Fat face

<h2 id="historical-background">Historical background</h2>

Great changes took place in the style of printed letters available from <a href="/facts/Type_foundry/fKARohId">type foundries</a> in the hundred years after 1750. At the beginning of this period, fonts in Latin-alphabet printing were predominantly intended for book printing. The modern concept of text faces having companion bold fonts did not exist, although some titling capitals were quite bold; if a bolder effect was intended <a href="/facts/Blackletter/9r62McCb">blackletter</a> might be used.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a>
From the arrival of <a href="/facts/Roman_type/qT1JHFWx">roman type</a> around 1475 to the late eighteenth century, relatively little development in letter design took place, as most fonts of the period were intended for body text, and they stayed relatively similar in design, generally ignoring local styles of lettering or newer "pointed-pen" styles of calligraphy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a>

Starting in the late seventeenth century, typefounders developed what are now called <a href="/facts/Serif/1MVKH2Se">transitional</a> and then <a href="/facts/Didone_(typography)/8d6D1fCc">Didone</a> types. These typefaces had daringly slender horizontals and serif details, catching up to the steely calligraphy and <a href="/facts/Copperplate_engraving/UGGoXppU">copperplate engraving</a> styles of the period, that could show off the increasingly high quality of paper and printing technology of the period.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> In addition, Didone typefaces had a strictly vertical stress: without exception, the vertical lines were thicker than the horizontals, creating a much more geometric and modular design.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a>
A major development of the early nineteenth century was the arrival of the printed <a href="/facts/Poster/vlxQkEDr">poster</a> and increasing use of printing for publicity and advertising material. This presumably caused a desire to make eye-catching new types of letters available for printing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> Large typefaces clearly intended for poster use began to appear in London in the second half of the eighteenth century, introduced by the typefounders Thomas Cottrell and by William Caslon II by 1764,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> although casting large <a href="/facts/Metal_type/7hLKC5nF">metal type</a> in sand for book titles was used for centuries before that.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> Caslon's were apparently marketed for use by <a href="/facts/Stagecoach/E3c9H7gd">stagecoach</a> services, with lists of towns on the specimen sheets.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> Although influenced by a textbook on architectural lettering, they still remained similar to magnified body text forms, rather than a new departure, although they did establish one precedent later followed by both fat face typefaces and modern face types generally, that numerals were at a fixed height rather than the old <a href="/facts/Text_figures/c3A2PVnB">text figures</a> of variable height.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a>
The term "fat face" itself is older than the modern genre. Meaning typefaces bolder than normal weight (but only slightly, by modern standards) it was used in 1683 by <a href="/facts/Joseph_Moxon/HaSXlptd">Joseph Moxon</a> as "a broad-stemmed letter".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> Reference books on printing from the nineteenth century also used it to refer to new Didone typefaces that were bolder than before but still intended for printing <a href="/facts/Body_text/vIGtW2NX">body text</a> or <a href="/facts/Poetry/ylGarm6p">poetry</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a>

<h2 id="first-appearances">First appearances</h2>

According to Mosley, "the growth [of fat face letters] from existing models can be continuously traced. There is a clear parallel to it in contemporary architectural lettering...in printing types its fatness was steadily increased".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a>

Two contemporary sources concurred that fat face letters were popularised by the typefounder <a href="/facts/Robert_Thorne_(typographer)/yUyfsF2d">Robert Thorne</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a> He had been an apprentice to Thomas Cottrell,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> who pioneered large-size poster types, before setting up his own company, often called the <a href="/facts/Fann_Street_Foundry/aNFvpfuB">Fann Street Foundry</a>, in North London.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a> According to <a href="/facts/Thomas_Curson_Hansard/4pfBuW5Y">Thomas Curson Hansard</a> (1825), "the extremely bold and fat letter, now prevalent in job-printing, owes its introduction principally to Mr. Thorne, a spirited and successful letter-founder" and according to <a href="/facts/William_Savage_(printer)/je65Mv4C">William Savage</a> (1822) he "has been principally instrumental in the revolution that has taken place in Posting Bills by the introduction of fat types."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> Unfortunately, few typeface specimen books from the period or from his foundry survive, making it difficult to confirm this; in addition, typeface specimens of the time generally make no comments at all on the types shown.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a> From his study of specimen books, Sébastien Morlighem does not believe that the escalating trend was entirely driven by Thorne: "a lesser-known, yet decisive, contribution came from the <a href="/facts/Caslon_Type_Foundry/mR6fg0yb">Caslon foundry</a>"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a> and that "it is more accurate to see that several people – punchcutters, founders, printers, publishers – were involved in its development and popularisation".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a>
As to the clients for these types, Mosley writes that "it is tempting to see" the lottery agent Thomas Bish as a force behind them: there were two Thomas Bishes, a father <a href="/facts/Thomas_Bish/7823I2LB">and son</a> who were famous lottery promoters, who were well known for brash, startling advertising.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> Mosley highlights as significant a fat face in a later specimen book simply showcased with the single specimen word "Bish",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a> and notes that Bish posters began with "heavy roman lettering engraved on wood, for which fat-face types were substituted as they became available".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a>

<h2 id="widespread-use">Widespread use</h2>

Fat faces rapidly became popular. Whereas early poster types and titling capitals were generally only upright, fat faces were made in roman and in <a href="/facts/Italic_type/BECCTMng">italics</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a> <a href="/facts/Swash_(typography)/4u0ClDkS">Swash capitals</a> for A M N V W Y were quite common; the sample text "VANWAYMAN" was used as a sample text by the Caslon type foundry to showcase them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a> They were also made down into quite small sizes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a>

Fat faces were also used in the US, where they were used on gravestones.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a> In the United States Barnhurst and Nerone comment that fat face newspaper nameplates were in fashion in the 1810s; later they were often replaced by blackletter.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a>
Mosley has particularly praised those of <a href="/facts/Vincent_Figgins/BPE4PeYS">Vincent Figgins</a>' foundry (digitised by <a href="/facts/Matthew_Carter/KHBkBP9n">Matthew Carter</a> as Elephant, above): "exaggeration puts a huge strain on the designer if the result is to retain any coherence at all. Whoever cut the fat-faces of Vincent Figgins ... handled the problems with what can only be described as elegance."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> New varieties were added by type foundries, including condensed, wide and <a href="/facts/Italic_type/BECCTMng">contra-italic</a> versions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a> Other display typefaces also proliferated following their lead; <a href="/facts/Reverse-contrast_typefaces/XYFGfG7N">reverse-contrast typefaces</a>, introduced by 1821, may be seen as an inversion of the style.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a>

<h3>Ornamented designs</h3>

Besides simple typefaces, variants were designed with patterns and decorations. These extended from simple inline designs to artwork such as flowers and harvest themes. Decorated fat face typefaces were cut in wood and reproduced by dabbing, or <a href="/facts/Stereotype_(printing)/LzWd5TzA">stereotype</a>, a technique in which the wooden pattern is driven into molten metal just at the point of solidifying.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a>
One type foundry particularly known for decorated designs was the London foundry of <a href="/facts/Louis_Pouch%25C3%25A9e/vvGkfTGS">Louis John Pouchée</a>, active from 1818<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a> to 1830.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a> Pouchée was a <a href="/facts/Freemason/zgLC9973">Freemason</a>, and some of his foundry's types were inspired by Masonic emblems. Many of his wooden patterns are preserved.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a> While very striking, it is not clear that these types were much used: <a href="/facts/John_Dreyfus/IBrXQnlm">John Dreyfus</a> reported that "the late <a href="/facts/Ellic_Howe/dg8Jqk58">Ellic Howe</a>, a printing historian and a Freemason, failed to discover any piece of printing on which Pouchée's Masonic types were used".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a> He suggested that the fine detail of Pouchée's ornamented letters was not practical for job printing work at the time and that some of the designs were too large for playbills and handbills, their likely market.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a> Ultimately large metal types were only briefly used, as they were soon replaced by <a href="/facts/Router_(woodworking)/qCBfPywe">routed</a> and <a href="/facts/Pantograph/5m9oDekm">pantograph</a>-engraved <a href="/facts/Wood_type/q3lmQEAN">wood display type</a>, which was much lighter and cheaper.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a>
Bold lettering also appears on copperplate engraving, such as engraved maps of the period. Digital font designer Andy Clymer reports finding on engraved maps that it was more common for bold lettering to be decorated, leaving spaces not engraved out, than it was to be solid black: "whenever things would get heavier, they would often just get more ornamented…not filled in solid [but] with some kind of ornamentation or decoration."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a> This is seen in A Specimen of the Print Hands, an internal specimen of lettering styles used by the <a href="/facts/Ordnance_Survey/syLosef7">Ordnance Survey</a> in the early nineteenth century, in which the boldest lettering is decorated.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a>

<h3>Late nineteenth century</h3>
New types of display type proliferated in the late nineteenth century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a> In 1863, printer H. Morgan in <a href="/facts/Madras/8ngv75bW">Madras</a> wrote that fat-face letter "is seldom used now".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a> In 1901 the influential American printer <a href="/facts/Theodore_Low_De_Vinne/fWsY3r0K">Theodore Low De Vinne</a> criticised the style as "an object lesson of absurdity".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a>
The term "fat face" continued to be used for bolder types, not just for the ultra-bold poster types. In 1893 William B. MacKellar of the major American type foundry <a href="/facts/Binny_%2526_Ronaldson/y3FuWUPb">MacKellar, Smiths, & Jordan</a> showed a wide body text face described as a fat face in discussing pay scales for compositors.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a>

<h2 id="twentieth-century-and-later">Twentieth century and later</h2>

Fat faces returned to some popularity in the twentieth century, in the UK as part of the <a href="/facts/Victoriana/kmKb9LeQ">Victoriana</a> style promoted by <a href="/facts/John_Betjeman/JQyTuDtt">John Betjeman</a> and others in the 1930s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a> Fat face types sold as metal type in the twentieth century included:

<ul><li>Ultra Bodoni by <a href="/facts/Morris_Fuller_Benton/kDWQAJuh">Morris Fuller Benton</a> at <a href="/facts/American_Type_Founders/N3xjUU3C">American Type Founders</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a></li>
<li>Falstaff by <a href="/facts/Monotype_Imaging/ux6uppQh">Monotype</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a></li>
<li>Normande by <a href="/facts/Berthold_Type_Foundry/BfNypjma">Berthold</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a></li>
<li>Thorowgood by <a href="/facts/Mergenthaler_Linotype_Company/V7STUJyY">Linotype</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a></li></ul>
Digital-period fat face types include:

<ul><li>Elephant/Big Figgins by Matthew Carter (1992, in 1998 rereleased under the second name in an expanded family)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a></li>
<li>Surveyor, designed by <a href="/facts/Hoefler_%2526_Co./k5stbwlT">Hoefler & Frere-Jones</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a> and later display companion Obsidian<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a></li>
<li>Brunel and Isambard by <a href="/facts/Paul_Barnes_(designer)/HxHsyCdr">Paul Barnes</a> with <a href="/facts/Christian_Schwartz/FQKE271C">Christian Schwartz</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a> (Although not a fat face, topping out in a bold weight, Barnes' Chiswick is inspired by vernacular letterforms preceding them, with a wide range of alternates based on lettering of the period.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a>)</li></ul>
<h2 id="notes">Notes</h2>

<h3>Sources</h3>
<h3>Cited literature</h3>

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Alan_Bartram_(design_writer)/oNLfERDD">Bartram, Alan</a> (1986). <a href="https://archive.org/details/englishlettering0000bart">The English Lettering Tradition from 1700 to the present day</a> (1st ed.). Lund Humphries. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780853315124.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Nicolete_Gray/G72zYmqb">Gray, Nicolete</a> (1977). Nineteenth Century Ornamented Typefaces.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Thomas_Curson_Hansard/4pfBuW5Y">Hansard, Thomas Curson</a> (1825). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vfK3BGlbxVkC&pg=PT360">Typographia: an Historical Sketch of the Origin and Progress of the Art of Printing: With Practical Directions for Conducting Every Department in an Office: with a Description of Stereotype and Lithography. Illustrated by Engravings, Biographical Notices, and Portraits</a>. Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Alfred_F._Johnson/j0LF9KU7">Johnson, Alfred F.</a> (1970). "Fat Faces: Their History, Forms and Use (1947)". Selected essays on books and printing. Van Gendt & Co. pp. 409–415. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9789063000165.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/John_Lewis_(typographer)/uwckNUQE">Lewis, John</a> (1962). <a href="https://archive.org/details/trent_0116404139556">Printed Ephemera: the changing uses of type and letterforms in English and American printing</a>. Ipswich: W. S. Cowell.</li>
<li>Morlighem, Sébastien (2014). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220928203353/https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?did=1&uin=uk.bl.ethos.651303">The 'modern face' in France and Great Britain, 1781-1825: typography as an ideal of progress</a> (PhD). <a href="/facts/University_of_Reading/nohWeG6A">University of Reading</a>. Archived from <a href="https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?did=1&uin=uk.bl.ethos.651303">the original</a> on 28 September 2022. Retrieved 28 September 2022.</li>
<li>Morlighem, Sébastien (2020). <a href="https://www.poem-editions.com/products/thorne">Robert Thorne and the Introduction of the 'modern' fat face</a>. Poem.</li>
<li>Morlighem, Sébastien (2021). <a href="https://vimeo.com/516485231">"Dusting Latin Type History #1 on the Origin of Bold and Fat Faces with Sébastien Morlighem"</a>. Vimeo. Type@Cooper. Retrieved 13 May 2021.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/James_Mosley/jGKbyr9Q">Mosley, James</a> (1958). "The Typefoundry of Vincent Figgins, 1792-1836". Motif (1): 29–36.</li>
<li>Mosley, James (1963). "English Vernacular". Motif. 11: 3–56.</li>
<li>Mosley, James (1966). "Nineteenth-century decorated types at Oxford". Journal of the Printing Historical Society: 1–35.</li>
<li>Mosley, James (1984). British Type Specimens before 1831: a hand-list. Oxford Bibliographical Society, Bodleian Library in association with the Dept. of Typography & Graphic Communication, University of Reading. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780901420114.</li>
<li>Mosley, James, ed. (1990). <a href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_xpzgAAAAMAAJ/page/n50">A Specimen of Printing Types & Various Ornaments 1796: Reproduced Together with the Sale Catalogue of the British Letter-Foundry 1797</a>. <a href="/facts/Printing_Historical_Society/TYVLCQcB">Printing Historical Society</a>. pp. 5–12. Big types had been cast in sand, using wooden patterns, for some centuries [by 1750] but there is evidence that English typefounders only began to make big letters for posters and other commercial printing towards 1770, when Thomas Cottrell made his 'Proscription or Posting letter of great bulk and dimension' and William Caslon II cast his 'Patagonian' or 'Proscription letters'.</li>
<li>Mosley, James (1993). Ornamented types: twenty-three alphabets from the foundry of Louis John Poucheé. I.M. Imprimit in association with the St. Bride Printing Library.</li>
<li>Mosley, James (2003). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WqXd_w4S4SsC&pg=PA35">"Reviving the Classics: Matthew Carter and the Interpretation of Historical Models"</a>. In Mosley, James; Re, Margaret; Drucker, Johanna; Carter, Matthew (eds.). Typographically Speaking: The Art of Matthew Carter. Princeton Architectural Press. pp. 35–6, 61, 84, 90. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781568984278. Retrieved 30 January 2016.</li>
<li>Rennie, Paul (2001). <a href="http://www.rennart.co.uk/website.pdfs/festivaltypography.pdf">"Fat Faces All Around: Lettering and the Festival Style"</a> (PDF). Twentieth Century Architecture. 5: 109–115. Retrieved 26 May 2020.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/William_Savage_(printer)/je65Mv4C">Savage, William</a> (1822). <a href="https://archive.org/details/McGillLibrary-rbsc_hints-decorative-printing_colgate9S28P731823-17631/page/n119/mode/2up">Practical Hints on Decorative Printing</a>. London. p. 72.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Berthold_Wolpe/Q2KyTkmf">Wolpe, Berthold</a> (1964). "Caslon Architectural: On the origin and design of the large letters cut and cast by William Caslon II". Alphabet. pp. 57–72.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Berthold_Wolpe/Q2KyTkmf">Wolpe, Berthold</a> (1967). Vincent Figgins: Type specimens, 1801 and 1815. London: Printing Historical Society.</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Ford, Thomas (1854). The Compositor's Handbook. T. Ford. p. 243. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qJIDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA243" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=qJIDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA243</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Lewis 1962, p. 12. - Lewis, John (1962). Printed Ephemera: the changing uses of type and letterforms in English and American printing. Ipswich: W. S. Cowell. <a href="https://archive.org/details/trent_0116404139556" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/trent_0116404139556</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Kennard, Jennifer (3 January 2014). "The Story of Our Friend, the Fat Face". Fonts in Use. Retrieved 11 August 2015. <a href="https://fontsinuse.com/uses/5578/the-story-of-our-friend-the-fat-face" target="_blank">https://fontsinuse.com/uses/5578/the-story-of-our-friend-the-fat-face</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Phinney, Thomas. "Fat Faces". Graphic Design and Publishing Centre. Archived from the original on 9 October 2015. Retrieved 10 August 2015. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151009143543/http://www.graphic-design.com/typography/design/decorative-display-typestyles" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20151009143543/http://www.graphic-design.com/typography/design/decorative-display-typestyles</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Although note that, unsurprisingly, other authors have had different views: for instance Fred Smeijers describes Hendrik van den Keere's large heavy types of the 1560s make him "one of the first to make roman display types that were explicitly conceived as such."[6] <a href="/wiki/Fred_Smeijers" target="_blank">/wiki/Fred_Smeijers</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Mosley 2003, p. 35. - Mosley, James (2003). "Reviving the Classics: Matthew Carter and the Interpretation of Historical Models". In Mosley, James; Re, Margaret; Drucker, Johanna; Carter, Matthew (eds.). Typographically Speaking: The Art of Matthew Carter. Princeton Architectural Press. pp. 35–6, 61, 84, 90. ISBN 9781568984278. Retrieved 30 January 2016. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WqXd_w4S4SsC&pg=PA35" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=WqXd_w4S4SsC&pg=PA35</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Mosley 2003, p. 35. - Mosley, James (2003). "Reviving the Classics: Matthew Carter and the Interpretation of Historical Models". In Mosley, James; Re, Margaret; Drucker, Johanna; Carter, Matthew (eds.). Typographically Speaking: The Art of Matthew Carter. Princeton Architectural Press. pp. 35–6, 61, 84, 90. ISBN 9781568984278. Retrieved 30 January 2016. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WqXd_w4S4SsC&pg=PA35" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=WqXd_w4S4SsC&pg=PA35</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Mosley, James. "Comments on Typophile thread "Where do bold typefaces come from?"". Typophile. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 16 December 2016. John Smith says in his Printer's grammar (London, 1755). 'Black Letter … is sometimes used … to serve for matter which the Author would particularly enforce to the reader.' <a href="/wiki/James_Mosley" target="_blank">/wiki/James_Mosley</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Lane, John A.; Lommen, Mathieu. "John Lane & Mathieu Lommen: ATypI Amsterdam Presentation". YouTube. ATypI. Retrieved 12 July 2019. <a href="/wiki/John_A._Lane" target="_blank">/wiki/John_A._Lane</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">This was not the only way in which fonts could appear different, however: differences in x-height, spacing, condensation and colour on the page can make body text fonts look different in design even if individual letters are not that different. <a href="/wiki/X-height" target="_blank">/wiki/X-height</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Meggs, Philip B. & Purvis, Alston W. (2006). "Graphic Design and the Industrial Revolution". History of Graphic Design. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. p. 122. <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Sutton, James & Sutton, Alan (1988). An Atlas of Typeforms. Wordsworth Editions. p. 59. ISBN 1-85326-911-5. <a href="1-85326-911-5" target="_blank">1-85326-911-5</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Mosley 1993, p. 8. - Mosley, James (1993). Ornamented types: twenty-three alphabets from the foundry of Louis John Poucheé. I.M. Imprimit in association with the St. Bride Printing Library. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Didone types were at the time called 'modern' for their sophisticated image; the name has fallen from use as they have become less common in body text from around the end of the nineteenth century. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Phinney, Thomas. "Transitional & Modern Type Families". Graphic Design & Publishing Center. Retrieved 30 October 2015. <a href="http://www.graphic-design.com/typography/design/transitional-modern-type-families" target="_blank">http://www.graphic-design.com/typography/design/transitional-modern-type-families</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Hoefler, Jonathan. "Didot History". Hoefler & Frere-Jones. Retrieved 11 August 2015. <a href="http://www.typography.com/fonts/didot/history/" target="_blank">http://www.typography.com/fonts/didot/history/</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">David Raizman (2003). History of Modern Design: Graphics and Products Since the Industrial Revolution. Laurence King Publishing. pp. 40–3. ISBN 978-1-85669-348-6. <a href="978-1-85669-348-6" target="_blank">978-1-85669-348-6</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Eskilson, Stephen J. (2007). Graphic Design: A New History. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 25. ISBN 9780300120110. <a href="9780300120110" target="_blank">9780300120110</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Frere-Jones, Tobias. "Scrambled Eggs & Serifs". Frere-Jones Type. Retrieved 23 October 2015. <a href="/wiki/Tobias_Frere-Jones" target="_blank">/wiki/Tobias_Frere-Jones</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">John Lewis (April 2007). Typography: Design and Practice. Jeremy Mills Publishing. pp. 13–17. ISBN 978-1-905217-45-8. <a href="978-1-905217-45-8" target="_blank">978-1-905217-45-8</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Wolpe 1964, pp. 59–62. - Wolpe, Berthold (1964). "Caslon Architectural: On the origin and design of the large letters cut and cast by William Caslon II". Alphabet. pp. 57–72. <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Mosley 1990, pp. 9–10. - Mosley, James, ed. (1990). A Specimen of Printing Types & Various Ornaments 1796: Reproduced Together with the Sale Catalogue of the British Letter-Foundry 1797. Printing Historical Society. pp. 5–12. Big types had been cast in sand, using wooden patterns, for some centuries [by 1750] but there is evidence that English typefounders only began to make big letters for posters and other commercial printing towards 1770, when Thomas Cottrell made his 'Proscription or Posting letter of great bulk and dimension' and William Caslon II cast his 'Patagonian' or 'Proscription letters'. <a href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_xpzgAAAAMAAJ/page/n50" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_xpzgAAAAMAAJ/page/n50</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Howes, Justin (2004). "Caslon's Patagonian". Matrix. 24: 61–71. <a href="/wiki/Justin_Howes" target="_blank">/wiki/Justin_Howes</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Wolpe 1964, p. 63. - Wolpe, Berthold (1964). "Caslon Architectural: On the origin and design of the large letters cut and cast by William Caslon II". Alphabet. pp. 57–72. <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Wolpe 1964, p. 62. - Wolpe, Berthold (1964). "Caslon Architectural: On the origin and design of the large letters cut and cast by William Caslon II". Alphabet. pp. 57–72. <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Caslon II's numerals, like many early examines of modern "lining" figures, are slightly below cap height. <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Morlighem 2020, p. 6. - Morlighem, Sébastien (2020). Robert Thorne and the Introduction of the 'modern' fat face. Poem. <a href="https://www.poem-editions.com/products/thorne" target="_blank">https://www.poem-editions.com/products/thorne</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Morlighem 2020, pp. 6–7. - Morlighem, Sébastien (2020). Robert Thorne and the Introduction of the 'modern' fat face. Poem. <a href="https://www.poem-editions.com/products/thorne" target="_blank">https://www.poem-editions.com/products/thorne</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Mosley 1993, p. 10. - Mosley, James (1993). Ornamented types: twenty-three alphabets from the foundry of Louis John Poucheé. I.M. Imprimit in association with the St. Bride Printing Library. <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Writers on the history of printing have discussed the increasing boldness of fat face-style types in the early nineteenth century as a transition from bold designs to truly fat typefaces, although it is not clear that nineteenth-century printers made any distinction. According to Alfred F. Johnson, bold typefaces begin to appear in the 1800s with the more extreme fat face types appearing on advertisements for the state lottery from around 1810.[27] The Fry Foundry's French Canon No. 2 of around 1806 has been described as a "semi-fat face";[28] in the opinion of Paul Barnes the letterforms in Thorne's specimen of 1803 are not yet true fat faces, only bold.[29] Nicolete Gray in her book Nineteenth Century Ornamented Typefaces describes the Fry Foundry's as an early paradigm but not quite the "fully developed fat face": "a superb, wide, generous letter, magnificently roman, but with a good deal less of order and more of pomp than Trajan's classic. It is the same style as the best English architectural lettering ... it is not a modern face ... this noble letter is merely transitional; by 1815 it has entirely disappeared from the specimen books. It is replaced by the fully developed fat face."[30] <a href="/wiki/Alfred_F._Johnson" target="_blank">/wiki/Alfred_F._Johnson</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">Johnson 1970, p. 409. - Johnson, Alfred F. (1970). "Fat Faces: Their History, Forms and Use (1947)". Selected essays on books and printing. Van Gendt & Co. pp. 409–415. ISBN 9789063000165. <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Hansard 1825, p. 360. - Hansard, Thomas Curson (1825). Typographia: an Historical Sketch of the Origin and Progress of the Art of Printing: With Practical Directions for Conducting Every Department in an Office: with a Description of Stereotype and Lithography. Illustrated by Engravings, Biographical Notices, and Portraits. Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vfK3BGlbxVkC&pg=PT360" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=vfK3BGlbxVkC&pg=PT360</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Hansard 1825, p. 360. - Hansard, Thomas Curson (1825). Typographia: an Historical Sketch of the Origin and Progress of the Art of Printing: With Practical Directions for Conducting Every Department in an Office: with a Description of Stereotype and Lithography. Illustrated by Engravings, Biographical Notices, and Portraits. Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vfK3BGlbxVkC&pg=PT360" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=vfK3BGlbxVkC&pg=PT360</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Hansard 1825, p. 360. - Hansard, Thomas Curson (1825). Typographia: an Historical Sketch of the Origin and Progress of the Art of Printing: With Practical Directions for Conducting Every Department in an Office: with a Description of Stereotype and Lithography. Illustrated by Engravings, Biographical Notices, and Portraits. Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vfK3BGlbxVkC&pg=PT360" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=vfK3BGlbxVkC&pg=PT360</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">Savage 1822, p. 72. - Savage, William (1822). Practical Hints on Decorative Printing. London. p. 72. <a href="https://archive.org/details/McGillLibrary-rbsc_hints-decorative-printing_colgate9S28P731823-17631/page/n119/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/McGillLibrary-rbsc_hints-decorative-printing_colgate9S28P731823-17631/page/n119/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Barnes, Paul. "Isambard: read the story". Commercial Type. Retrieved 16 May 2020. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Barnes_(designer)" target="_blank">/wiki/Paul_Barnes_(designer)</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">Macmillan, David. "Reading Metal Type Specimens". Circuitous Root. Retrieved 9 August 2023. It is always a good idea to remember that these metal type specimens are not academic treatises on the aesthetics of typefaces - they're selling fonts of type or of matrices. <a href="https://www.circuitousroot.com/artifice/letters/press/heretics-guide/reading-metal-type-specimens/index.html" target="_blank">https://www.circuitousroot.com/artifice/letters/press/heretics-guide/reading-metal-type-specimens/index.html</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">Sowersby, Kris (18 January 2023). "Family design information". Klim Type Foundry. Retrieved 9 August 2023. Writing about typefaces is a relatively recent act. We rarely know what typefaces designers thought about their own work, or their rationale for making them. <a href="/wiki/Kris_Sowersby" target="_blank">/wiki/Kris_Sowersby</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">Mosley 1958, p. 32. - Mosley, James (1958). "The Typefoundry of Vincent Figgins, 1792-1836". Motif (1): 29–36. <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">Morlighem 2020, p. 9. - Morlighem, Sébastien (2020). Robert Thorne and the Introduction of the 'modern' fat face. Poem. <a href="https://www.poem-editions.com/products/thorne" target="_blank">https://www.poem-editions.com/products/thorne</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">Morlighem 2020, p. 22. - Morlighem, Sébastien (2020). Robert Thorne and the Introduction of the 'modern' fat face. Poem. <a href="https://www.poem-editions.com/products/thorne" target="_blank">https://www.poem-editions.com/products/thorne</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">There were two Thomas Bishes, father and son. Both have been extensively discussed in literature on the history of advertising; see following sources.[42][43][44] <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">Specifically, the Caslon foundry specimen of 1830, reprinted in 1841.[45] <a href="/wiki/Caslon_foundry" target="_blank">/wiki/Caslon_foundry</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">Mosley 1993, p. 10. - Mosley, James (1993). Ornamented types: twenty-three alphabets from the foundry of Louis John Poucheé. I.M. Imprimit in association with the St. Bride Printing Library. <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">Barnes, Paul. "Isambard: read the story". Commercial Type. Retrieved 16 May 2020. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Barnes_(designer)" target="_blank">/wiki/Paul_Barnes_(designer)</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">Barnes, Paul. "Isambard: read the story". Commercial Type. Retrieved 16 May 2020. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Barnes_(designer)" target="_blank">/wiki/Paul_Barnes_(designer)</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:47">Specimen of Printing Types. Caslon & Catherwood/Henry Caslon. 1821. Retrieved 31 December 2021. <a href="https://archive.org/details/19505_20211124" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/19505_20211124</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:48">It also appears in the White Foundry of New York specimen book of 1831[47] and the Caslon foundry specimen book of 1841.[45] <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:49">Barnes, Paul. "Isambard: read the story". Commercial Type. Retrieved 16 May 2020. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Barnes_(designer)" target="_blank">/wiki/Paul_Barnes_(designer)</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:50">Shaw, Paul. "By the Numbers no. 2—Fat Faces in New England Cemeteries". Paul Shaw Letter Design. Retrieved 13 May 2020. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Shaw_(design_historian)" target="_blank">/wiki/Paul_Shaw_(design_historian)</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:51">Shields, David. "A History of 'Aetna' Typefaces". Mark Simonson. Retrieved 2 February 2021. <a href="https://etna.marksimonson.com/history/" target="_blank">https://etna.marksimonson.com/history/</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:52">Barnhurst, Kevin G.; Nerone, John (1 April 2002). The Form of News: A History. Guilford Press. pp. 54–58. ISBN 978-1-57230-791-9. <a href="978-1-57230-791-9" target="_blank">978-1-57230-791-9</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:53">Mosley 2003, pp. 35–36. - Mosley, James (2003). "Reviving the Classics: Matthew Carter and the Interpretation of Historical Models". In Mosley, James; Re, Margaret; Drucker, Johanna; Carter, Matthew (eds.). Typographically Speaking: The Art of Matthew Carter. Princeton Architectural Press. pp. 35–6, 61, 84, 90. ISBN 9781568984278. Retrieved 30 January 2016. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WqXd_w4S4SsC&pg=PA35" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=WqXd_w4S4SsC&pg=PA35</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:54">Barnes, Paul. "Isambard: read the story". Commercial Type. Retrieved 16 May 2020. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Barnes_(designer)" target="_blank">/wiki/Paul_Barnes_(designer)</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:55">De Baerdemaeker, Jo. "Lean Back: The Evolution of Reverse Italics". YouTube. ATypI. Retrieved 19 May 2021. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X_beT0ao-CE" target="_blank">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X_beT0ao-CE</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:56">De Baerdemaeker, Jo. "Lean back: the evolution of reverse italics". studio type. Retrieved 19 July 2021. <a href="https://www.studiotype.be/research/reverseitalics" target="_blank">https://www.studiotype.be/research/reverseitalics</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:57">Shields, David (2008). "A Short History of the Italian". Ultrabold: The Journal of St Bride Library (4): 22–27. <a href="http://www.woodtyperesearch.com/short-history-of-the-italian/" target="_blank">http://www.woodtyperesearch.com/short-history-of-the-italian/</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:58">Tracy, Walter (2003). Letters of Credit: A View of Type Design. Boston: David R. Godine. ISBN 9781567922400. <a href="9781567922400" target="_blank">9781567922400</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:59">Mosley, James. "Dabbing, abklatschen, clichage..." Type Foundry (blog). Archived from the original on 14 November 2017. Retrieved 5 October 2017. <a href="http://typefoundry.blogspot.co.uk/2006/01/dabbing-abklatschen-clichage.html" target="_blank">http://typefoundry.blogspot.co.uk/2006/01/dabbing-abklatschen-clichage.html</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:60">Bergel, Giles. "Printing cliches". Printing Machine. Retrieved 25 July 2021. <a href="http://www.printing-machine.org/notes/2016/6/4/printing-cliches" target="_blank">http://www.printing-machine.org/notes/2016/6/4/printing-cliches</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">Mosley 1990, pp. 9–10. - Mosley, James, ed. (1990). A Specimen of Printing Types & Various Ornaments 1796: Reproduced Together with the Sale Catalogue of the British Letter-Foundry 1797. Printing Historical Society. pp. 5–12. Big types had been cast in sand, using wooden patterns, for some centuries [by 1750] but there is evidence that English typefounders only began to make big letters for posters and other commercial printing towards 1770, when Thomas Cottrell made his 'Proscription or Posting letter of great bulk and dimension' and William Caslon II cast his 'Patagonian' or 'Proscription letters'. <a href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_xpzgAAAAMAAJ/page/n50" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_xpzgAAAAMAAJ/page/n50</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">Mosley 1993. - Mosley, James (1993). Ornamented types: twenty-three alphabets from the foundry of Louis John Poucheé. I.M. Imprimit in association with the St. Bride Printing Library. <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">But possibly slightly earlier.[60] <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:64">Coles, Stephen (7 May 2016). "Ornamented Types Introduction and Prospectus". Fonts in Use. Retrieved 26 May 2020. <a href="https://fontsinuse.com/uses/12698/ornamented-types-introduction-and-prospectus" target="_blank">https://fontsinuse.com/uses/12698/ornamented-types-introduction-and-prospectus</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:65">Mosley 1993. - Mosley, James (1993). Ornamented types: twenty-three alphabets from the foundry of Louis John Poucheé. I.M. Imprimit in association with the St. Bride Printing Library. <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:66">"Ornamented types: a prospectus" (PDF). imimprimit. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 12 December 2015. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151222083754/http://imimprimit.com/wp-content/uploads/Prospectus-all-cropped-small.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20151222083754/http://imimprimit.com/wp-content/uploads/Prospectus-all-cropped-small.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:67">Daines, Mike. "Pouchee's lost alphabets". Eye Magazine. Retrieved 12 March 2016. <a href="http://www.eyemagazine.com/feature/article/pouchees-lost-alphabets" target="_blank">http://www.eyemagazine.com/feature/article/pouchees-lost-alphabets</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:68">"Ornamented Types". Letterform Archive. Retrieved 17 September 2021. <a href="https://oa.letterformarchive.org/item?workID=lfa_antiquarianfacsimile_0008" target="_blank">https://oa.letterformarchive.org/item?workID=lfa_antiquarianfacsimile_0008</a> <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:69">Some websites have assumed that Pouchée engraved these faces himself. This is unlikely to be correct as he was not an engraver but a businessman, he was the owner of a restaurant and then a coal merchant before he became a typefounder. The blocks do not have any engravers' names on them; Mosley assumes that they are the work of multiple engravers based on the mixture of styles and notes that a few similar hand-carved wooden types have come to light in England from other sources.[60] <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:70">Dreyfus, John. "Book Reviews: Ornamented Types". Bulletin of the Printing Historical Society: 28–30. <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:71">Dreyfus, John. "Book Reviews: Ornamented Types". Bulletin of the Printing Historical Society: 28–30. <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:72">Mosley 1993. - Mosley, James (1993). Ornamented types: twenty-three alphabets from the foundry of Louis John Poucheé. I.M. Imprimit in association with the St. Bride Printing Library. <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:73">Shields, David. "What Is Wood Type?". Hamilton Wood Type and Printing Museum. Retrieved 26 August 2021. <a href="https://woodtype.org/pages/what-is-wood-type" target="_blank">https://woodtype.org/pages/what-is-wood-type</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:74">Clymer, Andy (3 April 2015). "Designing Obsidian with Andy Clymer". Vimeo. Cooper Union. Retrieved 22 May 2020. <a href="https://vimeo.com/124062807" target="_blank">https://vimeo.com/124062807</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:75">Mosley, James. "Working Letters – an affectionate view of the vernacular". Letter Exchange. Retrieved 11 May 2023. <a href="https://letterexchange.org/archive" target="_blank">https://letterexchange.org/archive</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:76">"A Specimen of the Print Hands, for the Instruction of the Cadets, in the Corps of Royal Military Surveyors and Draftsmen, Engraved by desire of Lieutenant General Mann, Inspector General of Fortifications". National Library of Scotland/Ordnance Survey. Retrieved 22 May 2020. <a href="https://maps.nls.uk/view/128076858" target="_blank">https://maps.nls.uk/view/128076858</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:77">Gray 1977. - Gray, Nicolete (1977). Nineteenth Century Ornamented Typefaces. <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:78">Morgan, H. (1863). A Dictionary of Terms used in Printing. p. 40. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s2hZAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA40" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=s2hZAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA40</a> <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:79">De Vinne, Theodore (1901). "Fads in Printing". The American Printer. 31 (5): 326–327. Retrieved 12 October 2020. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7WU-AQAAMAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=7WU-AQAAMAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:80">MacKellar, William B. (1893). "The MacKellar Movable Unit System for measuring type composition". The Inland Printer: 409–411. Retrieved 12 October 2020. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XBUhAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA409" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=XBUhAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA409</a> <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:81">Seago, Alex (1995). Burning the Box of Beautiful Things: The Development of a Postmodern Sensibility. Oxford University Press. pp. 54–57. ISBN 978-0-19-817405-9. <a href="978-0-19-817405-9" target="_blank">978-0-19-817405-9</a> <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:82">Johnson 1970. - Johnson, Alfred F. (1970). "Fat Faces: Their History, Forms and Use (1947)". Selected essays on books and printing. Van Gendt & Co. pp. 409–415. ISBN 9789063000165. <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:83">Rennie 2001, p. 110. - Rennie, Paul (2001). "Fat Faces All Around: Lettering and the Festival Style" (PDF). Twentieth Century Architecture. 5: 109–115. Retrieved 26 May 2020. <a href="http://www.rennart.co.uk/website.pdfs/festivaltypography.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.rennart.co.uk/website.pdfs/festivaltypography.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:84">Name used for convenience: fat faces were introduced long before Victoria came to the throne in 1837; their presumed architect, Robert Thorne, died when she was less than a year old.[77] <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:85">"Ultra Bodoni". MyFonts. Retrieved 4 March 2016. <a href="http://www.myfonts.com/fonts/woodentypefonts/bodoni-ultra/" target="_blank">http://www.myfonts.com/fonts/woodentypefonts/bodoni-ultra/</a> <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:86">Cost, Patricia. "A Reply to Rick von Holdt". MorrisBenton.com. Retrieved 2 January 2017. <a href="https://morrisbenton.com/2015/03/28/a-reply-to-rick-von-holdt/" target="_blank">https://morrisbenton.com/2015/03/28/a-reply-to-rick-von-holdt/</a> <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:87">"Falstaff". MyFonts. Monotype. Retrieved 4 March 2016. <a href="http://www.myfonts.com/fonts/mti/falstaff/" target="_blank">http://www.myfonts.com/fonts/mti/falstaff/</a> <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:88">"Bitstream Normande". MyFonts. Bitstream. Retrieved 4 March 2016. <a href="http://www.myfonts.com/fonts/bitstream/normande/" target="_blank">http://www.myfonts.com/fonts/bitstream/normande/</a> <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:89">"Thorowgood". MyFonts. Linotype. Retrieved 4 March 2016. <a href="https://www.myfonts.com/fonts/linotype/thorowgood/" target="_blank">https://www.myfonts.com/fonts/linotype/thorowgood/</a> <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:90">"Elephant - Microsoft". Microsoft. Retrieved 4 March 2016. <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/typography/fonts/family.aspx?FID=94" target="_blank">https://www.microsoft.com/typography/fonts/family.aspx?FID=94</a> <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:91">Step-by-step Graphics. Dynamic Graphics, Incorporated. 1993. p. 46. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gLxUAAAAMAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=gLxUAAAAMAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:92">"Elephant". Fonts In Use. Retrieved 4 March 2016. <a href="https://fontsinuse.com/typefaces/32401/elephant-carter-and-cone" target="_blank">https://fontsinuse.com/typefaces/32401/elephant-carter-and-cone</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:93">"Matthew Carter - Designing Britain". Design Museum. Archived from the original on 27 February 2016. Retrieved 22 February 2016. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160227122914/http://design.designmuseum.org/design/matthew-carter" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20160227122914/http://design.designmuseum.org/design/matthew-carter</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:94">"New Faces in Washington". Font Bureau. Retrieved 24 November 2015. <a href="http://www.fontbureau.com/blog/new-faces-in-washington/" target="_blank">http://www.fontbureau.com/blog/new-faces-in-washington/</a> <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:95">Coles, Stephen (7 April 2013). "Washington Post 2012 "Q" Covers". Fonts In Use. Retrieved 4 March 2016. <a href="https://fontsinuse.com/uses/3666/washington-post-2012-q-covers" target="_blank">https://fontsinuse.com/uses/3666/washington-post-2012-q-covers</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:96">Carter, Matthew; Spiekermann, Erik. "Reputations: Matthew Carter". Eye Magazine. Retrieved 22 February 2016. <a href="http://www.eyemagazine.com/feature/article/reputations-matthew-carter" target="_blank">http://www.eyemagazine.com/feature/article/reputations-matthew-carter</a> <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:97">"AIGA Medalist: Matthew Carter". AIGA. Retrieved 6 March 2016. <a href="http://www.aiga.org/medalist-matthewcarter/" target="_blank">http://www.aiga.org/medalist-matthewcarter/</a> <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:98">Wilson, Doug. "Designing Surveyor". Frere-Jones Type. Retrieved 4 July 2023. <a href="https://frerejones.com/blog/designing-surveyor" target="_blank">https://frerejones.com/blog/designing-surveyor</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:99">de Wilde, Barbara. "Martha Stewart Living". Barbara de Wilde. Retrieved 4 July 2023. <a href="https://barbaradewilde.com/Martha-Stewart-Living" target="_blank">https://barbaradewilde.com/Martha-Stewart-Living</a> <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:100">Clymer, Andy (3 April 2015). "Designing Obsidian with Andy Clymer". Vimeo. Cooper Union. Retrieved 22 May 2020. <a href="https://vimeo.com/124062807" target="_blank">https://vimeo.com/124062807</a> <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:101">Hohenadel, Kristin (2 February 2015). "A Typeface Designer's Illustrated Tour of How to Create a Font". Slate. Retrieved 17 September 2021. <a href="https://slate.com/human-interest/2015/02/obsidian-by-jonathan-hoefler-and-andy-clymer-of-hoefler-co-is-a-contemporary-font-with-roots-in-the-industrial-revolution.html" target="_blank">https://slate.com/human-interest/2015/02/obsidian-by-jonathan-hoefler-and-andy-clymer-of-hoefler-co-is-a-contemporary-font-with-roots-in-the-industrial-revolution.html</a> <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:102">"Brunel". Fonts In Use. Retrieved 4 March 2016. <a href="https://fontsinuse.com/typefaces/102/brunel-fat-face" target="_blank">https://fontsinuse.com/typefaces/102/brunel-fat-face</a> <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:103">Barnes, Paul. "Isambard: read the story". Commercial Type. Retrieved 16 May 2020. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Barnes_(designer)" target="_blank">/wiki/Paul_Barnes_(designer)</a> <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:104">"New Release: Chiswick by Paul Barnes". Commercial Type. Retrieved 12 October 2020. <a href="https://commercialtype.com/news/new_release_chiswick_by_paul_barnes" target="_blank">https://commercialtype.com/news/new_release_chiswick_by_paul_barnes</a> <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:105">"Chiswick: A Vernacular Typeface with Paul Barnes". Vimeo. Cooper Union. Retrieved 12 October 2020. <a href="https://vimeo.com/211337005" target="_blank">https://vimeo.com/211337005</a> <a href="#fnref:105" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:106">Davis, Mark. "Quirky, Vernacular, and British: Chiswick". Type. Retrieved 12 October 2020. <a href="https://typemag.squarespace.com/home/2017/3/24/paul-barnes-presents-chiswick" target="_blank">https://typemag.squarespace.com/home/2017/3/24/paul-barnes-presents-chiswick</a> <a href="#fnref:106" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:107">Bradley, Graham. "Chiswick". Typographica. Retrieved 12 October 2020. <a href="https://typographica.org/typeface-reviews/chiswick/" target="_blank">https://typographica.org/typeface-reviews/chiswick/</a> <a href="#fnref:107" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Fat face open-in-new

Fat face