Composer

<h2 id="etymology-and-definition">Etymology and definition</h2>
See also: <a href="/facts/Lists_of_composers/o20nsu34">Lists of composers</a>
The term is descended from <a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Latin</a>, compōnō; literally "one who puts together".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a> The earliest use of the term in a musical context given by the <a href="/facts/Oxford_English_Dictionary/qaxKX8Bc">Oxford English Dictionary</a> is from <a href="/facts/Thomas_Morley/j7whStQQ">Thomas Morley</a>'s 1597 A Plain and Easy Introduction to Practical Music, where he says "Some wil [<a href="/facts/Sic/qB9MUUWF">sic</a>] be good descanters [...] and yet wil be but bad composers".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a>
"Composer" is a loose term that generally refers to any person who writes music.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a> More specifically, it is often used to denote people who are composers by occupation,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> or those who work in the tradition of <a href="/facts/Western_classical_music/oglVXmSb">Western classical music</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a> Writers of exclusively or primarily <a href="/facts/Song/wm7uRPzQ">songs</a> may be called composers, but since the 20th century the terms '<a href="/facts/Songwriter/QGzWL6YL">songwriter</a>' or '<a href="/facts/Singer-songwriter/Wn2wodaL">singer-songwriter</a>' are more often used, particularly in <a href="/facts/Popular_music/Q5yhxIwY">popular music</a> genres.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> In other contexts, the term 'composer' can refer to a literary writer,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> or more rarely and generally, someone who combines pieces into a whole.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a>
Across cultures and traditions composers may write and transmit music in a variety of ways. In much popular music, the composer writes a <a href="/facts/Musical_composition/EUR2qaQw">composition</a>, and it is then transmitted via <a href="/facts/Oral_tradition/0hzwefby">oral tradition</a>. Conversely, in some Western classical traditions music may be composed aurally—i.e. "in the mind of the musician"—and subsequently written and passed through <a href="/facts/Sheet_music/P1rGJt0t">written documents</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a>

<h2 id="role-in-the-western-world">Role in the Western world</h2>
<h3>Relationship with performers</h3>
In the development of European <a href="/facts/Classical_music/oglVXmSb">classical music</a>, the function of composing music initially did not have much greater importance than that of performing it. The preservation of individual compositions did not receive enormous attention and musicians generally had no qualms about modifying compositions for performance.
In the Western world, before the <a href="/facts/Romantic_music/Smlk40jm">Romantic period</a> of the 19th century, composition almost always went side by side with a combination of either singing, instructing and <a href="/facts/Music_theory/BoekvflP">theorizing</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a>
Even in a conventional Western piece of instrumental music, in which all of the <a href="/facts/Melody/5TR3IE3Y">melodies</a>, <a href="/facts/Chord_(music)/hJBCHCSB">chords</a>, and <a href="/facts/Bassline/u1QJeCos">basslines</a> are written out in musical notation, the performer has a degree of latitude to add artistic interpretation to the work, by such means as by varying their articulation and <a href="/facts/Musical_phrasing/45kgtwa7">phrasing</a>, choosing how long to make <a href="/facts/Fermata/bdCPWxn3">fermatas</a> (held notes) or pauses, and — in the case of bowed string instruments, woodwinds or brass instruments — deciding whether to use expressive effects such as <a href="/facts/Vibrato/IIdeSJ0m">vibrato</a> or <a href="/facts/Portamento/7KBkpqRr">portamento</a>. For a singer or instrumental performer, the process of deciding how to perform music that has been previously composed and notated is termed "interpretation". Different performers' interpretations of the same work of music can vary widely, in terms of the tempos that are chosen and the playing or singing style or phrasing of the melodies. Composers and songwriters who present their music are interpreting, just as much as those who perform the music of others. The standard body of choices and techniques present at a given time and a given place is referred to as <a href="/facts/Historically_informed_performance/SQtgKhqe">performance practice</a>, whereas interpretation is generally used to mean the individual choices of a performer. 
Although a <a href="/facts/Musical_composition/EUR2qaQw">musical composition</a> often has a single author, this is not always the case. A work of music can have multiple composers, which often occurs in <a href="/facts/Popular_music/Q5yhxIwY">popular music</a> when a band collaborates to write a song, or in <a href="/facts/Musical_theatre/KQ2Y35SQ">musical theatre</a>, where the songs may be written by one person, the <a href="/facts/Orchestration/ukXlqIkX">orchestration</a> of the accompaniment parts and writing of the <a href="/facts/Overture/CLu2GaBG">overture</a> is done by an orchestrator, and the words may be written by a third person.
A piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or, in the 20th and 21st centuries, computer programs that explain or notate how the singer or musician should create musical sounds. Examples of this range from <a href="/facts/Wind_chimes/9qUGa4gl">wind chimes</a> jingling in a breeze, to avant-garde music from the 20th century that uses <a href="/facts/Graphic_notation_(music)/jumH5UJK">graphic notation</a>, to text compositions such as <a href="/facts/Aus_den_Sieben_Tagen/7gpD8PnS">Aus den Sieben Tagen</a>, to computer programs that select sounds for musical pieces. Music that makes heavy use of randomness and chance is called <a href="/facts/Aleatoric_music/mBru5frp">aleatoric music</a>, and is associated with contemporary composers active in the 20th century, such as <a href="/facts/John_Cage/L8UuNbIY">John Cage</a>, <a href="/facts/Morton_Feldman/J6rPmL6Y">Morton Feldman</a>, and <a href="/facts/Witold_Lutos%25C5%2582awski/aI6fCDbW">Witold Lutosławski</a>.
The nature and means of individual variation of the music are varied, depending on the musical culture in the country and the time period it was written. For instance, music composed in the <a href="/facts/Baroque_music/UgrJnyTq">Baroque era</a>, particularly in slow tempos, often was written in bare outline, with the expectation that the performer would add improvised <a href="/facts/Ornamentation_(music)/6cTGrTyG">ornaments</a> to the melody line during a performance. Such freedom generally diminished in later eras, correlating with the increased use by composers of more detailed scoring in the form of dynamics, articulation, and so on; composers became uniformly more explicit in how they wished their music to be interpreted, although how strictly and minutely these are dictated varies from one composer to another. Because of this trend of composers becoming increasingly specific and detailed in their instructions to the performer, a culture eventually developed whereby faithfulness to the composer's written intention came to be highly valued (see, for example, <a href="/facts/Urtext_edition/YsUYGAnn">Urtext edition</a>). This musical culture is almost certainly related to the high esteem (bordering on veneration) in which the leading classical composers are often held by performers.
The <a href="/facts/Historically_informed_performance/SQtgKhqe">historically informed performance</a> movement has revived to some extent the possibility of the performer elaborating seriously the music as given in the score, particularly for <a href="/facts/Baroque_music/UgrJnyTq">Baroque music</a> and music from the early <a href="/facts/Classical_period_(music)/HhEDbzVX">Classical period</a>. The movement might be considered a way of creating greater faithfulness to the original in works composed at a time that expected performers to <a href="/facts/Musical_improvisation/TfefTzPP">improvise</a>. In genres other than classical music, the performer generally has more freedom; thus for instance when a performer of Western popular music creates a "cover" of an earlier song, there is little expectation of exact rendition of the original; nor is exact faithfulness necessarily highly valued (with the possible exception of "note-for-note" transcriptions of famous <a href="/facts/Guitar_solo/75F1IxS5">guitar solos</a>).
In Western art music, the composer typically <a href="/facts/Orchestration/ukXlqIkX">orchestrates</a> their compositions, but in musical theatre and pop music, songwriters may hire an <a href="/facts/Arranger/Q17kA5L7">arranger</a> to do the orchestration. In some cases, a pop songwriter may not use notation at all, and, instead, compose the song in their mind and then play or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written scores play in classical music. The study of composition has traditionally been dominated by the examination of methods and practice of Western classical music, but the definition of composition is broad enough for the creation of popular and traditional music songs and instrumental pieces and to include spontaneously improvised works like those of <a href="/facts/Free_jazz/kKAnd1kL">free jazz</a> performers and African percussionists such as <a href="/facts/Ewe_drumming/nv3fJIVc">Ewe drummers</a>.

<h3>History of employment</h3>
During the Middle Ages, most composers worked for the <a href="/facts/Catholic_church/rJ4F4gqH">Catholic church</a> and composed music for religious services such as <a href="/facts/Plainchant/C1WHYKJp">plainchant</a> melodies. During the <a href="/facts/Renaissance_music/MvSjNt2G">Renaissance music</a> era, composers typically worked for aristocratic employers. While aristocrats typically required composers to produce a significant amount of religious music, such as <a href="/facts/Mass_(music)/kQ7IrmsM">Masses</a>, composers also penned many non-religious songs on the topic of <a href="/facts/Courtly_love/agW05Mhb">courtly love</a>: the respectful, reverential love of a great woman from afar. Courtly love songs were very popular during the Renaissance era. During the <a href="/facts/Baroque_music/UgrJnyTq">Baroque music</a> era, many composers were employed by aristocrats or as church employees. During the <a href="/facts/Classical_period_(music)/HhEDbzVX">Classical period</a>, composers began to organize more public concerts for profit, which helped composers to be less dependent on aristocratic or church jobs. This trend continued in the <a href="/facts/Romantic_music/Smlk40jm">Romantic music</a> era in the 19th century. In the 20th century, composers began to seek employment as professors in universities and conservatories. In the 20th century, composers also earned money from the sales of their works, such as <a href="/facts/Sheet_music/P1rGJt0t">sheet music</a> publications of their songs or pieces or as <a href="/facts/Sound_recording/BMbpAWkE">sound recordings</a> of their works.

<h3>Role of women</h3>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Women_in_music/Ip0cGESb">Women in music § Composers</a>, and <a href="/facts/List_of_female_composers_by_birth_date/no5HypQ8">List of female composers by birth date</a>

In 1993, American <a href="/facts/Musicologist/jaapApYh">musicologist</a> <a href="/facts/Marcia_Citron/UQAER9Np">Marcia Citron</a> asked, "Why is music composed by women so marginal to the standard 'classical' repertoire?"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> Citron "examines the practices and attitudes that have led to the exclusion of women composers from the received '<a href="/facts/Western_canon/2skJ4h7f">canon</a>' of performed musical works." She argues that in the 1800s, women composers typically wrote <a href="/facts/Art_song/0rgm4N4j">art songs</a> for performance in small recitals rather than <a href="/facts/Symphony/mwmt5ndW">symphonies</a> intended for performance with an orchestra in a large hall, with the latter works being seen as the most important genre for composers; since women composers did not write many symphonies, they were deemed to be not notable as composers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a>
According to Abbey Philips, "women musicians have had a very difficult time breaking through and getting the credit they deserve."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> During the Medieval eras, most of the art music was created for liturgical (religious) purposes and due to the views about the roles of women that were held by religious leaders, few women composed this type of music, with the nun <a href="/facts/Hildegard_von_Bingen/DFq5Q6UD">Hildegard von Bingen</a> being among the exceptions. Most university textbooks on the history of music discuss almost exclusively the role of male composers. As well, very few works by women composers are part of the standard repertoire of classical music. In Concise Oxford History of Music, "<a href="/facts/Clara_Schumann/k1CK5DJC">Clara Shumann</a> [<a href="/facts/Sic/qB9MUUWF">sic</a>] is one of the only female composers mentioned",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> but other notable women composers of the common practice period include <a href="/facts/Fanny_Mendelssohn/DaxdgKH0">Fanny Mendelssohn</a> and <a href="/facts/C%25C3%25A9cile_Chaminade/I0VekPqA">Cécile Chaminade</a>, and arguably the most influential teacher of composers during the mid-20th century was <a href="/facts/Nadia_Boulanger/sMQEE3lj">Nadia Boulanger</a>. Philips states that "[d]uring the 20th century the women who were composing/playing gained far less attention than their male counterparts."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a>
Women today are being taken more seriously in the realm of concert music, though the statistics of recognition, prizes, employment, and overall opportunities are still biased toward men.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a>

<h2 id="modern-training">Modern training</h2>
Professional classical composers often have a background in performing classical music during their childhood and teens, either as a <a href="/facts/Singer/EWY1s7lw">singer</a> in a <a href="/facts/Choir/kzLHDhPh">choir</a>, as a player in a <a href="/facts/Youth_orchestra/mpSdvzES">youth orchestra</a>, or as a performer on a solo instrument (e.g., <a href="/facts/Piano/lRI60lQK">piano</a>, <a href="/facts/Pipe_organ/F3CIPMwS">pipe organ</a>, or <a href="/facts/Violin/0m2eLF3B">violin</a>). Teens aspiring to be composers can continue their <a href="/facts/Postsecondary/WMN5RpeC">postsecondary</a> studies in a variety of formal training settings, including colleges, conservatories, and universities. <a href="/facts/Music_school/cxz99hQF">Conservatories</a>, which are the standard musical training system in countries such as France and Canada, provide lessons and amateur orchestral and choral singing experience for composition students. Universities offer a range of composition programs, including bachelor's degrees, Master of Music degrees, and <a href="/facts/Doctor_of_Musical_Arts/cmAg2kfM">Doctor of Musical Arts</a> degrees. As well, there are a variety of other training programs such as classical summer camps and festivals, which give students the opportunity to get coaching from composers.

<h3>Undergraduate</h3>
Bachelor's degrees in composition (referred to as <a href="/facts/B.Mus./5Y8eQyHG">B.Mus.</a> or B.M) are four-year programs that include individual composition lessons, amateur orchestra/choral experience, and a sequence of courses in music history, music theory, and liberal arts courses (e.g., English literature), which give the student a more well-rounded education. Usually, composition students must complete significant pieces or songs before graduating. Not all composers hold a B.Mus. in composition; composers may also hold a B.Mus. in music performance or music theory.

<h3>Masters</h3>
Master of Music degrees (M.mus.) in composition consists of private lessons with a composition <a href="/facts/Professor/JNqot4sU">professor</a>, ensemble experience, and graduate courses in music history and music theory, along with one or two concerts featuring the composition student's pieces. A master's degree in music (referred to as an M.Mus. or M.M.) is often a required minimum credential for people who wish to teach composition at a university or conservatory. A composer with an M.Mus. could be an adjunct professor or instructor at a university, but it would be difficult in the 2010s to obtain a <a href="/facts/Tenure_track/UqVEe8Xq">tenure track</a> professor position with this degree.

<h3>Doctoral</h3>
To become a tenure track professor, many universities require a <a href="/facts/Doctoral_degree/hb3AGQ6A">doctoral degree</a>. In composition, the key doctoral degree is the <a href="/facts/Doctor_of_Musical_Arts/cmAg2kfM">Doctor of Musical Arts</a>, rather than the <a href="/facts/PhD/paJumdN8">PhD</a>; the PhD is awarded in music, but typically for subjects such as <a href="/facts/Musicology/jaapApYh">musicology</a> and <a href="/facts/Music_theory/BoekvflP">music theory</a>.
Doctor of Musical Arts (referred to as D.M.A., DMA, D.Mus.A. or A.Mus.D) degrees in composition provide an opportunity for advanced study at the highest artistic and pedagogical level, requiring usually an additional 54+ credit hours beyond a master's degree (which is about 30+ credits beyond a bachelor's degree). For this reason, admission is highly selective. Students must submit examples of their compositions. If available, some schools will also accept video or audio recordings of performances of the student's pieces. Examinations in music history, music theory, ear training/dictation, and an entrance examination are required.
Students must prepare significant compositions under the guidance of faculty composition professors. Some schools require DMA composition students to present concerts of their works, which are typically performed by singers or musicians from the school. The completion of advanced coursework and a minimum B average are other typical requirements of a D.M.A program. During a D.M.A. program, a composition student may get experience teaching undergraduate music students.

<h3>Other routes</h3>
Some composers did not complete composition programs, but focused their studies on the performance of voice or an instrument or on <a href="/facts/Music_theory/BoekvflP">music theory</a>, and developed their compositional skills over the course of a career in another musical occupation.

<h3>Citations</h3>

<h3>General and cited sources</h3>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Mark_Everist/MtIbQJfE">Everist, Mark</a> (2011). "Introduction". In <a href="/facts/Mark_Everist/MtIbQJfE">Everist, Mark</a> (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Music. Cambridge: <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-316303-4.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Bruno_Nettl/wpbYNwGl">Nettl, Bruno</a> (1983). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rygV4McHWfcC">The Study of Ethnomusicology: Twenty-nine Issues and Concepts</a>. Champaign: <a href="/facts/University_of_Illinois_Press/ekUdVFqL">University of Illinois Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-252-01039-2.</li>
<li><a href="https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/37785">"composer, n"</a>. <a href="/facts/OED_Online/qaxKX8Bc">OED Online</a>. Oxford: <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. (subscription required)</li></ul>
<h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/John_Beckwith_(composer)/Qz2B7No3">Beckwith, John</a>; <a href="/facts/Udo_Kasemets/6FKnT6wA">Kasemets, Udo</a> (1961). The Modern Composer and His World. Heritage. Foreword by <a href="/facts/Louis_Applebaum/F0blMyeQ">Louis Applebaum</a>. Toronto: <a href="/facts/University_of_Toronto_Press/fSM2fkTh">University of Toronto Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-608-16267-6. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctt15jjfcx">10.3138/j.ctt15jjfcx</a>. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Stephen_Blum/PEbu1su6">Blum, Stephen</a> (2023) [2001]. <a href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000006216">"Composition"</a>. <a href="/facts/Grove_Music_Online/hPUXTAum">Grove Music Online</a>. Oxford: <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.06216">10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.06216</a>. (subscription, <a href="https://wikipedialibrary.wmflabs.org/partners/90/">Wikilibrary</a> access, or <a href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/page/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required)</li>
<li>Mugmon, Matthew (November 2013). "Beyond the Composer-Conductor Dichotomy: Bernstein's Copland-Inspired Mahler Advocacy". <a href="/facts/Music_%2526_Letters/J9XIGcUB">Music & Letters</a>. 94 (4): 606–627. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fml%2Fgct131">10.1093/ml/gct131</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24547378">24547378</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Mark_Everist/MtIbQJfE">Everist, Mark</a> (2013). "Master and Disciple: Teaching the Composition of Polyphony in the Thirteenth Century". Musica Disciplina. 58: 51–71. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24429413">24429413</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Leonard_B._Meyer/LNXumXNv">Meyer, Leonard B.</a> (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8U2-_3iQb2wC">Music, the Arts, and Ideas: Patterns and Predictions in Twentieth-Century Culture</a>. Chicago: <a href="/facts/University_of_Chicago_Press/6se0Ezfb">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-226-52144-2.</li>
<li>Piotrowska, Anna G. (December 2007). "Modernist Composers and the Concept of Genius / Skladatelji Moderne i pojam genija". International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music. 38 (2): 229–242. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25487527">25487527</a>.</li>
<li>Wegman, Rob C. (Autumn 1996). "From Maker to Composer: Improvisation and Musical Authorship in the Low Countries, 1450-1500". <a href="/facts/Journal_of_the_American_Musicological_Society/n2xu4Y1C">Journal of the American Musicological Society</a>. 49 (3): 409–479. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F831769">10.2307/831769</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/831769">831769</a>.</li>
<li>Williams, Justin A.; Williams, Katherine, eds. (2016). The Cambridge Companion to the Singer-Songwriter. Cambridge: <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-107-06364-8.</li>
<li>Young, Toby (2024). "Introduction". In Young, Toby (ed.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q5oKEQAAQBAJ">The Cambridge Companion to Composition</a>. Cambridge: <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 1–18. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-108-92373-6.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Jan_M._Ziolkowski/AACXVq8o">Ziolkowski, Jan M.</a> (2018). <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv8d5t5s.4">"1. The Composer"</a>. The Juggler of Notre Dame and the Medievalizing of Modernity. Vol. 4: Picture That: Making a Show of the Jongleur. Cambridge: <a href="/facts/Open_Book_Publishers/UPg2B5rF">Open Book Publishers</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-01-329142-5. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv8d5t5s">j.ctv8d5t5s</a>.</li></ul>
<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

Look up composer in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Composers.

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">OED: composer, 3.. - "composer, n". OED Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/37785" target="_blank">https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/37785</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">"Composer". Collins English Dictionary. Retrieved 19 January 2021. <a href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/us/dictionary/english/composer" target="_blank">https://www.collinsdictionary.com/us/dictionary/english/composer</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Stevenson, Angus; Lindberg, Christine A., eds. (2015) [2010]. "Composer". New Oxford American Dictionary. ISBN 978-0-19-539288-3. Retrieved 4 April 2022. <a href="978-0-19-539288-3" target="_blank">978-0-19-539288-3</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">"compose (v.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 4 April 2022. <a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/compose" target="_blank">https://www.etymonline.com/word/compose</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">OED: composer, 3.. - "composer, n". OED Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/37785" target="_blank">https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/37785</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">OED: composer, 3.. - "composer, n". OED Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/37785" target="_blank">https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/37785</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Stevenson, Angus; Lindberg, Christine A., eds. (2015) [2010]. "Composer". New Oxford American Dictionary. ISBN 978-0-19-539288-3. Retrieved 4 April 2022. <a href="978-0-19-539288-3" target="_blank">978-0-19-539288-3</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">"Composer". Collins English Dictionary. Retrieved 19 January 2021. <a href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/us/dictionary/english/composer" target="_blank">https://www.collinsdictionary.com/us/dictionary/english/composer</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Root, Deane L. (2001). "Songwriter". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.26215. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription, Wikilibrary access, or UK public library membership required) <a href="978-1-56159-263-0" target="_blank">978-1-56159-263-0</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">OED: composer, 2.. - "composer, n". OED Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/37785" target="_blank">https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/37785</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">OED: composer, 1.. - "composer, n". OED Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/37785" target="_blank">https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/37785</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Nettl 1983, p. 192. - Nettl, Bruno (1983). The Study of Ethnomusicology: Twenty-nine Issues and Concepts. Champaign: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-01039-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rygV4McHWfcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=rygV4McHWfcC</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Everist 2011, p. 2. - Everist, Mark (2011). "Introduction". In Everist, Mark (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Music. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-316303-4. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Citron, Marcia J. (1993). Gender and the Musical Canon. CUP Archive. ISBN 9780521392921. <a href="9780521392921" target="_blank">9780521392921</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Citron, Marcia J. (1993). Gender and the Musical Canon. CUP Archive. ISBN 9780521392921. <a href="9780521392921" target="_blank">9780521392921</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Philips, Abbey (1 September 2011). "The history of women and gender roles in music". Rvanews.com. Retrieved 20 January 2016. <a href="http://rvanews.com/features/spacebomb-truth-lies-somewhere-in-between/49992" target="_blank">http://rvanews.com/features/spacebomb-truth-lies-somewhere-in-between/49992</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Philips, Abbey (1 September 2011). "The history of women and gender roles in music". Rvanews.com. Retrieved 20 January 2016. <a href="http://rvanews.com/features/spacebomb-truth-lies-somewhere-in-between/49992" target="_blank">http://rvanews.com/features/spacebomb-truth-lies-somewhere-in-between/49992</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Philips, Abbey (1 September 2011). "The history of women and gender roles in music". Rvanews.com. Retrieved 20 January 2016. <a href="http://rvanews.com/features/spacebomb-truth-lies-somewhere-in-between/49992" target="_blank">http://rvanews.com/features/spacebomb-truth-lies-somewhere-in-between/49992</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Alex Ambrose (21 August 2014). "Her Music: Today's Emerging Female Composer". WQXR. Retrieved 13 April 2020. <a href="https://www.wqxr.org/story/her-music-emerging-female-composer-today/" target="_blank">https://www.wqxr.org/story/her-music-emerging-female-composer-today/</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Composer open-in-new

Composer