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Lukeino Formation
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<h2 id="history">History</h2> <p>From 1971 to 1978, <a href="/facts/Martin_Pickford/Nlrh3LJm">Martin Pickford</a> had carried out extensive research in the <a href="/facts/Tugen_Hills/76gze3M8">Tugen Hills</a> under a permit issued by the Kenyan Office of the President. </p><p>In 1974, Pickford found the first hominid fossil from the Lukeino Formation, a lower molar, which is included within the holotype of <i><a href="/facts/Orrorin/xEq31GfA">Orrorin tugenensis</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> The rest of the holotype was found by Pickford and <a href="/facts/Brigitte_Senut/2zky8YMr">Brigitte Senut</a> in 2000.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> </p><p>Pierre & Pickford (2006) described eight hundred new micromammal fossils from the Kapsomin Member were described.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p><p>Altner & Reichenbacher (2015) named the first fish from Paleolake Luekino: <i>Kenyaichthys kipkechi</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p><p>A P4 discovered at the Lukeino Formation has been proposed to belong to an amphicyonid by Morales <i>et al.</i> (2016), as both its age and dimensions are similar to <i><a href="/facts/Bonisicyon/xzxH6AjF">Bonisicyon</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p><p>Until the mid-1990s, only a few partial remains of <a href="/facts/Cercopithecoidea/hrhKhgt7">cercopithecoideans</a> were known from the Lukeino Formation, and then after surveys were conducted from 1998 onwards by the Kenya Palaeontology Expedition led to the discovery of new material within the Aragai Member,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> a site situated in the lower levels of the Lukeino Formation. Most of the collection consists of craniodental specimens generally well-preserved in a hard matrix but there are three postcranial bones. As a result of this discovery, a new species was described by Kipkech <i>et al.</i> (2022): <i><a href="/facts/Sawecolobus/HILoTyPs">Sawecolobus lukeinoensis</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="paleofauna">Paleofauna</h2> <ul><li><i>Abudhabia tateroides</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Aepyceros/5edmEhNX">Aepyceros</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Amphicyonidae/Kr3g3c3S">Amphicyonidae</a> indet. (= cf. <i><a href="/facts/Bonisicyon/xzxH6AjF">Bonisicyon</a></i>)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Anancus/RDbTbkpd">Anancus</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a></li> <li><i>Apodecter aequatorialis<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a></i></li> <li><a href="/facts/Cephalophinae/PYEBnbVB">Cephalophinae</a> indet.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Chalicotheriidae/l04wY2d2">Chalicotheriidae</a> indet.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a></li> <li><i>Chamtwaria</i> sp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Crocidura/t5Bnc816">Crocidura</a> kapsominensis<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Deinotherium/J7ICHFlV">Deinotherium</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Tree_hyrax/LqN7d1le">Dendrohyrax</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Dendromus/K088sQl4">Dendromus</a></i> sp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Diceros/ytVuESSA">Diceros</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Elephantulus/DHXovH7s">Elephantulus</a></i> sp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Erinaceidae/25a40p9y">Erinaceidae</a> indet.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Galagidae/YyAk6Q0K">Galagidae</a> indet.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a></li> <li><i>Kenyaichthys kipkechi</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a></li> <li>Lukeinomys cheptumoae<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Ape/QdTk4pko">Hominoidea</a> indet.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Water_chevrotain/akHl4vFK">Hyemoschus</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Hystrix_(mammal)/QuXCzUH5">Hystrix</a></i> sp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Muridae/tuEmkAS4">Muridae</a> indet.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Mouse-eared_bat/61fxclFW">Myotis</a></i> sp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/African_palm_civet/GYVW9xzP">Nandinia</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Orrorin/xEq31GfA">Orrorin tugenensis</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a></li> <li><i>Paraulacodus</i> sp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Pedetidae/VTREdHlh">Pedetidae</a> indet.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Petromus/b2bQagfm">Petromus</a></i> <i><a href="/facts/Cf./hdmpMAfU">cf.</a></i> <i>antiquus</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a></li> <li><i>Preacomys cf. griffin</i>i<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a></li> <li><i>Preacomys cf. kikiae</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Rousettus/1jfyw0TL">Rousettus</a></i> sp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Saccostomus/D7RJtFhk">Saccostromus cf. geraadsi</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a></li> <li><i>Saidomys alisae</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Sawecolobus/HILoTyPs">Sawecolobus lukeinoensis</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Serengetilagus/38BxBrFv">Serengetilagus</a></i> sp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Suidae/KL0jkfsB">Suidae</a> indet.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Steatomys/27UCIH1L">Steatomys cf. intermedius</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Steatomys/27UCIH1L">Steatomys minus</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Suncus/2h3BwH8P">Suncus</a></i> sp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a></li> <li>?<i><a href="/facts/Taphozous/5KonyFdB">Taphozous</a></i> sp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Pickford, M. (1975). "Late Miocene sediments and fossils from the Northern Kenya Rift Valley". Nature. 256 (5515): 279–284. Bibcode:1975Natur.256..279P. doi:10.1038/256279a0. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4149259. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/256279a0" target="_blank">https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/256279a0</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Pickford, Martin; Senut, Brigitte; Mourer-Chauviré, Cécile (2004). "Early Pliocene Tragulidae and peafowls in the Rift Valley, Kenya: evidence for rainforest in East Africa". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 3 (3): 179–189. Bibcode:2004CRPal...3..179P. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004. ISSN 1631-0683. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004" target="_blank">https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Dericquebourg, Perrine; Person, Alain; Ségalen, Loïc; Pickford, Martin; Senut, Brigitte; Fagel, Nathalie (2015). "Environmental significance of Upper Miocene phosphorites at hominid sites in the Lukeino Formation (Tugen Hills, Kenya)". Sedimentary Geology. 327: 43–54. Bibcode:2015SedG..327...43D. doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2015.07.005. ISSN 0037-0738. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2015.07.005" target="_blank">https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2015.07.005</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Pickford, M. (1975). "Late Miocene sediments and fossils from the Northern Kenya Rift Valley". Nature. 256 (5515): 279–284. Bibcode:1975Natur.256..279P. doi:10.1038/256279a0. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4149259. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/256279a0" target="_blank">https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/256279a0</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Senut, Brigitte; Pickford, Martin; Gommery, Dominique; Mein, Pierre; Cheboi, Kiptalam; Coppens, Yves (2001). "First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya)". Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences - Series IIA - Earth and Planetary Science. 332 (2): 137–144. Bibcode:2001CRASE.332..137S. doi:10.1016/S1251-8050(01)01529-4. S2CID 14235881. <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1251805001015294" target="_blank">https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1251805001015294</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Mein, Pierre; Pickford, Martin (2006). "Late Miocene micromammals from the Lukeino Formation (6.1 to 5.8 Ma), Kenya". Bulletin mensuel de la Société linnéenne de Lyon (in French). 75 (4): 183–223. doi:10.3406/linly.2006.13628. ISSN 0366-1326. <a href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/linly_0366-1326_2006_num_75_4_13628" target="_blank">https://www.persee.fr/doc/linly_0366-1326_2006_num_75_4_13628</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Altner, Melanie; Reichenbacher, Bettina (2015-04-29). "†Kenyaichthyidae fam. nov. and †Kenyaichthys gen. nov. – First Record of a Fossil Aplocheiloid Killifish (Teleostei, Cyprinodontiformes)". PLOS ONE. 10 (4): e0123056. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1023056A. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0123056. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4414574. PMID 25923654. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4414574" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4414574</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Morales, Jorge; Pickford, M.; Valenciano, Alberto (2016). "Systematics of African Amphicyonidae, with descriptions of new material from Napak (Uganda) and Grillental (Namibia)". Journal of Iberian Geology. 42 (2): 131–150. doi:10.13039/501100003329. hdl:10261/137042. ISSN 1698-6180. <a href="https://digital.csic.es/handle/10261/137042" target="_blank">https://digital.csic.es/handle/10261/137042</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Gommery, Dominique; Senut, Brigitte; Pickford, Martin; Nishimura, Takeshi D.; Kipkech, Joseph (2022-04-21). "The Late Miocene colobine monkeys from Aragai (Lukeino Formation, Tugen Hills, Kenya)". Geodiversitas. 44 (16). doi:10.5252/geodiversitas2022v44a16. ISSN 1280-9659. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.5252/geodiversitas2022v44a16" target="_blank">https://dx.doi.org/10.5252/geodiversitas2022v44a16</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Gommery, Dominique; Senut, Brigitte; Pickford, Martin; Nishimura, Takeshi D.; Kipkech, Joseph (2022-04-21). "The Late Miocene colobine monkeys from Aragai (Lukeino Formation, Tugen Hills, Kenya)". Geodiversitas. 44 (16). doi:10.5252/geodiversitas2022v44a16. ISSN 1280-9659. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.5252/geodiversitas2022v44a16" target="_blank">https://dx.doi.org/10.5252/geodiversitas2022v44a16</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Mein, Pierre; Pickford, Martin (2006). "Late Miocene micromammals from the Lukeino Formation (6.1 to 5.8 Ma), Kenya". Bulletin mensuel de la Société linnéenne de Lyon (in French). 75 (4): 183–223. doi:10.3406/linly.2006.13628. ISSN 0366-1326. <a href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/linly_0366-1326_2006_num_75_4_13628" target="_blank">https://www.persee.fr/doc/linly_0366-1326_2006_num_75_4_13628</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Pickford, Martin; Senut, Brigitte; Mourer-Chauviré, Cécile (2004). "Early Pliocene Tragulidae and peafowls in the Rift Valley, Kenya: evidence for rainforest in East Africa". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 3 (3): 179–189. Bibcode:2004CRPal...3..179P. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004. ISSN 1631-0683. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004" target="_blank">https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Morales, Jorge; Pickford, M.; Valenciano, Alberto (2016). "Systematics of African Amphicyonidae, with descriptions of new material from Napak (Uganda) and Grillental (Namibia)". Journal of Iberian Geology. 42 (2): 131–150. doi:10.13039/501100003329. hdl:10261/137042. ISSN 1698-6180. <a href="https://digital.csic.es/handle/10261/137042" target="_blank">https://digital.csic.es/handle/10261/137042</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Pickford, Martin; Senut, Brigitte; Mourer-Chauviré, Cécile (2004). "Early Pliocene Tragulidae and peafowls in the Rift Valley, Kenya: evidence for rainforest in East Africa". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 3 (3): 179–189. Bibcode:2004CRPal...3..179P. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004. ISSN 1631-0683. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004" target="_blank">https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Mein, Pierre; Pickford, Martin (2006). "Late Miocene micromammals from the Lukeino Formation (6.1 to 5.8 Ma), Kenya". Bulletin mensuel de la Société linnéenne de Lyon (in French). 75 (4): 183–223. doi:10.3406/linly.2006.13628. ISSN 0366-1326. <a href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/linly_0366-1326_2006_num_75_4_13628" target="_blank">https://www.persee.fr/doc/linly_0366-1326_2006_num_75_4_13628</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Pickford, Martin; Senut, Brigitte; Mourer-Chauviré, Cécile (2004). "Early Pliocene Tragulidae and peafowls in the Rift Valley, Kenya: evidence for rainforest in East Africa". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 3 (3): 179–189. Bibcode:2004CRPal...3..179P. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004. ISSN 1631-0683. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004" target="_blank">https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Pickford, Martin; Senut, Brigitte; Mourer-Chauviré, Cécile (2004). "Early Pliocene Tragulidae and peafowls in the Rift Valley, Kenya: evidence for rainforest in East Africa". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 3 (3): 179–189. Bibcode:2004CRPal...3..179P. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004. ISSN 1631-0683. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004" target="_blank">https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Mein, Pierre; Pickford, Martin (2006). "Late Miocene micromammals from the Lukeino Formation (6.1 to 5.8 Ma), Kenya". Bulletin mensuel de la Société linnéenne de Lyon (in French). 75 (4): 183–223. doi:10.3406/linly.2006.13628. ISSN 0366-1326. <a href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/linly_0366-1326_2006_num_75_4_13628" target="_blank">https://www.persee.fr/doc/linly_0366-1326_2006_num_75_4_13628</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Mein, Pierre; Pickford, Martin (2006). "Late Miocene micromammals from the Lukeino Formation (6.1 to 5.8 Ma), Kenya". Bulletin mensuel de la Société linnéenne de Lyon (in French). 75 (4): 183–223. doi:10.3406/linly.2006.13628. ISSN 0366-1326. <a href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/linly_0366-1326_2006_num_75_4_13628" target="_blank">https://www.persee.fr/doc/linly_0366-1326_2006_num_75_4_13628</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Pickford, Martin; Senut, Brigitte; Mourer-Chauviré, Cécile (2004). "Early Pliocene Tragulidae and peafowls in the Rift Valley, Kenya: evidence for rainforest in East Africa". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 3 (3): 179–189. Bibcode:2004CRPal...3..179P. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004. ISSN 1631-0683. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004" target="_blank">https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Pickford, Martin; Senut, Brigitte; Mourer-Chauviré, Cécile (2004). "Early Pliocene Tragulidae and peafowls in the Rift Valley, Kenya: evidence for rainforest in East Africa". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 3 (3): 179–189. Bibcode:2004CRPal...3..179P. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004. ISSN 1631-0683. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004" target="_blank">https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Mein, Pierre; Pickford, Martin (2006). "Late Miocene micromammals from the Lukeino Formation (6.1 to 5.8 Ma), Kenya". Bulletin mensuel de la Société linnéenne de Lyon (in French). 75 (4): 183–223. doi:10.3406/linly.2006.13628. ISSN 0366-1326. <a href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/linly_0366-1326_2006_num_75_4_13628" target="_blank">https://www.persee.fr/doc/linly_0366-1326_2006_num_75_4_13628</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Pickford, Martin; Senut, Brigitte; Mourer-Chauviré, Cécile (2004). "Early Pliocene Tragulidae and peafowls in the Rift Valley, Kenya: evidence for rainforest in East Africa". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 3 (3): 179–189. Bibcode:2004CRPal...3..179P. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004. ISSN 1631-0683. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004" target="_blank">https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2004.01.004</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Mein, Pierre; Pickford, Martin (2006). "Late Miocene micromammals from the Lukeino Formation (6.1 to 5.8 Ma), Kenya". Bulletin mensuel de la Société linnéenne de Lyon (in French). 75 (4): 183–223. doi:10.3406/linly.2006.13628. 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