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Martin Heinrich Klaproth
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<h2 id="career">Career</h2> <p>Klaproth was born in <a href="/facts/Wernigerode/zNUr2kwV">Wernigerode</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> He was the son of a <a href="/facts/Tailor/EIrSq6Lz">tailor</a>, and attended the Latin school at Wernigerode for four years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p><p>For much of his life he followed the profession of <a href="/facts/Apothecary/uAvlhvwS">apothecary</a>. In 1759, when he was 16 years old, he apprenticed at Quedlinburg. In 1764, he became a journeyman. He trained in pharmacies at <a href="/facts/Quedlinburg/f7BPSfpv">Quedlinburg</a> (1759–1766); <a href="/facts/Hanover/yghHUDI4">Hanover</a> (1766–1768, with August Hermann Brande); Berlin (1768); and <a href="/facts/Danzig/a6VNPK28">Danzig</a> (1770).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> </p><p>In 1771, Klaproth returned to Berlin to work for <a href="/facts/Valentin_Rose_the_Elder/b26aRKYr">Valentin Rose the Elder</a> as manager of his business. Following Rose's death, Klaproth passed the required examinations to become senior manager. Following his marriage in 1780, he was able to buy his own establishment, the Apotheke zum Baren. Between 1782 and 1800, Klaproth published 84 papers based on researches carried out in the Apotheke's laboratory. His shop was the most productive site of artisanal chemistry investigations in Europe at that time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> </p><p>Beginning in 1782, he was the assessor of pharmacy for the examining board of the Ober-Collegium Medicum. In 1787 Klaproth was appointed lecturer in <a href="/facts/Chemistry/SrNqkGVm">chemistry</a> to the <a href="/facts/Prussia/fs1wEGrk">Prussian</a> Royal Artillery.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p><p>In 1788, Klaproth became an unsalaried member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1800, he became the salaried director of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. He sold the apothecary and moved to the academy, where he convinced the university to build a new laboratory. Upon completion in 1802, Klaproth moved the equipment from his apothecary laboratory into the new building.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> When the <a href="/facts/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin/QE2lhhkd">University of Berlin</a> was founded in 1810 he was selected to be the professor of chemistry.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p><p>He died in Berlin on New Year's Day in 1817.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="contributions">Contributions</h2> <p>An exact and conscientious worker, Klaproth did much to improve and systematise the processes of <a href="/facts/Analytical_chemistry/MHQf3YP6">analytical chemistry</a> and <a href="/facts/Mineralogy/MeIK9lx9">mineralogy</a>. His appreciation of the value of quantitative methods led him to become one of the earliest adherents of the <a href="/facts/Lavoisier/UheVQrhu">Lavoisierian</a> doctrines outside France.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p><p>Klaproth was the first to discover <a href="/facts/Uranium/n2sGWBzU">uranium</a>, identifying it first in <a href="/facts/Torbernite/eScmNBno">torbernite</a> but doing the majority of his research on it with the mineral <a href="/facts/Pitchblende/EsEwMErJ">pitchblende</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> On 24 September 1789 he announced his discovery to the Royal Prussian Academy of sciences in Berlin.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> He also discovered <a href="/facts/Zirconium/y7gsoQFz">zirconium</a> in 1789,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> separating it in the form of its "earth" zirconia, oxide ZrO2.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> Klaproth analyzed a brightly-colored form of the mineral called "hyacinth" from Ceylon. He gave the new element the name zirconium based on its Persian name "zargun", gold-colored.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a>: 515 </p><p>Klaproth characterised uranium and zirconium as distinct <a href="/facts/Chemical_element/0jducgWD">elements</a>, though he was unable to isolate them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p><p>Klaproth independently discovered <a href="/facts/Cerium/a7UjMBQ6">cerium</a> (1803), a <a href="/facts/Rare_earth_element/PQSUQumk">rare earth element</a>, around the same time as <a href="/facts/J%25C3%25B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius/HakSv3sP">Jöns Jacob Berzelius</a> and <a href="/facts/Wilhelm_Hisinger/09AEPVFQ">Wilhelm Hisinger</a>, in the winter of 1803.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/William_Gregor/HQcIrgXp">William Gregor</a> of Cornwall was the first to identify the element <a href="/facts/Titanium/53ArnDoy">titanium</a> in 1791, correctly concluding that he had found a new element in the ore <a href="/facts/Ilmenite/fh2eXgpo">ilmenite</a> from the Menachan valley. He proposed the name "menachanite", but his discovery attracted little attention.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a>: 497 Klaproth verified the presence of an oxide of an unknown element in the ore <a href="/facts/Rutile/qwJH5ElN">rutile</a> from Hungary in 1795. Klaproth suggested the name "titanium". It was later determined that menachanite and titanium were the same element, from two different minerals, and Klaproth's name was adopted.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> </p><p>Klaproth clarified the composition of numerous substances until then imperfectly known, including compounds of then newly recognised elements <a href="/facts/Tellurium/v7QvfIvS">tellurium</a>, <a href="/facts/Strontium/ABaA5qQK">strontium</a> and <a href="/facts/Chromium/6sVk6Uu7">chromium</a>. <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Chromium/6sVk6Uu7">Chromium</a> was discovered in 1797 by <a href="/facts/Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin/ygSb9h9Q">Louis Nicolas Vauquelin</a> and independently discovered in 1798 by Klaproth and by <a href="/facts/Tobias_Lowitz/BGzwr2gA">Tobias Lowitz</a>, in a mineral from the Ural mountains.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a>: 578–580 Klaproth confirmed chromium's independent status as an element.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> </p><p>The existence of <a href="/facts/Tellurium/v7QvfIvS">tellurium</a> was first suggested in 1783 by <a href="/facts/Franz-Joseph_Mueller_von_Reichenstein/EX9H2Bjr">Franz-Joseph Mueller von Reichenstein</a>, an Austrian mining engineer who was examining Transylvanian gold samples. Tellurium was also discovered independently by Hungarian <a href="/facts/P%25C3%25A1l_Kitaibel/F1CK2GVp">Pál Kitaibel</a> in 1789. Mueller sent some of his mineral to Klaproth in 1796. Klaproth isolated the new substance and confirmed the identification of the new element <a href="/facts/Tellurium/v7QvfIvS">tellurium</a> in 1798. He credited Mueller as its discoverer, and suggested that the <a href="/facts/Heavy_metals/Cblmy8qI">heavy metal</a> be named "tellus", Latin for 'earth'.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a>: 1067 <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a>: 12–16 </p><p>In 1790 <a href="/facts/Adair_Crawford/2u8PTv7e">Adair Crawford</a> and <a href="/facts/William_Cruickshank_(chemist)/APlpKgxU">William Cruickshank</a> determined that the mineral <a href="/facts/Strontianite/wXCyHRNf">strontianite</a>, found near <a href="/facts/Strontian/nf9CIPp2">Strontian</a> in Scotland, was different from barium-based minerals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> Klaproth was one of several scientists involved in the characterization of <a href="/facts/Strontium/ABaA5qQK">strontium</a> compounds and minerals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> Klaproth, <a href="/facts/Thomas_Charles_Hope/FXeq7g2s">Thomas Charles Hope</a>, and <a href="/facts/Richard_Kirwan/C5pEGnsF">Richard Kirwan</a> independently studied and reported on the properties of strontianite, the preparation of compounds of strontium, and their differentiation from those of barium. In September 1793, Klaproth published on the separation of strontium from <a href="/facts/Barium/IkL09XHQ">barium</a>, and in 1794 on the preparation of strontium oxide and strontium hydroxide.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> In 1808, <a href="/facts/Humphry_Davy/aDNRfNou">Humphry Davy</a> became the first to successfully isolate the pure element.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin/ygSb9h9Q">Louis Nicolas Vauquelin</a> reported the existence of a new element common to emerald and beryl in 1798, and suggested that it be named "glucine". Klaproth confirmed the presence of a new element, and became involved in a lengthy and ongoing debate over its name by suggesting "beryllia". The element was first isolated in 1828, independently by <a href="/facts/Friedrich_W%25C3%25B6hler/D7uh7ySD">Friedrich Wöhler</a> and <a href="/facts/Antoine_Bussy/bhXcWMhg">Antoine Bussy</a>. Only in 1949 did <a href="/facts/IUPAC/2AV6myCK">IUPAC</a> rule exclusively in favor of the name <a href="/facts/Beryllium/dv295voP">beryllium</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a>: 348–352 <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> </p><p>Klaproth published extensively, collecting over 200 papers by himself in <i>Beiträge zur chemischen Kenntnis der Mineralkörper</i> (5 vols., 1795–1810) and <i>Chemische Abhandlungen gemischten Inhalts</i> (1815). He also published a <i>Chemisches Wörterbuch</i> (1807–1810), and edited a revised edition of <a href="/facts/Friedrich_Albrecht_Carl_Gren/mqJvUVYc">F. A. C. Gren</a>'s <i>Handbuch der Chemie</i> (1806). </p><p>Klaproth became a foreign member of the <a href="/facts/Royal_Society/KI5yXCuV">Royal Society</a> of London<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> in 1795,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> and a foreign member of the <a href="/facts/Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences/QazgtP1n">Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences</a> in 1804.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> He also belonged to the <a href="/facts/Institut_de_France/jrre6kaI">Institut de France</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> </p><p>The crater <a href="/facts/Klaproth_(crater)/HehbUwKK">Klaproth</a> on the <a href="/facts/Moon/zKHqEMPb">Moon</a> is named after him.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> </p><p>In 1823, botanist <a href="/facts/Carl_Sigismund_Kunth/wdf2cxj2">Carl Sigismund Kunth</a> published a genus of <a href="/facts/Flowering_plant/E5eGYIvY">flowering plants</a> (belonging to the family <a href="/facts/Loasaceae/qrmkF8Iq">Loasaceae</a>), from Central America as <i><a href="/facts/Klaprothia/VEGuGPY7">Klaprothia</a></i> in his honour.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> </p><p>His son <a href="/facts/Julius_Klaproth/72fjDbDK">Julius</a> was a famous <a href="/facts/Oriental_studies/RImUKTqq">orientalist</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="works">Works</h2> <ul><li><i>Beiträge Zur Chemischen Kenntniss Der Mineralkörper</i> . Vol. 1–5 . Rottmann, Berlin 1795–1810 <a href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:2-11600">Digital edition</a> by the <a href="/facts/University_and_State_Library_D%25C3%25BCsseldorf/9yK5ezP0">University and State Library Düsseldorf</a></li> <li><i>Chemisches Wörterbuch</i> . Vol. 1–9 . Voss, Berlin 1807–1819 <a href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:2-28821">Digital edition</a> by the <a href="/facts/University_and_State_Library_D%25C3%25BCsseldorf/9yK5ezP0">University and State Library Düsseldorf</a></li> <li><i>Chemische Abhandlungen gemischten Inhalts</i> . Nicolai, Berlin [u. a.] 1815 <a href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:2-9305">Digital edition</a> by the <a href="/facts/University_and_State_Library_D%25C3%25BCsseldorf/9yK5ezP0">University and State Library Düsseldorf</a></li></ul> <h2 id="bibliography">Bibliography</h2> <ul><li><a href="http://bibliothek.bbaw.de/kataloge/literaturnachweise/klaproth/literatur.pdf">Publication list of Klaproth</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190612135141/http://bibliothek.bbaw.de/kataloge/literaturnachweise/klaproth/literatur.pdf">Archived</a></li></ul> <h2 id="additional-resources">Additional resources</h2> <ul><li>Hoppe, G; Damaschun F; Wappler G (April 1987). "[An appreciation of Martin Heinrich Klaproth as a mineral chemist]". <i><a href="/facts/Pharmazie/w3ylcN42">Pharmazie</a></i>. 42 (4): 266–7. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3303064">3303064</a>.</li> <li>Sepke, H; Sepke I (August 1986). "[The history of physiologic chemistry in the first years of its existence at the Berlin University. Contributions of the chemist M. H. Klaproth and others]". <i>Zeitschrift für die gesamte Hygiene und ihre Grenzgebiete</i>. 32 (8): 504–6. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3535265">3535265</a>.</li> <li>Rocchietta, S (February 1967). "[The pharmacist Martin Klaproth (1743–1817), pioneer of modern analytical chemistry, discoverer of uranium. On the 150th anniversary of his death]". <i><a href="/facts/Minerva_Med./FvMAhqGe">Minerva Med.</a></i> (in Italian). 58 (13): 229. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5336711">5336711</a>.</li> <li>Dann, G E (July 1958). "[Scheele & Klaproth; a comparison.]". <i>Svensk Farmaceutisk Tidskrift</i>. 62 (19–20): 433–7. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13580811">13580811</a>.</li> <li>Dann, G E (September 1953). "[Contribution of Martin Heinrich Klaproth to the development of chemistry.]". <i><a href="/facts/Pharmazie/w3ylcN42">Pharmazie</a></i>. 8 (9): 771–9. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13120350">13120350</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Philip_Rashleigh_(1729%25E2%2580%25931811)/uz94Nfhn">Philip Ralshleigh</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/John_Hawkins_(geologist)/8DSxUBfL">John Hawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/William_Gregor/HQcIrgXp">William Gregor</a></li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Martin Heinrich Klaproth. <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Dann, Georg Edmund (1977). "Klaproth, Martin Heinrich". Neue Deutsche Biographie (in German). Vol. 11. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. pp. 707–709. (full text online). <a href="https://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/0001/bsb00016328/images/index.html?seite=713" target="_blank">https://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/0001/bsb00016328/images/index.html?seite=713</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Klein, Ursula (2007). "Apothecary-Chemists in Eighteenth-Century Germany". In Principe, Lawrence M. (ed.). New narratives in eighteenth-century chemistry : contributions from the First Francis Bacon Workshop, 21–23 April 2005, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. Springer. pp. 97–137. ISBN 978-9048175932. Retrieved 8 December 2019. <a href="978-9048175932" target="_blank">978-9048175932</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Rocchietta, S (February 1967). "[The pharmacist Martin Klaproth (1743–1817), pioneer of modern analytical chemistry, discoverer of uranium. On the 150th anniversary of his death]". Minerva Med. (in Italian). 58 (13): 229. PMID 5336711. <a href="/wiki/Minerva_Med." target="_blank">/wiki/Minerva_Med.</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Marshall, James L. Marshall; Marshall, Virginia R. Marshall (2008). "Rediscovery of the elements: Klaproth" (PDF). The Hexagon: 20–24. Retrieved 8 December 2019. <a href="http://www.chem.unt.edu/~jimm/REDISCOVERY%207-09-2018/Hexagon%20Articles/klaproth.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.chem.unt.edu/~jimm/REDISCOVERY%207-09-2018/Hexagon%20Articles/klaproth.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Garrison, Ervan (2003). "Instrumental Analytical Techniques for Archaeological Geology". Techniques in Archaeological Geology. Natural Science in Archaeology. Springer. pp. 207–246. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-05163-4_7. ISBN 978-3-662-05163-4. <a href="978-3-662-05163-4" target="_blank">978-3-662-05163-4</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Marshall, James L. Marshall; Marshall, Virginia R. Marshall (2008). "Rediscovery of the elements: Klaproth" (PDF). The Hexagon: 20–24. Retrieved 8 December 2019. <a href="http://www.chem.unt.edu/~jimm/REDISCOVERY%207-09-2018/Hexagon%20Articles/klaproth.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.chem.unt.edu/~jimm/REDISCOVERY%207-09-2018/Hexagon%20Articles/klaproth.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Dahlkamp, Franz J. (1991). Uranium Ore Deposits. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 5. ISBN 978-3-662-02892-6. Retrieved 8 December 2019. <a href="978-3-662-02892-6" target="_blank">978-3-662-02892-6</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>"KLAPROTH, Martin Heinrich. (1743 - 1817)". The Mineralogical Record, Inc. Retrieved 8 December 2019. <a href="https://mineralogicalrecord.com/libdetail.asp?id=762" target="_blank">https://mineralogicalrecord.com/libdetail.asp?id=762</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Robison, Roger F. (2015). Mining and selling radium and uranium. Springer. pp. 59–60. ISBN 9783319118291. Retrieved 8 December 2019. <a href="9783319118291" target="_blank">9783319118291</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Klein, Ursula (2007). "Apothecary-Chemists in Eighteenth-Century Germany". In Principe, Lawrence M. (ed.). New narratives in eighteenth-century chemistry : contributions from the First Francis Bacon Workshop, 21–23 April 2005, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. Springer. pp. 97–137. ISBN 978-9048175932. Retrieved 8 December 2019. <a href="978-9048175932" target="_blank">978-9048175932</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Thomson, Thomas (1812). History of the Royal Society: From Its Institution to the End of the Eighteenth Century. London: R. Baldwin. p. lxiv, 485. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nqjjR4Qt9IgC&pg=PR64" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=nqjjR4Qt9IgC&pg=PR64</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>"Martin Klaproth". Physics Today (12): 5879. 1 December 2017. Bibcode:2017PhT..2017l5879.. doi:10.1063/PT.6.6.20171201a. <a href="https://physicstoday.scitation.org/do/10.1063/pt.6.6.20171201a/full/" target="_blank">https://physicstoday.scitation.org/do/10.1063/pt.6.6.20171201a/full/</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Dann, Georg Edmund (1977). "Klaproth, Martin Heinrich". Neue Deutsche Biographie (in German). Vol. 11. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. pp. 707–709. (full text online). <a href="https://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/0001/bsb00016328/images/index.html?seite=713" target="_blank">https://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/0001/bsb00016328/images/index.html?seite=713</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Klein, Ursula (2007). "Apothecary-Chemists in Eighteenth-Century Germany". In Principe, Lawrence M. (ed.). New narratives in eighteenth-century chemistry : contributions from the First Francis Bacon Workshop, 21–23 April 2005, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. Springer. pp. 97–137. ISBN 978-9048175932. Retrieved 8 December 2019. <a href="978-9048175932" target="_blank">978-9048175932</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Klein, Ursula (2007). "Apothecary-Chemists in Eighteenth-Century Germany". In Principe, Lawrence M. (ed.). 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