyyin</i> (<i>Refutation of Greek Logicians</i>), where he argued against the usefulness, though not the validity, of the <a href="/facts/Syllogism/cgpmd6jB">syllogism</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> and in favour of <a href="/facts/Inductive_reasoning/EJ992JJ9">inductive reasoning</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Early_Islamic_philosophy/q5begGMk">Early Islamic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/History_of_logic/jsrwpsH0">History of logic</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Qiyas/rWe8mtVg">Qiyas</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Ijtihad/ybz5zRJv">Ijtihad</a></li></ul> <h2 id="bibliography">Bibliography</h2> <ul><li>Rescher, Nicholas 1964. <i>Studies in the History of Arabic Logic</i>, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Nicholas_Rescher/R1p2wxR1">Rescher, Nicholas</a> (1966). <a href="https://archive.org/details/temporalmodaliti0000resc"><i>Temporal Modalities in Arabic Logic</i></a>. Dordrecht: Reidel.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/av-logic">"Avicenna (Ibn Sina): Logic"</a>. <i><a href="/facts/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy/tmS0Sylv">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Routledge_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy/3aH025Y7">Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>: <a href="http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/H017">Logic in Islamic philosophy</a>, Routledge, 1998</li> <li><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H017">Logic in Islamic philosophyby Deborah L. Black</a> Muslimphilosophy.com:</li> <li><a href="https://www.historyoflogic.com/logic-islamic.htm">Ancient Islamic (Arabic and Persian) Logic and Ontology</a>, at Raul Corazzon's <i>History of Logic</i>.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>• Treiger, Alexander (2016) [2014]. "Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period - Origins of Kalām". In Schmidtke, Sabine (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 27–43. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.001. ISBN 9780199696703. LCCN 2016935488. • Abrahamov, Binyamin (2016) [2014]. "Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period - Scripturalist and Traditionalist Theology". In Schmidtke, Sabine (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 264–279. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.025. ISBN 9780199696703. LCCN 2016935488. <a href="97801996967039780199696703" target="_blank">97801996967039780199696703</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Muzaffar Iqbal, Science and Islam, p. 120. From the Greenwood Guides to Science and Religion Series. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. ISBN 9780313335761 <a href="/wiki/Muzaffar_Iqbal" target="_blank">/wiki/Muzaffar_Iqbal</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Al-Shafi'i, al-Risala, Bulaq, 1321; ed. Sheikh Ahmad Muhammad Shakir, Cairo, 1940 (ed. Shakir), 55 <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Schacht, Joseph (1959) [1950]. The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press. pp. 37–8. <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Mustapha, Ariyanti; Nazri, Mohammed Arif (January 2022). "The Golden and Dark Ages of Islamic Jurisprudence: Analyzing the Orientalist Thought". QALAM International Journal of Islamic and Humanities Research. 2 (3): 9–17. ISSN 2773-6334. Archived from the original on 10 March 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2023. <a href="https://nunjournal.com/index.php/qalam/article/view/71" target="_blank">https://nunjournal.com/index.php/qalam/article/view/71</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>El-Bizri, Nader (September 2005). "A philosophical perspective on Alhazen's optics". Arabic Sciences and Philosophy. 15 (2): 189–218. doi:10.1017/S0957423905000172. S2CID 123057532. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Mutahhari, Murtada (2 March 2013). "The Principles of Ijtihad in Islam". Retrieved 1 May 2013. <a href="http://www.al-islam.org/al-serat/ijtihad.htm" target="_blank">http://www.al-islam.org/al-serat/ijtihad.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Haq, Syed Nomanul (22 December 2009). "Science in Islam". Islam & Science. 7 (2): 151–159. Gale A217042312. <a href="/wiki/Gale_(publisher)" target="_blank">/wiki/Gale_(publisher)</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Wael B. Hallaq (1993), Ibn Taymiyya Against the Greek Logicians, p. 48. Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-824043-0. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>History of logic: Arabic logic, Encyclopædia Britannica. <a href="http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-65928" target="_blank">http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-65928</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Fakhry, Majid (July 30, 2001). Averroes (Ibn Rushd) His Life, Works and Influence. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1851682690. Retrieved September 28, 2023. <a href="978-1851682690" target="_blank">978-1851682690</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>I. M. Bochenski (1961), "On the history of the history of logic", A history of formal logic, pp. 4–10. Translated by I. Thomas, Notre Dame, Indiana University Press. (cf. Ancient Islamic (Arabic and Persian) Logic and Ontology) <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" target="_blank">/wiki/Indiana_University_Press</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Strobino, Riccardo (August 15, 2018). "Ibn Sina's Logic". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2018 Edition). Retrieved January 30, 2024. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-sina-logic/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-sina-logic/</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), Islamic Humanism, p. 155, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-513580-6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Science and Muslim Scientists Archived 2007-10-20 at the Wayback Machine, Islam Herald. <a href="http://www.islamherald.com/asp/explore/science/science_muslim_scientists.asp" target="_blank">http://www.islamherald.com/asp/explore/science/science_muslim_scientists.asp</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Science and Muslim Scientists Archived 2007-10-20 at the Wayback Machine, Islam Herald. <a href="http://www.islamherald.com/asp/explore/science/science_muslim_scientists.asp" target="_blank">http://www.islamherald.com/asp/explore/science/science_muslim_scientists.asp</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>See pp. 253–254 of Street, Tony (2005), "Logic", in Peter Adamson; Richard C. Taylor (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, pp. 247–265, ISBN 978-0-521-52069-0 <a href="978-0-521-52069-0" target="_blank">978-0-521-52069-0</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Iqbal, Muhammad (1930), "The Spirit of Muslim Culture", The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, retrieved 2008-01-25 <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" target="_blank">/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>