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Hepatocyte growth factor
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<h2 id="function">Function</h2> <p>Hepatocyte growth factor regulates cell growth, cell motility, and <a href="/facts/Morphogenesis/zHJh8Eae">morphogenesis</a> by activating a <a href="/facts/Tyrosine_kinase/26Ln0qJ4">tyrosine kinase</a> signaling cascade after binding to the proto-oncogenic <a href="/facts/C-Met/6QH18YEd">c-Met</a> receptor.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> Hepatocyte growth factor is secreted by <a href="/facts/Platelet/I0xrDVGa">platelets</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Mesenchymal_cell/W0jeK2a3">mesenchymal cells</a> and acts as a multi-functional <a href="/facts/Cytokine/SdWpWABH">cytokine</a> on cells of mainly epithelial origin. Its ability to stimulate <a href="/facts/Mitogenesis/AyjRuS2a">mitogenesis</a>, cell motility, and matrix invasion gives it a central role in <a href="/facts/Angiogenesis/h0HF9IUd">angiogenesis</a>, <a href="/facts/Tumorogenesis/PC8wc1Mf">tumorogenesis</a>, and tissue regeneration.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="structure">Structure</h2> <p>It is secreted as a single inactive polypeptide and is cleaved by serine proteases into a 69-kDa alpha-chain and 34-kDa beta-chain. A disulfide bond between the alpha and beta chains produces the active, heterodimeric molecule. The protein belongs to the <a href="/facts/Plasminogen/bfLCyyPt">plasminogen</a> subfamily of S1 peptidases but has no detectable <a href="/facts/Protease/G1ASdVat">protease</a> activity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="clinical-significance">Clinical significance</h2> <p><a href="/facts/Human_HGF_plasmid_DNA_therapy/rqp4vMMW">Human HGF plasmid DNA therapy</a> of <a href="/facts/Cardiomyocytes/fE40oTQz">cardiomyocytes</a> is being examined as a potential treatment for <a href="/facts/Coronary_artery_disease/szCt0nVx">coronary artery disease</a> as well as treatment for the damage that occurs to the heart after <a href="/facts/Myocardial_infarction/xoGw0qcG">myocardial infarction</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> As well as the well-characterised effects of HGF on <a href="/facts/Epithelial_cell/ecKHcHC3">epithelial cells</a>, <a href="/facts/Endothelial_cell/L4ENFVnw">endothelial cells</a> and haemopoietic progenitor cells, HGF also regulates the <a href="/facts/Chemotaxis/hYPRdPTk">chemotaxis</a> of T cells into heart tissue. Binding of HGF by c-Met, expressed on T cells, causes the upregulation of c-Met, <a href="/facts/CXCR3/IWVPywYW">CXCR3</a>, and <a href="/facts/CCR4/gQBASKhn">CCR4</a> which in turn imbues them with the ability to migrate into heart tissue.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> HGF also promotes angiogenesis in ischemia injury.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> HGF may further play a role as an indicator for prognosis of chronicity for <a href="/facts/Chikungunya/KAzqWwpx">Chikungunya</a> virus induced <a href="/facts/Arthralgia/jEHMRWX7">arthralgia</a>. High HGF levels correlate with high rates of recovery.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p><p>Excessive local expression of HGF in the <a href="/facts/Breast/UBvcKAjy">breasts</a> has been implicated in <a href="/facts/Macromastia/zwB6GnNL">macromastia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> HGF is also importantly involved in normal <a href="/facts/Mammary_gland/6fVBnNSA">mammary gland</a> development.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p><p>HGF has been implicated in a variety of <a href="/facts/Cancer/PVW6n1D0">cancers</a>, including of the <a href="/facts/Lung/gTWXI6Fj">lungs</a>, <a href="/facts/Pancreas/r0WPGjAq">pancreas</a>, <a href="/facts/Thyroid/bjovTJVu">thyroid</a>, <a href="/facts/Large_intestine/vQtlNBv9">colon</a>, and <a href="/facts/Breast/UBvcKAjy">breast</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p><p>Increased expression of HGF has been associated with the enhanced and scarless <a href="/facts/Wound_healing/3NlzV5Qn">wound healing</a> capabilities of <a href="/facts/Fibroblast/n08KsFll">fibroblast</a> cells isolated from the <a href="/facts/Oral_mucosa/uJyDj6c0">oral mucosa</a> tissue.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p> <h3>Circulating plasma levels</h3> <p>Plasma from patients with advanced heart failure presents increased levels of HGF, which correlates with a negative prognosis and a high risk of mortality.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> Circulating HGF has been also identified as a prognostic marker of severity in patients with hypertension.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> Circulating HGF has been also suggested as a precocious biomarker for the acute phase of bowel inflammation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="pharmacokinetics">Pharmacokinetics</h2> <p><a href="/facts/Exogenous/yHXbIsAa">Exogenous</a> HGF administered by <a href="/facts/Intravenous_injection/AwwuD3Nu">intravenous injection</a> is cleared rapidly from circulation by the <a href="/facts/Liver/Rtp4Fk2b">liver</a>, with a <a href="/facts/Half-life/kGVH8BAB">half-life</a> of approximately 4 minutes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="modulators">Modulators</h2> <p><a href="/facts/Dihexa/yFtxuaBW">Dihexa</a> is an orally active, centrally penetrant <a href="/facts/Small-molecule/kbwq3VBn">small-molecule</a> compound that directly binds to HGF and potentiates its ability to activate its receptor, c-Met.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> It is a strong inducer of <a href="/facts/Neurogenesis/XSteTv8s">neurogenesis</a> and is being studied for the potential treatment of <a href="/facts/Alzheimer%2527s_disease/w7Ad6tdg">Alzheimer's disease</a> and <a href="/facts/Parkinson%2527s_disease/xpekKj6x">Parkinson's disease</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="interactions">Interactions</h2> <p>Hepatocyte growth factor has been shown to <a href="/facts/Protein-protein_interaction/etvm9Wmg">interact</a> with the protein product of the c-Met oncogene, identified as the HGF receptor (<a href="/facts/C-Met/6QH18YEd">HGFR</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> Both overexpression of the Met/HGFR receptor protein and <a href="/facts/Autocrine_signalling/EwfQEYzG">autocrine</a> activation of Met/HGFR by simultaneous expression of the hepatocyte growth factor ligand have been implicated in oncogenesis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> Hepatocyte growth factor interacts with the sulfated <a href="/facts/Glycosaminoglycan/fo22ktAQ">glycosaminoglycans</a> heparan sulfate and dermatan sulfate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> The interaction with heparan sulfate allows hepatocyte growth factor to form a complex with c-Met that is able to transduce intracellular signals leading to cell division and cell migration.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Epidermal_growth_factor/CpyH5tYs">Epidermal growth factor</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Insulin-like_growth_factor_1/2n0nPvtD">Insulin-like growth factor 1</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Epithelial%25E2%2580%2593mesenchymal_transition/7fTxEBlb">Epithelial–mesenchymal transition</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Madin-Darby_Canine_Kidney_Cells/1tI0d69y">Madin-Darby Canine Kidney Cells</a></li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Michalopoulos GK, Zarnegav R (January 1992). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fhep.1840150125">"Hepatocyte growth factor"</a>. <i>Hepatology</i>. 15 (1): 149–155. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fhep.1840150125">10.1002/hep.1840150125</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1530787">1530787</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39873193">39873193</a>.</li> <li>Nakamura T (1992). "Structure and function of hepatocyte growth factor". <i>Progress in Growth Factor Research</i>. 3 (1): 67–85. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0955-2235%2891%2990014-U">10.1016/0955-2235(91)90014-U</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1838014">1838014</a>.</li> <li>Ware LB, Matthay MA (May 2002). "Keratinocyte and hepatocyte growth factors in the lung: roles in lung development, inflammation, and repair". <i>American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology</i>. 282 (5): L924 – L940. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fajplung.00439.2001">10.1152/ajplung.00439.2001</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11943656">11943656</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22175256">22175256</a>.</li> <li>Funakoshi H, Nakamura T (January 2003). "Hepatocyte growth factor: from diagnosis to clinical applications". <i>Clinica Chimica Acta; International Journal of Clinical Chemistry</i>. 327 (1–2): 1–23. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0009-8981%2802%2900302-9">10.1016/S0009-8981(02)00302-9</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12482615">12482615</a>.</li> <li>Skibinski G (2004). "The role of hepatocyte growth factor/c-met interactions in the immune system". <i>Archivum Immunologiae et Therapiae Experimentalis</i>. 51 (5): 277–282. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14626426">14626426</a>.</li> <li>Kalluri R, Neilson EG (December 2003). <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC297008">"Epithelial-mesenchymal transition and its implications for fibrosis"</a>. <i>The Journal of Clinical Investigation</i>. 112 (12): 1776–1784. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1172%2FJCI20530">10.1172/JCI20530</a>. <a href="/facts/PMC_(identifier)/dX1zMt71">PMC</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC297008">297008</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14679171">14679171</a>.</li> <li>Hurle RA, Davies G, Parr C, Mason MD, Jenkins SA, Kynaston HG, et al. (October 2005). "Hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor and prostate cancer: a review". <i>Histology and Histopathology</i>. 20 (4): 1339–1349. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.14670%2FHH-20.1339">10.14670/HH-20.1339</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16136515">16136515</a>.</li> <li>Kemp LE, Mulloy B, Gherardi E (June 2006). "Signalling by HGF/SF and Met: the role of heparan sulphate co-receptors". <i>Biochemical Society Transactions</i>. 34 (Pt 3): 414–417. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1042%2FBST0340414">10.1042/BST0340414</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16709175">16709175</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31340761">31340761</a>.</li> <li>Ejaz A, Epperly MW, Hou W, Greenberger JS, Rubin JP (June 2019). <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8457883">"Adipose-Derived Stem Cell Therapy Ameliorates Ionizing Irradiation Fibrosis via Hepatocyte Growth Factor-Mediated Transforming Growth Factor-β Downregulation and Recruitment of Bone Marrow Cells"</a>. <i>Stem Cells</i>. 37 (6): 791–802. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fstem.3000">10.1002/stem.3000</a>. <a href="/facts/PMC_(identifier)/dX1zMt71">PMC</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8457883">8457883</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30861238">30861238</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?name=Hepatocyte+growth+factor">Hepatocyte+growth+factor</a> at the U.S. National Library of Medicine <a href="/facts/Medical_Subject_Headings/C57g2JuF">Medical Subject Headings</a> (MeSH)</li> <li><a href="http://atlasgeneticsoncology.org/Genes/HGFID385ch7q21.html">Hepatocyte growth factor</a> on the <a href="/facts/Atlas_of_Genetics_and_Cytogenetics_in_Oncology_and_Haematology/czNLp5rK">Atlas of Genetics and Oncology</a></li> <li>UCSD Signaling Gateway Molecule Page on <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924101720/http://www.signaling-gateway.org/molecule/query;jsessionid=91a63736ae2def075573341606d54c19bbd937b3321a22673dceb6cfb49c4f1f?afcsid=A004032">HGF</a></li> <li>Overview of all the structural information available in the <a href="/facts/Protein_Data_Bank/oUhq4ABD">PDB</a> for <a href="/facts/UniProt/lfDDHjAl">UniProt</a>: <i><a href="https://www.ebi.ac.uk/pdbe/pdbe-kb/proteins/P14210">P14210</a></i> (Hepatocyte growth factor) at the <a href="/facts/PDBe-KB/p1WX7lPH">PDBe-KB</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Gallagher JT, Lyon M (2000). "Molecular structure of Heparan Sulfate and interactions with growth factors and morphogens". In Iozzo MV (ed.). Proteoglycans: structure, biology and molecular interactions. Marcel Dekker Inc. New York, New York. pp. 27–59. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Bottaro DP, Rubin JS, Faletto DL, Chan AM, Kmiecik TE, Vande Woude GF, et al. (February 1991). "Identification of the hepatocyte growth factor receptor as the c-met proto-oncogene product". Science. 251 (4995): 802–804. Bibcode:1991Sci...251..802B. doi:10.1126/science.1846706. PMID 1846706. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Johnson M, Koukoulis G, Matsumoto K, Nakamura T, Iyer A (June 1993). "Hepatocyte growth factor induces proliferation and morphogenesis in nonparenchymal epithelial liver cells". Hepatology. 17 (6): 1052–1061. doi:10.1016/0270-9139(93)90122-4. PMID 8514254. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0270-9139%2893%2990122-4" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0270-9139%2893%2990122-4</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Custo S, Baron B, Felice A, Seria E (5 July 2022). "A comparative profile of total protein and six angiogenically-active growth factors in three platelet products". GMS Interdisciplinary Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery DGPW. 11 (Doc06): Doc06. doi:10.3205/iprs000167. PMC 9284722. PMID 35909816. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9284722" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9284722</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>"Entrez Gene: HGF hepatocyte growth factor (hepapoietin A; scatter factor)". <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=gene&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=3082" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=gene&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=3082</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>"Entrez Gene: HGF hepatocyte growth factor (hepapoietin A; scatter factor)". <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=gene&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=3082" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=gene&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=3082</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Yang ZJ, Zhang YR, Chen B, Zhang SL, Jia EZ, Wang LS, et al. (July 2009). "Phase I clinical trial on intracoronary administration of Ad-hHGF treating severe coronary artery disease". Molecular Biology Reports. 36 (6): 1323–1329. doi:10.1007/s11033-008-9315-3. PMID 18649012. S2CID 23419866. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Hahn W, Pyun WB, Kim DS, Yoo WS, Lee SD, Won JH, et al. (October 2011). "Enhanced cardioprotective effects by coexpression of two isoforms of hepatocyte growth factor from naked plasmid DNA in a rat ischemic heart disease model". The Journal of Gene Medicine. 13 (10): 549–555. doi:10.1002/jgm.1603. PMID 21898720. S2CID 26812780. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Komarowska I, Coe D, Wang G, Haas R, Mauro C, Kishore M, et al. (June 2015). "Hepatocyte Growth Factor Receptor c-Met Instructs T Cell Cardiotropism and Promotes T Cell Migration to the Heart via Autocrine Chemokine Release". Immunity. 42 (6): 1087–1099. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2015.05.014. PMC 4510150. PMID 26070483. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4510150" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4510150</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Chang HK, Kim PH, Cho HM, Yum SY, Choi YJ, Son Y, et al. (September 2016). "Inducible HGF-secreting Human Umbilical Cord Blood-derived MSCs Produced via TALEN-mediated Genome Editing Promoted Angiogenesis". Molecular Therapy. 24 (9): 1644–1654. doi:10.1038/mt.2016.120. PMC 5113099. PMID 27434585. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5113099" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5113099</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Chow A, Her Z, Ong EK, Chen JM, Dimatatac F, Kwek DJ, et al. (January 2011). "Persistent arthralgia induced by Chikungunya virus infection is associated with interleukin-6 and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 203 (2): 149–157. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiq042. PMC 3071069. PMID 21288813. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3071069" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3071069</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Zhong A, Wang G, Yang J, Xu Q, Yuan Q, Yang Y, et al. (July 2014). "Stromal-epithelial cell interactions and alteration of branching morphogenesis in macromastic mammary glands". 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