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Opera in German
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<h2 id="baroque-era">Baroque era</h2> <h3>Birth</h3> <p>The world's first opera was <i><a href="/facts/Dafne/jDGvhwn5">Dafne</a></i> by <a href="/facts/Jacopo_Peri/F3UpIwVI">Jacopo Peri</a>, which appeared in <a href="/facts/Florence/Mx0uhNma">Florence</a> in 1598. Three decades later <a href="/facts/Heinrich_Sch%25C3%25BCtz/BVDyEP86">Heinrich Schütz</a> set the same <a href="/facts/Libretto/Nt8PWhWk">libretto</a> in a translation by the poet <a href="/facts/Martin_Opitz/Td1M305m">Martin Opitz</a>, thus creating the first ever German-language opera. The music to Schütz's <i><a href="/facts/Dafne_(Opitz-Sch%25C3%25BCtz)/S9JrwEtY">Dafne</a></i> is now lost and details of the performance are sketchy, but it is known to have been written to celebrate the marriage of Landgrave Georg II of <a href="/facts/Landgraviate_of_Hesse-Darmstadt/Vho9PgGG">Hessen-Darmstadt</a> to Princess Sophia Eleonora of <a href="/facts/Saxony/PrKscwCP">Saxony</a> in <a href="/facts/Torgau/VXaQW5AK">Torgau</a> in 1627. As in Italy, the first patrons of opera in Germany and Austria were royalty and the nobility, and they tended to favour composers and singers from south of the Alps. <a href="/facts/Antonio_Cesti/Nu6KyFLu">Antonio Cesti</a> was particularly successful, providing the huge operatic extravaganza <i><a href="/facts/Il_pomo_d%2527oro/59C0zJ1W">Il pomo d'oro</a></i> for the imperial court in <a href="/facts/Vienna/NSpIURsA">Vienna</a> in 1668. Opera in Italian would continue to exercise a considerable sway over German-speaking lands throughout the Baroque and Classical periods. Nevertheless, native forms were developing too. In <a href="/facts/Nuremberg/Bht6TsP4">Nuremberg</a> in 1644, <a href="/facts/Sigmund_Theophil_Staden/pgF6954G">Sigmund Staden</a> produced the "spiritual pastorale", <i><a href="/facts/Seelewig/sMDJEBju">Seelewig</a></i>, which foreshadows the <i><a href="/facts/Singspiel/DAuy8dt7">Singspiel</a></i>, a genre of German-language opera in which arias alternate with spoken dialogue. <i>Seelewig</i> was a moral allegory inspired by the example of contemporary school dramas and is the first German opera whose music has survived.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> </p> <h3>Hamburg 1678–1738</h3> <p>Another important development was the founding of the <a href="/facts/Oper_am_G%25C3%25A4nsemarkt/dznrFzqr">Theater am Gänsemarkt</a> in <a href="/facts/Hamburg/kmAAsYtT">Hamburg</a> in 1678, aimed at the local middle classes who preferred opera in their own language. The new opera house opened with a performance of <a href="/facts/Johann_Theile/eGMkzlNP">Johann Theile</a>'s <i>Der erschaffene, gefallene und aufgerichtete Mensch</i>, based on the story of <a href="/facts/Adam_and_Eve/PBKg3IDE">Adam and Eve</a>. The theatre, however, would come to be dominated by the works of <a href="/facts/Reinhard_Keiser/rBPJEwbD">Reinhard Keiser</a>, an enormously prolific composer who wrote over a hundred operas, sixty of them for Hamburg. Initially, the works performed in Hamburg had all been on religious themes in an attempt to ward off criticisms by <a href="/facts/Pietism/KI9nYduD">Pietist</a> church authorities that the theatre was immoral, but Keiser and fellow composers such as <a href="/facts/Johann_Mattheson/GwSNgeSz">Johann Mattheson</a> broadened the range of subject matter to include the historical and the mythological. Keiser drew on foreign operatic traditions, for instance he included dances after the model of the French tradition of <a href="/facts/Jean-Baptiste_Lully/4tqvCdM7">Lully</a>. The <a href="/facts/Recitative/I17AlSIe">recitative</a> in his operas was always in German so the audience could follow the plot, but from <i>Claudius</i> in 1703 he began to include arias in Italian which allowed for florid vocal display. The hallmark of the Hamburg style was its eclecticism. <i><a href="/facts/Orpheus_(Telemann)/sh3Bh0ov">Orpheus</a></i> (1726) by <a href="/facts/Georg_Philipp_Telemann/AEwgm9r4">Telemann</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> contains arias in Italian setting texts taken from famous <a href="/facts/George_Frideric_Handel/jVAUntvy">Handel</a> operas as well as choruses in French to words originally set by Lully. Hamburg opera might also include comic characters (Keiser's <i>Der Carneval von Venedig</i> of 1707 has them speaking in the local Lower Saxon dialect), marking a great contrast to the elevated new style of <a href="/facts/Opera_seria/k1TQIr4h">opera seria</a> as defined by <a href="/facts/Metastasio/W2eFPoQg">Metastasio</a>. Yet the immediate future belonged to Italian opera. The most famous German-born opera composer of the era, Handel, wrote four operas for Hamburg at the beginning of his career but soon moved on to write opera seria in Italy and England.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> In 1738, the Theater am Gänsemarkt went bankrupt and the fortunes of serious opera in German went into decline for the next few decades.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p><p>Other early opera houses in Germany included the <a href="/facts/Oper_am_Br%25C3%25BChl/hlx0Q86U">Oper am Brühl</a> in <a href="/facts/Leipzig/KIqgMgLN">Leipzig</a> and the <a href="/facts/Opernhaus_vorm_Salztor/aUJc1dlJ">Opernhaus vorm Salztor</a> in <a href="/facts/Naumburg_(Saale)/6kPqsoV9">Naumburg</a> in 1701. Both played during the trade fairs in the towns, presenting both German and Italian opera, and a combination of both. While the house in Leipzig was financed by the town of Leipzig, the house in Naumburg was initiated and supported by the ruler, <a href="/facts/Moritz_Wilhelm%2c_Duke_of_Saxe-Zeitz/W6dYjoum">Moritz Wilhelm, Duke of Saxe-Zeitz</a>, but offered public performances. </p> <h3><i>Opera seria</i>, <i>Singspiel</i>, melodrama, early serious German opera</h3> <p>The other leading German composers of the time tended to follow Handel's example. This was because the courts of the various German states favoured opera in Italian. In 1730 the chief proponent of opera seria, the Italian librettist <a href="/facts/Metastasio/W2eFPoQg">Metastasio</a>, took up residence as the imperial poet in Vienna. <a href="/facts/Johann_Adolph_Hasse/W0DEdLlR">Johann Adolph Hasse</a> wrote operas in Italian for the court of the Elector of <a href="/facts/Saxony/PrKscwCP">Saxony</a> in <a href="/facts/Dresden/nKVXxIgq">Dresden</a>. Hasse also wrote operas for the court of <a href="/facts/Frederick_the_Great/Bv1At4Hy">Frederick the Great</a> in Berlin, as did <a href="/facts/Carl_Heinrich_Graun/dndhelEu">Carl Heinrich Graun</a>. The king himself supplied the libretto for Graun's <i><a href="/facts/Montezuma_(Graun)/grydVF1J">Montezuma</a></i>, first performed in 1755. </p> <p>Deprived of aristocratic patronage until the mid-1770s, opera in German was forced to look to the general public to survive. This meant theatrical companies had to tour from town to town. The <i><a href="/facts/Singspiel/DAuy8dt7">Singspiel</a></i> became the most popular form of German opera, especially in the hands of the composer <a href="/facts/Johann_Adam_Hiller/Fu41MAAU">Johann Adam Hiller</a>. Hiller's 1766 reworking of the <i>Singspiel Die verwandelten Weiber</i> was a landmark in the history of the genre, although his most famous work would be <i><a href="/facts/Die_Jagd/hPTmUne5">Die Jagd</a></i> (1770). These <i>Singspiele</i> were comedies mixing spoken dialogue and singing, influenced by the similar genres of the <a href="/facts/Ballad_opera/SAb1SnaH">ballad opera</a> in England and the <a href="/facts/Op%25C3%25A9ra_comique/mKGey8of">opéra comique</a> in France. Often having sentimental plots and extremely simple music, <i>Singspiele</i> were no match for contemporary opera serias in artistic sophistication. </p><p>The 1770s marked an important decade in the history of German-language opera. The theatre company of <a href="/facts/Abel_Seyler/8Wf6qe1A">Abel Seyler</a> pioneered serious German-language opera, and Seyler commissioned operas by Hiller, <a href="/facts/Georg_Benda/YaadejGS">Georg Benda</a>, <a href="/facts/Anton_Schweitzer/a5rzoEV2">Anton Schweitzer</a> and other composers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a>[11] A milestone of German opera was <a href="/facts/Anton_Schweitzer/a5rzoEV2">Anton Schweitzer</a>'s <i><a href="/facts/Alceste_(Schweitzer)/545x0dq8">Alceste</a></i>, with a libretto by <a href="/facts/Christoph_Martin_Wieland/0mdrkwqx">Wieland</a> and commissioned by Seyler, which premiered in 1773 in <a href="/facts/Weimar/b18pDg1Q">Weimar</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> <i>Alceste</i> was called "a model for German opera" by <a href="/facts/Ernst_Christoph_Dressler/fE0yhwM6">Ernst Christoph Dressler</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> and has been described as the first serious German opera.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> It was also in the 1770s that composers, like <a href="/facts/Georg_Benda/YaadejGS">Georg Benda</a>, began experimenting with <a href="/facts/Melodrama/el10jRSb">melodrama</a>, a type of music theatre which some commentators saw as a viable alternative to opera.[15] Early melodramas that proved popular with theatre troupes throughout German-speaking Europe included Benda's <i><a href="/facts/Ariadne_auf_Naxos_(Benda)/YhNl3ceW">Ariadne auf Naxos</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Medea_(Benda)/RSh34rj6">Medea</a></i> (both premiered in 1775). Other important contributions to a growing repertoire of German operas appeared shortly after. This includes <i><a href="/facts/G%25C3%25BCnther_von_Schwarzburg_(opera)/lrLESWXm">Günther von Schwarzburg</a></i>, a through-composed opera noted then as now for its topic taken from German history, by composer <a href="/facts/Ignaz_Holzbauer/oL87jEGC">Ignaz Holzbauer</a> and librettist Anton Klein which premiered in 1777. An increasing amount of operas originally set to Italian and French texts by composers like <a href="/facts/Andr%25C3%25A9_Gr%25C3%25A9try/shz1sGcv">André Ernest Modeste Grétry</a> were translated and adopted for performance in German. By the end of the decade, German opera could be heard throughout Central Europe owing in part to travelling theatres and German states that began supporting <i>Nationaltheater</i> that further developed the repertoire, such as those founded in <a href="/facts/Mannheim_National_Theatre/DXzvVXEN">Mannheim</a> and Vienna.[15] Alongside those already mentioned above, notable composers of German-language opera from the 1770s and 1780s include <a href="/facts/Johann_Andr%25C3%25A9/HyUbdt6U">Johann André</a>, <a href="/facts/Carl_Ditters_von_Dittersdorf/Kucvyjxj">Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf</a>, <a href="/facts/Christian_Gottlob_Neefe/PFzcnoew">Christian Gottlob Neefe</a>, <a href="/facts/Ignaz_Umlauf/eTmahweC">Ignaz Umlauf</a>, and <a href="/facts/Ernst_Wilhelm_Wolf/gmFoIYzX">Ernst Wilhelm Wolf</a>. With successful works that appeared on stages across Germany, like <i><a href="/facts/Doktor_und_Apotheker/VzHUsCHV">Der Doktor und Apotheker</a></i>, Ditters was a particularly successful composer of German opera between the mid-1780s and mid-1790s. </p> <h2 id="classical-era">Classical era</h2> <h3>Mozart's <i>Singspiele</i></h3> <p>At the end of the 18th century, a composer who would permanently change the German operatic tradition would emerge: <a href="/facts/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart/2X5fm67T">Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> The great figure of the early Classical period was <a href="/facts/Christoph_Willibald_Gluck/edTfawJd">Christoph Willibald Gluck</a> but his pioneering reforms were directed at Italian and French opera, not the German repertoire. In 1778, <a href="/facts/Emperor_Joseph_II/cvj6srA1">Emperor Joseph II</a> attempted to change this state of affairs by establishing a German-language opera troupe, the National Singspiel, at the <a href="/facts/Burgtheater/nLlB1w0b">Burgtheater</a> in Vienna. The experiment was short-lived and the troupe was dissolved in 1783, yet the previous year it had produced one undoubted success with <i><a href="/facts/Die_Entf%25C3%25BChrung_aus_dem_Serail/2Lk7khFI">Die Entführung aus dem Serail</a></i> by the young <a href="/facts/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart/2X5fm67T">Mozart</a>. <a href="/facts/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe/k5hW4Tw5">Goethe</a> immediately recognised the quality of the piece, declaring "it knocked us all sideways". In the following years commercial theatres sprang up in Vienna offering German-language opera. The impresario <a href="/facts/Emanuel_Schikaneder/Hh1V8sJf">Emanuel Schikaneder</a> had particular success with his <a href="/facts/Theater_auf_der_Wieden/uXkQDXzn">Theater auf der Wieden</a> on the outskirts of the city. In 1791, Mozart set one of his libretti, <i><a href="/facts/The_Magic_Flute/XRA9fn1s">The Magic Flute</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> Although it appeared in the context of other popular Viennese magic operas (<i>Zauberopern</i>), like <a href="/facts/Wenzel_M%25C3%25BCller/TgcJFYPY">Wenzel Müller</a>'s <i>Der Fagottist [de]</i>, Mozart's proved to be no ordinary <i>Singspiel</i>. Though the traditional farcical elements remained, Mozart added a new seriousness, particularly in the music for Sarastro and his priests. Even more than <i>Die Entführung</i>, the <i>Magic Flute</i> pointed the way forward for future German opera, especially according to later commentators.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> </p> <h3>Beethoven and <i>Fidelio</i></h3> <p>The greatest German composer of the next generation, <a href="/facts/Ludwig_van_Beethoven/eusBgBkA">Beethoven</a>, seized on <i>The Magic Flute'</i>s blend of domestic comedy and high seriousness for his only opera, <i><a href="/facts/Fidelio/cRXDtFJI">Fidelio</a></i>, the story of a devoted wife who saves her husband from political imprisonment. The years following the <a href="/facts/French_Revolution/PIkDlrC0">French Revolution</a> of 1789 had been some of the most turbulent in European history. In <i>Fidelio</i>, Beethoven wanted to express the ideals of that Revolution: liberty, equality and fraternity. He was also inspired by contemporary French works, particularly the <a href="/facts/Rescue_opera/rKjwkhrj">rescue operas</a> of <a href="/facts/Luigi_Cherubini/WM0nWkWG">Luigi Cherubini</a>. Beethoven was arguably not a natural composer of opera and, although <i>Fidelio</i> was premiered in 1805, it was not until 1814 that he produced its final version. Nevertheless, Fidelio is widely regarded as a masterpiece and is one of the key works in the German repertoire.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="german-romantic-opera">German Romantic opera</h2> <h3>Early Romanticism</h3> <p>In the early years of the nineteenth century, the vast cultural movement known as <a href="/facts/Romanticism/lfG31kE3">Romanticism</a> began to exert an influence over German composers. The Romantics showed a keen interest in the <a href="/facts/Middle_Ages/RqzEKB9v">Middle Ages</a> as well as German folklore. The fairy tale collections of the <a href="/facts/Brothers_Grimm/HCD2zJF8">Brothers Grimm</a> and the rediscovered Medieval German epic the <i><a href="/facts/Nibelungenlied/e5vjPBsk">Nibelungenlied</a></i> were major sources of inspiration for the movement. There was also often a quest for a distinctively German identity, influenced by the new <a href="/facts/Nationalism/IECpIhm0">nationalism</a> which had arisen in the wake of the <a href="/facts/Napoleon/8TKBIjPM">Napoleonic</a> invasions. Romanticism was already firmly established in German literature with writers such as <a href="/facts/Ludwig_Tieck/M1aMTj40">Tieck</a>, <a href="/facts/Novalis/A8bRLBXJ">Novalis</a>, <a href="/facts/Joseph_Freiherr_von_Eichendorff/ChH3Tgbt">Eichendorff</a> and <a href="/facts/Clemens_Brentano/N80Vun4V">Clemens Brentano</a>. One of the most famous German Romantic authors, <a href="/facts/E._T._A._Hoffmann/aRqGQawX">E. T. A. Hoffmann</a>, was also a music theorist and a composer in his own right and in 1816 he produced an opera, <i>Undine</i>, in Berlin. Another important early Romantic opera was <i><a href="/facts/Faust_(Spohr)/WPBtxT6P">Faust</a></i> by <a href="/facts/Louis_Spohr/pv7vGGhW">Louis Spohr</a> (also 1816). Both Hoffmann and Spohr took the basic form of the <i>Singspiel</i> as their starting point but began to group the individual numbers into extended scenes. They also employed "reminiscence motifs", recurring musical themes associated with characters or concepts in the opera, which would pave the way for <a href="/facts/Richard_Wagner/XoFH4v69">Wagner's</a> use of the <a href="/facts/Leitmotif/dphP0llW">leitmotif</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p> <h3>Weber</h3> <p>The major breakthrough in the history of German Romantic opera was <i><a href="/facts/Der_Freisch%25C3%25BCtz/HPCAQJLQ">Der Freischütz</a></i> by <a href="/facts/Carl_Maria_von_Weber/1BVp5JJR">Carl Maria von Weber</a>, premiered in Berlin on 18 June 1821. Weber resented the Europe-wide dominance of the Italian operas of <a href="/facts/Gioachino_Rossini/sVKQoHhR">Rossini</a> and wanted to establish a uniquely German style of opera. He turned to German folk songs and folklore for inspiration; <i>Der Freischütz</i> is based on a tale from the <i><a href="/facts/Gespensterbuch/s5559Soh">Gespensterbuch</a></i> ("Book of Wraiths") of Apel and Laun concerning a marksman who makes a pact with the Devil. Weber's strong point was his striking ability to evoke atmosphere through orchestral colour. From the very first bars of the overture, it is obvious we are in the primeval forests of Germany. The highlight of the opera is the chilling Wolf's Glen Scene in which the hero Max makes his deal with the Devil. <i>Der Freischütz</i> was immensely popular, not only in Germany, but throughout Europe. Weber never really achieved his full potential as an opera composer due to his early death from tuberculosis and his poor choice of libretti. His major German opera after <i>Der Freischütz</i>, <i><a href="/facts/Euryanthe/jocP20Dk">Euryanthe</a></i> (1823), suffers from a particularly weak text and is rarely staged nowadays. Yet <i>Euryanthe</i> marks another important stage in the development of serious German opera. Weber completely eliminated spoken dialogue, producing a "through-composed" work where the distinction between recitative and aria is becoming blurred. Its lessons would not be lost on future composers, including <a href="/facts/Richard_Wagner/XoFH4v69">Richard Wagner</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> </p> <h3>Other composers of the time</h3> <p>Weber's most important successor in the field of Romantic opera was <a href="/facts/Heinrich_Marschner/0BhE1lBH">Heinrich Marschner</a>, who further explored the <a href="/facts/Gothic_art/zsR9z4WC">Gothic</a> and the supernatural in works such as <i><a href="/facts/Der_Vampyr/3GtL30wH">Der Vampyr</a></i> (1828) and <i><a href="/facts/Hans_Heiling/SC2Kj5nX">Hans Heiling</a></i> (1833). On the other hand, it was with comic opera that <a href="/facts/Albert_Lortzing/Cs6H08Rc">Albert Lortzing</a> scored his biggest successes. The popularity of pieces such as <i><a href="/facts/Zar_und_Zimmermann/EV2EJRxU">Zar und Zimmermann</a></i> continues in Germany today, though Lortzing's operas are rarely staged abroad. Though he began in Germany, <a href="/facts/Giacomo_Meyerbeer/G93pkaKx">Giacomo Meyerbeer</a> was more famous for his contributions to Italian and (especially) French opera. He fused elements from all three national styles into his conception of <a href="/facts/Grand_opera/ra2D1nFa">grand opera</a>, which had an important influence on the development of German music, including Wagner's early works. Other notable operas of the time include <i><a href="/facts/Die_lustigen_Weiber_von_Windsor/7kL7tdcV">Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor</a></i> (1849) by <a href="/facts/Otto_Nicolai/xLtItXjz">Otto Nicolai</a> and <i><a href="/facts/Martha_(opera)/v71U776s">Martha</a></i> (1847) by <a href="/facts/Friedrich_von_Flotow/lUq9fhLp">Friedrich von Flotow</a>. Later came <a href="/facts/Peter_Cornelius/7CEmtavh">Peter Cornelius</a> (<i><a href="/facts/Der_Barbier_von_Bagdad/dj1tgx2U">Der Barbier von Bagdad</a></i>, 1858), <a href="/facts/Hermann_Goetz/e41QRhd9">Hermann Goetz</a> (<i><a href="/facts/Der_Widersp%25C3%25A4nstigen_Z%25C3%25A4hmung/c1E4ucFJ">Der Widerspänstigen Zähmung</a></i>, 1874) and <a href="/facts/Karl_Goldmark/JPzxd9E7">Karl Goldmark</a> (<i><a href="/facts/Die_K%25C3%25B6nigin_von_Saba/pYDLBKmE">Die Königin von Saba</a></i>, 1875). </p><p>Mention should be made of two great composers of the era who wrote their major works in other genres yet also composed operas: <a href="/facts/Franz_Schubert/M5UAjUp7">Franz Schubert</a> and <a href="/facts/Robert_Schumann/tafbz8oo">Robert Schumann</a>. Schubert wrote over a dozen operas, mostly in the <i>Singspiel</i> style. Hardly any were performed during the composer's lifetime. Schumann only wrote one opera, <i><a href="/facts/Genoveva/uDzEj57A">Genoveva</a></i>, first staged in <a href="/facts/Leipzig/KIqgMgLN">Leipzig</a> in 1850. Though praised by <a href="/facts/Franz_Liszt/Ihep88h9">Liszt</a>, it failed to win lasting success. The verdict on both these composer's operas has generally been that, though they contain excellent music, they have too many dramatic weaknesses to be acclaimed as great stage works.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="wagner">Wagner</h2> <p><a href="/facts/Richard_Wagner/XoFH4v69">Richard Wagner</a> was one of the most revolutionary and controversial composers in musical history and his innovations changed the course of opera, not just in Germany and Austria but throughout Europe. Wagner gradually evolved a new concept of opera as a <i><a href="/facts/Gesamtkunstwerk/VCXlfcyA">Gesamtkunstwerk</a></i> (a "complete work of art"), a fusion of music, poetry and painting. His earliest experiments followed the examples set by <a href="/facts/Carl_Maria_von_Weber/1BVp5JJR">Weber</a> (<i><a href="/facts/Die_Feen/nLH1Ic0L">Die Feen</a></i>) and Meyerbeer (<i><a href="/facts/Rienzi/oeCMtGuq">Rienzi</a></i>), but his most important formative influence was probably the <a href="/facts/Symphony/mwmt5ndW">symphonic</a> music of <a href="/facts/Ludwig_van_Beethoven/eusBgBkA">Beethoven</a>. Wagner believed his career truly began with <i><a href="/facts/Der_fliegende_Holl%25C3%25A4nder/pHYD4dFN">Der fliegende Holländer</a></i> (1843). Together with the two works which followed, <i><a href="/facts/Tannh%25C3%25A4user_(opera)/WMulY1Ks">Tannhäuser</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Lohengrin_(opera)/KF22w5jc">Lohengrin</a></i>, this has been described as the "zenith of German Romantic opera".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> Yet these were merely a prelude to even more radical developments. In his mature dramas, <i><a href="/facts/Tristan_und_Isolde/X5HPH5Xm">Tristan und Isolde</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Die_Meistersinger_von_N%25C3%25BCrnberg/NKVfSn4s">Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Der_Ring_des_Nibelungen/tsRqtalA">Der Ring des Nibelungen</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Parsifal/9HtrNu8E">Parsifal</a></i>, Wagner abolished the distinction between <a href="/facts/Aria/qrrLEAqm">aria</a> and <a href="/facts/Recitative/I17AlSIe">recitative</a> in favour of a seamless flow of "<a href="/facts/Endless_melody/TUBCd8RY">endless melody</a>". He greatly increased the role and power of the orchestra, creating scores with a complex web of <a href="/facts/Leitmotif/dphP0llW">leitmotifs</a>; and he was prepared to violate accepted musical conventions, such as <a href="/facts/Tonality/vBJp7QcT">tonality</a>, in his quest for greater expressivity. Wagner also brought a new philosophical dimension to opera in his works, which were usually based on stories from <a href="/facts/Germanic_mythology/YQ88aByp">Germanic</a> or <a href="/facts/Arthurian/JDyRQ8gx">Arthurian</a> legend. Finally, Wagner built his own opera house at <a href="/facts/Bayreuth/YtaWvrgl">Bayreuth</a>, exclusively dedicated to performing his own works in the style he wanted.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="late-romantic-opera">Late Romantic opera</h2> <h3>After Wagner</h3> <p>Wagner's innovations cast an immense shadow over subsequent composers, who struggled to absorb his influence while retaining their own individuality. One of the most successful composers of the following generation was <a href="/facts/Engelbert_Humperdinck_(composer)/Hpc5JQsn">Humperdinck</a>, whose <i><a href="/facts/H%25C3%25A4nsel_und_Gretel_(opera)/2hNysPAI">Hänsel und Gretel</a></i> (1893) still has an assured place in the standard repertoire. Humperdinck turned back to folk song and the tales of the <a href="/facts/Brothers_Grimm/HCD2zJF8">Brothers Grimm</a> for inspiration. Yet, though <i>Hänsel</i> is often viewed as the ideal piece for introducing opera to children, it also has extraordinarily sophisticated orchestration and makes great use of leitmotifs, both tell-tale signs of Wagner's influence. </p><p>Other composers of the era who tried their hand at opera include <a href="/facts/Hugo_Wolf/XISYYJsB">Hugo Wolf</a> (<i><a href="/facts/Der_Corregidor/RUBbooVf">Der Corregidor</a></i>, 1896) and Wagner's own son <a href="/facts/Siegfried_Wagner/uAA3yoq4">Siegfried</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p> <h3>Richard Strauss</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Richard_Strauss/NjuRNBGm">Richard Strauss</a> was heavily influenced by Wagner, despite <a href="/facts/Franz_Strauss/c9d6wfue">his father</a>'s efforts to the contrary. By seventeen, he was unimpressed with <i><a href="/facts/Tannh%25C3%25A4user_(opera)/WMulY1Ks">Tannhäuser</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Lohengrin_(opera)/KF22w5jc">Lohengrin</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Siegfried_(opera)/8fCNNmyF">Siegfried</a></i> but absolutely entranced by the other three pieces of the <i><a href="/facts/Der_Ring_des_Nibelungen/tsRqtalA">Ring</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Tristan_und_Isolde/X5HPH5Xm">Tristan und Isolde</a></i>. Although in his early years he was more famous for his orchestral tone poems, <i><a href="/facts/Salome_(opera)/8dobAVu4">Salome</a></i> (1905) and <i><a href="/facts/Elektra_(opera)/xpvJTEUF">Elektra</a></i> (1909) quickly established his reputation as Germany's leading opera composer. These two operas stretched the tonal music system to its breaking point. The highly chromatic music featured harsh dissonances and unresolved harmonies. This, paired with the gruesome subject matter, looked forward to <a href="/facts/Expressionism/3u9NA7mv">expressionism</a>. <i>Elektra</i> also marked the beginning of Strauss's working relationship with the leading Austrian poet and playwright <a href="/facts/Hugo_von_Hofmannsthal/d6gXn9kJ">Hugo von Hofmannsthal</a>, who would provide another five libretti for the composer. With <i><a href="/facts/Der_Rosenkavalier/dDovrf9Y">Der Rosenkavalier</a></i> of 1911, Strauss changed direction, looking towards <a href="/facts/Mozart/2X5fm67T">Mozart</a> and the world of the Viennese <a href="/facts/Waltz/A5vA3F3E">waltz</a> as much as towards Wagner. Modernist critics accused him of "selling out", but <i>Rosenkavalier</i> proved an immense success with audiences around the world. Strauss continued to ignore critical fashion, producing the mixture of farce and high tragedy of <i><a href="/facts/Ariadne_auf_Naxos/H3bEoRmN">Ariadne auf Naxos</a></i>, the complex allegory of <i><a href="/facts/Die_Frau_ohne_Schatten/g72kvFW2">Die Frau ohne Schatten</a></i>, the domestic dramas of <i><a href="/facts/Intermezzo_(opera)/H6tPybuC">Intermezzo</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Arabella/rufzAHd3">Arabella</a></i>, and the mythological <i><a href="/facts/Die_%25C3%25A4gyptische_Helena/dCDxxCha">Die ägyptische Helena</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Daphne_(opera)/areAnNYT">Daphne</a></i>. Strauss bid farewell to the musical stage with <i><a href="/facts/Capriccio_(opera)/fGV5nw0U">Capriccio</a></i> of 1942, a "conversation piece" which explores the relationship between words and music in opera.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> </p> <h3>Other late Romantics</h3> <p>Other composers styled "late Romantic", such as <a href="/facts/Franz_Schreker/2CwnklJp">Franz Schreker</a> (<i><a href="/facts/Der_ferne_Klang/RQDTYqDm">Der ferne Klang</a></i>, 1912; <i><a href="/facts/Der_Schatzgr%25C3%25A4ber/gTRJF1B7">Der Schatzgräber</a></i>, 1920), <a href="/facts/Alexander_von_Zemlinsky/fdrDXrs1">Alexander von Zemlinsky</a> (<i><a href="/facts/Eine_florentinische_Trag%25C3%25B6die/UFoQFNMs">Eine florentinische Tragödie</a></i>, 1917; <i><a href="/facts/Der_Zwerg/Y2F6IrIC">Der Zwerg</a></i>, 1922) and <a href="/facts/Erich_Korngold/SJy1loTF">Erich Korngold</a> (<i><a href="/facts/Die_tote_Stadt/Byd123cH">Die tote Stadt</a></i>, 1920) explored similar territory to Strauss's <i>Salome</i> and <i>Elektra</i>. They combined Wagnerian influences, lush orchestration, strange harmonies and dissonances with "<a href="/facts/Decadent_movement/a4lCvrGv">decadent</a>" subject matter reflecting the dominance of <a href="/facts/Expressionism/3u9NA7mv">Expressionism</a> in the arts and the contemporary psychological explorations of <a href="/facts/Sigmund_Freud/KKIYbom9">Sigmund Freud</a>. All three composers suffered persecution and eclipse under the <a href="/facts/Nazi/JjsMI4lE">Nazis</a>, who condemned their works as <i>entartete Musik</i> ("degenerate music"). <a href="/facts/Hans_Pfitzner/TSSQU332">Hans Pfitzner</a> was another late Romantic post-Wagnerian, albeit of a more conservative stripe. His major opera <i><a href="/facts/Palestrina_(opera)/JtkWf8j2">Palestrina</a></i> (1917) makes the case for tradition and inspiration rather than musical modernism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> </p> <h3>Heyday of operetta</h3> <p>In the late nineteenth century, a new, lighter form of opera, <a href="/facts/Operetta/7aRrbfyz">operetta</a>, became popular in <a href="/facts/Vienna/NSpIURsA">Vienna</a>. Operettas had immediately attractive tunes, comic (and often frivolous) plots and used spoken dialogue between the musical "numbers". Viennese operetta was inspired by the fashion for the French operettas of <a href="/facts/Jacques_Offenbach/pVgxoAU9">Jacques Offenbach</a>. <i>Das Pensionat [de]</i> (1860) by <a href="/facts/Franz_von_Supp%25C3%25A9/9N7Tygxg">Franz von Suppé</a> is generally regarded as the first important operetta in the German language, but by far the most famous example of the genre is <i><a href="/facts/Die_Fledermaus/Vk4g8sKn">Die Fledermaus</a></i> (1874) by <a href="/facts/Johann_Strauss_II/8kbNyMu9">Johann Strauss</a>. <a href="/facts/Franz_Leh%25C3%25A1r/nFT62baP">Franz Lehár</a>'s <i><a href="/facts/The_Merry_Widow/sqqaoxMj">The Merry Widow</a></i> (1905) and <a href="/facts/Emmerich_K%25C3%25A1lm%25C3%25A1n/Bx4g3ojY">Emmerich Kálmán</a>'s <i><a href="/facts/Die_Cs%25C3%25A1rd%25C3%25A1sf%25C3%25BCrstin/bgVtfuey">Die Csárdásfürstin</a></i> (1915) were other massive hits. Other composers who worked in this style include <a href="/facts/Oscar_Straus_(composer)/LUvVjupW">Oscar Straus</a> and <a href="/facts/Sigmund_Romberg/WXyXBgws">Sigmund Romberg</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="modernism-second-viennese-school">Modernism: Second Viennese School</h2> <p>Following the example of Wagner, Richard Strauss, Zemlinsky and Schreker had pushed traditional tonality to the absolute limits. Now a new group of composers appeared in Vienna who wanted to take music beyond. Operatic <a href="/facts/Modernism/AfPDL45X">modernism</a> truly began in the operas of two composers of the so-called <a href="/facts/Second_Viennese_School/mvSBXD92">Second Viennese School</a>, <a href="/facts/Arnold_Schoenberg/o9xuyDwC">Arnold Schoenberg</a> and his acolyte <a href="/facts/Alban_Berg/7UWWkE06">Alban Berg</a>, both advocates of <a href="/facts/Atonality/LToI29Xu">atonality</a> and its later development (as worked out by Schoenberg), <a href="/facts/Dodecaphony/hj3FwBNk">dodecaphony</a>. Schoenberg's early musico-dramatic works, <i><a href="/facts/Erwartung/0BJA2rJ6">Erwartung</a></i> (1909, premiered in 1924) and <i><a href="/facts/Die_gl%25C3%25BCckliche_Hand/E68LfBpY">Die glückliche Hand</a></i> display heavy use of chromatic harmony and dissonance in general. Schoenberg also occasionally used <a href="/facts/Sprechstimme/W62o2qM1">Sprechstimme</a>, which he described as: "The voice rising and falling relative to the indicated intervals, and everything being bound together with the time and rhythm of the music except where a pause is indicated". Schoenberg intended <i><a href="/facts/Moses_und_Aron/IfHzE2P9">Moses und Aron</a></i> as his operatic masterpiece, but it was left unfinished at his death.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> </p><p>The two operas of Schoenberg's pupil Alban Berg, <i><a href="/facts/Wozzeck/h462shAE">Wozzeck</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Lulu_(opera)/T2GgLxb9">Lulu</a></i> (left incomplete at his death) share many of the same characteristics described above, though Berg combined his highly personal interpretation of Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique with melodic passages of a more traditionally tonal nature (quite <a href="/facts/Gustav_Mahler/yYTMSJb6">Mahlerian</a> in character). This perhaps partially explains why his operas have remained in standard repertory, despite their controversial music and plots. </p> <h2 id="19181945-weimar-germany-inter-war-austria-third-reich">1918–1945: Weimar Germany, Inter-war Austria, Third Reich</h2> <p>The years following World War I saw German and Austrian culture flourishing in spite of the surrounding political turmoil. Late Romantic composers were still at work alongside the avowed modernists Schoenberg and Berg. The Italian-born <a href="/facts/Ferruccio_Busoni/CTRY9HA0">Ferruccio Busoni</a> ploughed an individual furrow, attempting to fuse <a href="/facts/Johann_Sebastian_Bach/qA71yhEb">Bach</a> and the avant-garde, Mediterranean and Germanic culture in his music. He never lived to finish his most significant opera <i><a href="/facts/Doktor_Faust/CUpC5VXx">Doktor Faust</a></i> (1925). <a href="/facts/Paul_Hindemith/mkTYeb9j">Paul Hindemith</a> began his operatic career with short, scandalous pieces such as <i><a href="/facts/M%25C3%25B6rder%2c_Hoffnung_der_Frauen/p366L73g">Mörder, Hoffnung der Frauen</a></i> ("Murder, Hope of Women") before turning to Bach, as Busoni had done. Hindemith saw Bach-inspired "neo-classicism" as a way of curbing the excesses of late Romanticism. <i><a href="/facts/Cardillac/U7WQmuLK">Cardillac</a></i> (1925) was his first work in this vein. Hindemith was also interested in putting contemporary life on the stage in his operas (a concept called <i>Zeitoper</i>), as was <a href="/facts/Ernst_Krenek/gXcFNAyf">Ernst Krenek</a> whose <i><a href="/facts/Jonny_spielt_auf/JYFGmeQm">Jonny spielt auf</a></i> (1927) has a jazz violinist as its hero. <a href="/facts/Kurt_Weill/lx8Ek6fD">Kurt Weill</a> reflected life in <a href="/facts/Weimar_Republic/LYYS66ad">Weimar Germany</a> in a more overtly political way. His most famous collaboration with <a href="/facts/Bertolt_Brecht/Jttg3tUA">Bertolt Brecht</a>, <i><a href="/facts/The_Threepenny_Opera/eMHe4ywt">The Threepenny Opera</a></i> (1928), was both a scandal and an immense box-office success. </p><p><a href="/facts/Adolf_Hitler/3zyXG1L8">Adolf Hitler</a>'s assumption of power destroyed this thriving operatic scene. Ironically, after the <a href="/facts/Reichstag_fire/5jHgnM44">burning of the Reichstag</a> in 1933, the German seat of the government was moved to the <a href="/facts/Kroll_Opera_House/zvEn9ECg">Kroll Opera House</a>, the state opera house in Berlin which, under the adventurous directorship of <a href="/facts/Otto_Klemperer/pcomnGJG">Otto Klemperer</a>, had seen the premieres of many innovative works of the 1920s, including Hindemith's <i><a href="/facts/Neues_vom_Tage/lRhsQbWP">Neues vom Tage</a></i>. Now Hindemith responded to the advent of the <a href="/facts/Third_Reich/8kRbqRpo">Third Reich</a> with his chief work <i><a href="/facts/Mathis_der_Maler/Dlkup09V">Mathis der Maler</a></i>, a portrait of an artist trying to survive in hostile times. It received its premiere in <a href="/facts/Z%25C3%25BCrich/dXpgq7df">Zürich</a> in 1938, since all performances of Hindemith's music had been banned in Germany the previous year. In 1940, Hindemith left Switzerland for the United States, joining a transatlantic exodus of composers which included Schoenberg, Weill, Korngold and Zemlinsky. Schreker had died in 1934, having been dismissed from his teaching post by the Nazis; other composers, such as the promising <a href="/facts/Viktor_Ullmann/5vyEfK71">Viktor Ullmann</a>, would perish in the death camps. Some opera composers, including <a href="/facts/Carl_Orff/N3XMUdYa">Carl Orff</a>, <a href="/facts/Werner_Egk/RfE9g09v">Werner Egk</a> and the ageing Richard Strauss, remained in Germany to accommodate with the new regime as best they could.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="since-1945">Since 1945</h2> <p>Composers writing after World War II had to find a way of coming to terms with the destruction caused by the Third Reich. The modernism of Schoenberg and Berg proved attractive to young composers, since their works had been banned by the Nazis and were free of any taint of the former regime. <a href="/facts/Bernd_Alois_Zimmermann/ESKyPXcy">Bernd Alois Zimmermann</a> looked to the example of Berg's <i><a href="/facts/Wozzeck/h462shAE">Wozzeck</a></i> for his only opera <i><a href="/facts/Die_Soldaten/leS9kcaH">Die Soldaten</a></i> (1965), and <a href="/facts/Aribert_Reimann/NaTqGBEb">Aribert Reimann</a> continued the tradition of expressionism with his <a href="/facts/William_Shakespeare/ohI96JTv">Shakespearean</a> <i><a href="/facts/Lear_(opera)/9AlLnLs5">Lear</a></i> (1978). Perhaps the most versatile and internationally famous post-war German opera composer is <a href="/facts/Hans_Werner_Henze/5MtukewS">Hans Werner Henze</a>, who has produced a series of works which mix Bergian influences with those of Italian composers such as <a href="/facts/Giuseppe_Verdi/Etc74qFF">Verdi</a>. Examples of his operas are <i><a href="/facts/Boulevard_Solitude/kyEMI1Q4">Boulevard Solitude</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/The_Bassarids/NENFkfhR">The Bassarids</a></i> (to a libretto by <a href="/facts/W._H._Auden/4AwR9p7y">W. H. Auden</a>) and <i><a href="/facts/Das_verratene_Meer/EgEcQQj0">Das verratene Meer</a></i>. <a href="/facts/Karlheinz_Stockhausen/XCrTaejh">Karlheinz Stockhausen</a> set off in an even more avant-garde direction with his enormous operatic cycle based on the seven days of the week, <i><a href="/facts/Licht/NfhdRy7p">Licht</a></i> (1977–2003). <a href="/facts/Giselher_Klebe/N5RSf3Fk">Giselher Klebe</a> created an extensive body of work in the operatic genre based on <a href="/facts/Literature/CmUDxokU">literary</a> works.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> Other leading composers still producing operas today include <a href="/facts/Wolfgang_Rihm/KJ49r6Qc">Wolfgang Rihm</a> and <a href="/facts/Olga_Neuwirth/H3VEUbuN">Olga Neuwirth</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li>Category:German-language operas</li> <li>Category:Opera houses in Austria</li> <li>Category:Opera houses in Germany</li></ul> <h2 id="notes-and-references">Notes and references</h2> <h3>Sources</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Thomas_Bauman/0eP7TmsL">Bauman, Thomas</a> (1985). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ISBN9780521260275"><i>North German Opera in the Age of Goethe</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780521260275.</li> <li>Glatthorn, Austin (2022). <i>Music Theatre and the Holy Roman Empire: The German Musical Stage at the Turn of the Nineteenth Century</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781009067485">10.1017/9781009067485</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-316-51249-4.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Donald_Jay_Grout/vSAbkI2a">Grout, Donald Jay</a> (2003). <i>A Short History of Opera</i> (4th ed.). Columbia University Press.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Amanda_Holden_(writer)/g6HDWdJo">Holden, Amanda</a>, ed. (1993). <i>The Viking Opera Guide</i>. Viking.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Roger_Parker/4WlKxLh5">Parker, Roger</a>, ed. (1994). <i>The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera</i>. Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Vernon, David (2021). <i>Disturbing the Universe: Wagner's Musikdrama</i>. Edinburgh: Candle Row Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1527299245.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Neal_Zaslaw/LolQHmWs">Zaslaw, Neal</a>, ed. (1989). <i>Man and Music: The Classical Era</i>. Macmillan.</li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li><i><a href="/facts/The_New_Grove_Dictionary_of_Opera/UByexklU">The New Grove Dictionary of Opera</a></i>, ed. <a href="/facts/Stanley_Sadie/Nlt00DMf">Stanley Sadie</a> (Oxford University Press, 1992)</li> <li><a href="/facts/John_Warrack/J9CUh4sM">John Warrack</a>, <i>German Opera: From the Beginnings to Wagner</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2001) <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780521235327</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Parker 1994, pp. 31–32. - Parker, Roger, ed. (1994). The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera. Oxford University Press. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Grout 2003, "Early German Opera", pp. 121–131. - Grout, Donald Jay (2003). A Short History of Opera (4th ed.). Columbia University Press. <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Holden 1993, Articles on Schütz and Staden.. - Holden, Amanda, ed. (1993). The Viking Opera Guide. Viking. <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Another prolific composer, Telemann began to eclipse Keiser as the leading opera composer in Hamburg from 1717. <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Only one of Handel's German-language operas, Almira, survives in a reasonably intact state. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>On the Hamburg opera: Parker 1994, pp. 32, 77–79 - Parker, Roger, ed. (1994). The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera. Oxford University Press. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Grout 2003, Section on Keiser, pp. 176ff. - Grout, Donald Jay (2003). A Short History of Opera (4th ed.). Columbia University Press. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Holden 1993, Articles on Keiser, Mattheson and Telemann. - Holden, Amanda, ed. (1993). The Viking Opera Guide. Viking. <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Booklet notes to the recording of Keiser's opera Croesus by René Jacobs. <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Konrad Kratzsch, Klatschnest Weimar: Ernstes und Heiteres, Menschlich-Allzumenschliches aus dem Alltag der Klassiker, p. 48, Königshausen & Neumann, 2009, ISBN 3826041291 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Lawrence, Richard (July 2008). "Schweitzer, A. Alceste". Gramophone. Retrieved 20 July 2017. <a href="https://www.gramophone.co.uk/review/schweitzer-a-alceste" target="_blank">https://www.gramophone.co.uk/review/schweitzer-a-alceste</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Hellmuth Christian Wolff (1959). "Dreßler, Ernst Christoph". Neue Deutsche Biographie (in German). Vol. 4. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. p. 113. (full text online). <a href="/wiki/Hellmuth_Christian_Wolff" target="_blank">/wiki/Hellmuth_Christian_Wolff</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Francien Markx, E. T. A. Hoffmann, Cosmopolitanism, and the Struggle for German Opera, p. 32, Brill, 2015, ISBN 9004309578 <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" target="_blank">/wiki/Brill_Publishers</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Zaslaw 1989, pp. 242–247, 258–260. - Zaslaw, Neal, ed. (1989). Man and Music: The Classical Era. Macmillan. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Parker 1994, pp. 58–63, 98–103. - Parker, Roger, ed. (1994). The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera. Oxford University Press. <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Holden 1993, Articles on Hasse, Graun and Hiller. - Holden, Amanda, ed. (1993). The Viking Opera Guide. Viking. <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Waldoff, Jessica, ed. (2023). The Cambridge Companion to The Magic Flute. Cambridge Companions to Music. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108551328. ISBN 978-1-108-42689-3. <a href="978-1-108-42689-3" target="_blank">978-1-108-42689-3</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Parker 1994, pp. 118–121. - Parker, Roger, ed. (1994). The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera. Oxford University Press. <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Zaslaw 1989, pp. 134–140. - Zaslaw, Neal, ed. (1989). Man and Music: The Classical Era. Macmillan. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Holden 1993, Article on Mozart. - Holden, Amanda, ed. (1993). The Viking Opera Guide. Viking. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Holden 1993, Article on Fidelio by David Cairns. - Holden, Amanda, ed. (1993). The Viking Opera Guide. Viking. <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Parker 1994, pp. 207–209. - Parker, Roger, ed. (1994). The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera. Oxford University Press. <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Grout 2003, "Romantic Opera in Germany", pp. 417–436. - Grout, Donald Jay (2003). A Short History of Opera (4th ed.). Columbia University Press. <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Essay by John Warrack in the booklet to Carlos Kleiber's recording of Der Freischütz (Deutsche Grammophon, 1973) <a href="/wiki/John_Warrack" target="_blank">/wiki/John_Warrack</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Holden 1993, Article on Weber. - Holden, Amanda, ed. (1993). The Viking Opera Guide. Viking. <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Parker 1994, pp. 209–210. - Parker, Roger, ed. (1994). The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera. Oxford University Press. <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Grout 2003, "Romantic Opera in Germany", pp. 417–436. - Grout, Donald Jay (2003). A Short History of Opera (4th ed.). Columbia University Press. <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Parker 1994, pp. 212–217. - Parker, Roger, ed. (1994). The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera. Oxford University Press. <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Grout 2003, "Romantic Opera in Germany", pp. 417–436. Conductor Nikolaus Harnoncourt strongly disagrees with dismissals of Genoveva. See the essay "Reinventing Opera" in the booklet to Harnoncourt's recording of Schumann's opera (Teldec, 1997). - Grout, Donald Jay (2003). A Short History of Opera (4th ed.). Columbia University Press. <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Parker 1994, p. 220. - Parker, Roger, ed. (1994). The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera. Oxford University Press. <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Parker 1994, "Wagner" by Barry Millington. - Parker, Roger, ed. (1994). The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera. Oxford University Press. <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Holden 1993, Article on Wagner by John Deathridge. - Holden, Amanda, ed. (1993). The Viking Opera Guide. Viking. <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Parker 1994, pp. 232–236. - Parker, Roger, ed. (1994). The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera. Oxford University Press. <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Holden 1993, Article on Strauss. - Holden, Amanda, ed. (1993). The Viking Opera Guide. Viking. <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Parker 1994, pp. 290–292. - Parker, Roger, ed. (1994). The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera. Oxford University Press. <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Holden 1993, Articles on Suppé, Johann Strauss, Lehár. - Holden, Amanda, ed. (1993). The Viking Opera Guide. Viking. <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>"Schoenberg: Moses und Aron" by Andrew Clements, The Guardian, 5 May 2001 <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2001/may/04/classicalmusicandopera" target="_blank">https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2001/may/04/classicalmusicandopera</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Parker 1994, pp. 295–300, 315–316. - Parker, Roger, ed. (1994). The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera. Oxford University Press. <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Holden 1993, Article on Busoni, Hindemith, Weill. - Holden, Amanda, ed. (1993). The Viking Opera Guide. Viking. <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Schäfer, Brigitte (September 2005). "Zeit als Intensität und Qualität". Neue Musikzeitung (in German). ConBrio. p. 4. Archived from the original on 2006-11-23. Retrieved 2007-12-31. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061123190813/http://www.nmz.de/nmz/2005/09/magazin-klebe.shtml" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20061123190813/http://www.nmz.de/nmz/2005/09/magazin-klebe.shtml</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Parker 1994, pp. 324–325. - Parker, Roger, ed. (1994). The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera. Oxford University Press. <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Holden 1993, Articles on Zimmermann, Reimann, Henze, Stockhausen. - Holden, Amanda, ed. (1993). The Viking Opera Guide. Viking. <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>