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Redhead (bird)
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<h2 id="taxonomy-and-phylogeny">Taxonomy and phylogeny</h2> <h3>Taxonomy</h3> <p>The redhead is in the family <a href="/facts/Anatidae/q9YVQE6w">Anatidae</a> (ducks, swans, geese) and genus <i><a href="/facts/Aythya/KHUpf8eY">Aythya</a></i> (diving ducks). There are currently no accepted <a href="/facts/Subspecies/4L9jFacF">subspecies</a> of the redhead.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p><p>The two <a href="/facts/Type_(biology)/mTM1beKX">syntype specimens</a> of <i>Fuligula americana</i> Eyton (<a href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/36002293">Monogr. Anat., 1838, p.155</a>) are held in the vertebrate zoology collections of <a href="/facts/National_Museums_Liverpool/E9Hky1Ef">National Museums Liverpool</a> at <a href="/facts/World_Museum/lLMRp4y4">World Museum</a>, with accession numbers NML-VZ D829 (male immature) and NML-VZ D829a (female adult).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> The specimens were collected in North America and came to the Liverpool national collection via <a href="/facts/Thomas_Campbell_Eyton/CnKePz3C">Thomas Campbell Eyton</a>’s collection<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> and the <a href="/facts/13th_Earl_of_Derby/Jl7AKktd">13th Earl of Derby</a>’s collection which was bequeathed to the city of Liverpool.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p> <h3>Phylogeny</h3> <p>The redhead and the <a href="/facts/Common_pochard/k4WNbupI">common pochard</a> form a <a href="/facts/Sister_group/pNNuVex4">sister group</a> which itself is sister to the <a href="/facts/Canvasback/PNC6uk1h">canvasback</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> This group is then sister to the <a href="/facts/Monophyly/pD8Yrrn6">monophyletic</a> group consisting of the white-eyes (<a href="/facts/Hardhead/CeeQ7PTC">hardhead</a>, <a href="/facts/Madagascar_pochard/UTLSXb6S">Madagascar pochard</a>, and the sister species <a href="/facts/Ferruginous_duck/AI7GD6rG">ferruginous duck</a> and <a href="/facts/Baer%2527s_pochard/UmTGQouU">baer's pochard</a>) and scaups (<a href="/facts/New_Zealand_scaup/oXMrm5nY">New Zealand scaup</a>, <a href="/facts/Ring-necked_duck/os1v2HRF">ring-necked duck</a>, <a href="/facts/Tufted_duck/IVcEt7ov">tufted duck</a>, <a href="/facts/Greater_scaup/xD1IKD0A">greater scaup</a>, <a href="/facts/Lesser_scaup/0FKRn7EN">lesser scaup</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="description">Description</h2> <p>The redhead is a <a href="/facts/Aythya/KHUpf8eY">pochard</a>, a diving duck specially adapted to foraging underwater. Their legs are placed further back on the body, which makes walking on land difficult. The webbing on their feet is larger than <a href="/facts/Dabbling_ducks/H0p1F7GE">dabbling ducks</a> and their bills are broader to facilitate underwater foraging. In addition, pochards have a lobed hind toe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> No pochard has a metallic colored <a href="/facts/Speculum_feathers/uQnDy3P1">speculum</a>, something that is characteristic of other ducks.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> </p> <h3>Males</h3> <p>During breeding season, adult males have a copper head and neck, with a black breast. The back and sides are gray, the belly is white and the rump and tail are black. Male bills are pale blue with a black tip and a thin ring separating the two colors. Non-breeding males lose the copper color and instead have brown heads. The eyes are yellow, one of the most obvious distinctions from canvasback and common pochard, which have red eyes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p> <h3>Females</h3> <p>Adult females, however, have a yellow to brown head and neck. The breast is brown, the belly is white and the rest of the body is a gray to brown. The female bills are slate with a dark tip that is separated by a blue ring. Females remain the same color year round.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> The eyes are brown, as in all other <i>Aythya</i> species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="distribution">Distribution</h2> <p>During <a href="/facts/Breeding_season/rXkwAzpM">breeding season</a>, redheads are found across a wide range of <a href="/facts/North_America/djNjCQIl">North America</a>, from as far north as Northern Canada, south to the Caribbean in winter. Their preferred areas include the <a href="/facts/Intermontane/wvEH6P9H">intermontane</a> regions of <a href="/facts/British_Columbia/Ty3e3g1Q">British Columbia</a>, <a href="/facts/Alberta/PjKJFbJY">Alberta</a>, <a href="/facts/Saskatchewan/ehkUec57">Saskatchewan</a>, <a href="/facts/Manitoba/QuCdIDYB">Manitoba</a>, and the Dakotas with some small localities in <a href="/facts/Ontario/HUkxk5Rf">Ontario</a>, <a href="/facts/Quebec/4hhNvb4t">Quebec</a> and southern United States. These pochards then migrate south to winter in warmer climates. These areas include southern United States where breeding does not occur and extends to Mexico, Guatemala, Cuba, and the Bahamas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> In both seasons, redheads use wetlands as their main habitat.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="habitat">Habitat</h2> <p>Small, semi-permanent <a href="/facts/Wetland/9abbP7CR">wetlands</a> in non-forested country where the water is deep enough to provide dense <a href="/facts/Emergent_plant/Tr1rlK49">emergent vegetation</a> is considered ideal breeding <a href="/facts/Habitat/zo1DN2gA">habitat</a> for redheads.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> When wintering, redheads switch to large areas of water near the coast that are protected from wave action, but can also be found in <a href="/facts/Reservoir/2FewszmR">reservoirs</a>, <a href="/facts/Lake/YP0xxn0E">lakes</a>, <a href="/facts/Sink_(geography)/0CHdGUlG">playa wetlands</a>, <a href="/facts/River_delta/fmWuaRqX">freshwater river deltas</a>, <a href="/facts/Marsh/AG0WLJ2K">coastal marshes</a>, <a href="/facts/Estuary/WmkSInmK">estuaries</a> and <a href="/facts/Bay/Cd7dbTc1">bays</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="predators">Predators</h2> <p>Redheads do not have many <a href="/facts/Predation/JEGdrX3f">predators</a> and are most likely to die of disease or indirect human impact. These ducks are considered less desirable as table fare than their puddle duck cousins like the <a href="/facts/Mallard/ecRk284z">mallard</a>. However, their beautiful plumage makes them a targeted species for waterfowl hunters looking to focus on diving ducks. Adults can be preyed upon by <a href="/facts/North_American_river_otter/WDeLahKj">northern river otters</a>, <a href="/facts/Red-tailed_hawk/ztuthKhr">red-tailed hawks</a>, <a href="/facts/Great_horned_owl/xQ9Rrpl2">great horned owls</a>, <a href="/facts/Bald_eagle/sPc1AQCj">bald eagles</a>, <a href="/facts/Golden_eagle/MrasUBNd">golden eagles</a> and to a greater extent, <a href="/facts/Mink/hPp6wqX3">minks</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> Most predation comes in the form of duckling predation and egg foraging. <a href="/facts/Northern_pike/bsFor2k0">Northern pike</a> and <a href="/facts/Common_snapping_turtle/cQgsw0LY">snapping turtles</a> are known to eat ducklings whereas <a href="/facts/Skunk/osXdXYA7">skunks</a>, <a href="/facts/Mink/hPp6wqX3">minks</a>, <a href="/facts/Crows/S8n67ojy">crows</a> and <a href="/facts/Magpie/uNee6IsV">magpies</a> will steal and eat redhead eggs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="population-status">Population status</h2> <p>The <a href="/facts/North_American_Waterfowl_Management_Plan/zCqvkzTm">North American Waterfowl Management Plan</a> for redheads is 760,000 North American birds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> The population size has increased in the past few decades to well over 1.4 million birds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> Redheads make up 2% of North America's duck population and only 1% of its harvested ducks.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> Populations may be stable because of restrictive bag limits for the species. In addition, the species uses semi-permanent and permanent wetlands to breed and these habitats are less likely to be affected by drought. For future management of the species, organizations are looking into <a href="/facts/Wetland_conservation/KJcTP9Ul">wetland conservation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="behavior">Behavior</h2> <h3>Migration</h3> <h4>Spring</h4> <p>Redheads begin to leave their winter range in late January and February with the northernmost birds migrating by late April. In western North America, migrants begin arriving in Oregon, British Columbia and Colorado in February. In central North America, migrants arrive as soon as temperatures open wetlands and lakes, which can range from late February (Nebraska) to early May (Alberta, Manitoba and Iowa). In the <a href="/facts/Great_Lakes_region/TBaC5hc3">Great Lakes region</a> and north-eastern North America, migrants will also arrive as soon as bodies of water open up.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> </p> <h4>Fall</h4> <p>Western birds migrate through <a href="/facts/Great_Basin/w135lKBN">Great Basin</a> to the <a href="/facts/Pacific_coast/0IfMySPX">Pacific Coast</a>. In British Columbia, fall migration begins in September and continues through October. The <a href="/facts/Great_Salt_Lake/TexYwwas">Great Salt Lake region</a> is of particular importance to migrants in western United States. Central North American redheads will begin migrating earlier, around August/September and go through the Great Plains to the <a href="/facts/Texas/B987WHF0">Texas</a> coast. Eastern populations will migrate through the <a href="/facts/Great_Lakes_region/TBaC5hc3">Great Lakes region</a> to the <a href="/facts/Atlantic_Coast_(U.S.)/vrKUc0Wl">Atlantic Coast</a> or Florida from October to November. Most redheads winter along the <a href="/facts/Gulf_of_Mexico/bGE5s57G">Gulf of Mexico</a> (offshore Louisiana, Florida and Mexico). However, eastern populations will winter in South Carolina.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> </p> <h3>Reproduction</h3> <h4>Mating</h4> <p>Redheads flock together on <a href="/facts/Lake/YP0xxn0E">lakes</a> and other bodies of water, but <a href="/facts/Bird_migration/GvraPhgn">migrate</a> in pairs, which are formed in December or January through elaborate <a href="/facts/Courtship_display/U8Jl6SFq">courtship rituals</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> Unpaired redheads migrate together in a ‘courting party’ that can be up to 25 individuals strong, enabling them to find a mate within the group.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> The pair bonds are established yearly through a long courtship process. Males begin this process through neck-kinking and head throwing <a href="/facts/Display_(zoology)/vFNUc6Yg">displays</a> while emitting a cat-like call.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> The male continues by initiating a neck-stretching display while producing a cough-like call. If interested, the female produces inciting calls towards the male while performing alternate lateral and chin lifting movements. The male then swims ahead of her and turns the back of his head towards the female.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> Once courtship is finished, the two birds are paired for the year. The male initiates <a href="/facts/Copulation_(zoology)/rYcheMjL">copulation</a> by alternating bill dipping and <a href="/facts/Preening_(bird)/LnpRCbK4">preening</a> dorsally towards the female, upon which the female may return to the male.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> </p> <h4>Nesting</h4> <p>Once copulation is completed, female redheads begin forming <a href="/facts/Bird_nest/8pU1Fxf0">nests</a>. They are built with thick and strong plant material in emergent vegetation, such as <a href="/facts/Schoenoplectus/TVNQd4e5">hard stem bulrush</a>, <a href="/facts/Typha/069AClzk">cattails</a> and <a href="/facts/Cyperaceae/A1oI2H0U">sedges</a>, over or near standing water.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> Redheads do not defend their <a href="/facts/Territory_(animal)/T15S7XeD">territory</a> or <a href="/facts/Home_range/X6KwWmIJ">home range</a>; they are instead <a href="/facts/Social/twVnad19">social</a> while in their breeding ground. This is thought to facilitate <a href="/facts/Brood_parasitism/BIFuJnMb">brood parasitism</a> on other pochards, which is particularly prevalent on the part of younger, less experienced redhead females.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> In this process, redheads lay their eggs in other pochards’ nests, including the <a href="/facts/Canvasback/PNC6uk1h">canvasback</a>, <a href="/facts/Ring-necked_duck/os1v2HRF">ring-necked duck</a> and <a href="/facts/Greater_scaup/xD1IKD0A">greater</a> and <a href="/facts/Lesser_scaup/0FKRn7EN">lesser scaups</a>, and this parasitism by redheads reduces the hatching success of other pochards’ eggs, especially those of the <a href="/facts/Canvasback/PNC6uk1h">canvasback</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> The parasitic relationship between the redhead and other pochards promotes hybridization between the species; redhead <a href="/facts/Hybrid_(biology)/pzVJ54xU">hybrids</a> with the <a href="/facts/Ring-necked_duck/os1v2HRF">ring-necked duck</a>, <a href="/facts/Canvasback/PNC6uk1h">canvasback</a> and the <a href="/facts/Greater_scaup/xD1IKD0A">greater</a> and <a href="/facts/Lesser_scaup/0FKRn7EN">lesser scaups</a> have been found.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> Canvasback × redhead hybrids can be fertile.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> Brood sizes range from 5 to 7 young, with the mother abandoning the chicks at 8 weeks old, 2–4 weeks before they are capable of flight.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> </p> <h4>Vocalizations</h4> <p>There is little information on redhead <a href="/facts/Bird_vocalization/5A0oHvHo">vocalizations</a> outside of breeding calls. When the neck is fully extended in the neck-stretching display, males emit a cat-like <i>wheee-oww</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> Males may also produce a soft coughing call, although this call is less frequent.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> Females emit a soft <i>errrr</i> note when inciting a male.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> </p> <h3>Feeding habits</h3> <p>All pochards have similar <a href="/facts/Diet_(nutrition)/7qzDHpop">diets</a> that include both plant and animal materials. Redheads undergo a <a href="/facts/Ecological_niche/YnhNkL2e">niche</a> switch when breeding and when wintering. During the breeding season, redheads will eat as much animal matter as possible, including <a href="/facts/Gastropoda/rYPqm3PT">gastropods</a>, <a href="/facts/Mollusca/1elgknsQ">mollusks</a> and insect larvae.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> They will eat the occasional grass and other <a href="/facts/Emergent_plant/Tr1rlK49">emergent vegetation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> However, once they fly south, redheads will change their diet to include mostly plant material, consisting of <a href="/facts/Pondweed/vAFKIzQr">pondweeds</a>, <a href="/facts/Wild_rice/bVRC2Nga">wild rice</a>, <a href="/facts/Wild_celery/qB8fF2Vb">wild celery</a>, <a href="/facts/Ruppia/CKe6Glrn">wigeon grass</a>, <a href="/facts/Bulrush/c9n1y5uc">bulrushes</a>, <a href="/facts/Chara_(alga)/GKUgQmue">muskgrass</a> and <a href="/facts/Halodule_wrightii/FrwduN7B">shoal grass</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> </p><p>Gastropods known as food of <i>Aythya americana</i> include: <i><a href="/facts/Acteocina_canaliculata/WKklDrs6">Acteocina canaliculata</a></i>, <i>Acteon punctostriatus</i>, <i>Anachis avara</i>, <i>Anachis obesa</i>, <i>Caecum nitidum</i>, <i><a href="/facts/Calliostoma/1RLsvyBR">Calliostoma</a></i> sp., <i>Cerithidea pliculosa</i>, <i><a href="/facts/Cerithium_lutosum/h38mbnNP">Cerithium lutosum</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Crepidula_convexa/sAnhW8Pa">Crepidula convexa</a></i>, <i>Diastoma varium</i>, <i><a href="/facts/Melanella/ba8hnmfV">Melanella</a></i> sp., <i>Mitrella lunata</i>, <i><a href="/facts/Nassarius_acutus/K5gJnb9H">Nassarius acutus</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Nassarius_vibex/RKxrwoCF">Nassarius vibex</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Natica/afEM1QY1">Natica</a></i> sp., <i><a href="/facts/Neritina_virginea/7y8GGB73">Neritina virginea</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Odostomia_trifida/441U5ngL">Odostomia trifida</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Olivella_minuta/a0u9uTgz">Olivella minuta</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Olivella_watermani/0oqqYQ64">Olivella watermani</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Polinices/q3a6md7y">Polinices</a></i> sp., <a href="/facts/Pyramidellidae/suEI0VTK">Pyramidellidae</a>, <i><a href="/facts/Pyrgocythara_plicosa/GKwJr22S">Pyrgocythara plicosa</a></i>, <i>Rissoina catesbyana</i>, <i>Sayella livida</i>, <i><a href="/facts/Turbonilla/8SxSFgXq">Turbonilla</a></i> sp., <i><a href="/facts/Turbonilla_interrupta/V4WzNAGC">Turbonilla interrupta</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Vitrinella/QXtx7n4K">Vitrinella</a></i> sp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Redhead. <a href="/facts/Wikispecies/b2GhA7Le">Wikispecies</a> has information related to <i>Aythya americana</i>. <ul><li><a href="http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/Redhead.html">Redhead Species Account</a>—Cornell Lab of Ornithology</li> <li><a href="https://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/id/framlst/i1460id.html">Redhead—<i>Aythya americana</i></a>—USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter</li> <li><a href="https://www.hbw.com/ibc/species/redhead-aythya-americana">"Redhead media"</a>. <i><a href="/facts/Internet_Bird_Collection/qA302GT3">Internet Bird Collection</a></i>.</li> <li><a href="http://audio.macaulaylibrary.org/5/59599.mp3">Sound</a>[<i>permanent dead link</i>], <a href="http://macaulaylibrary.org/audio/59599">Sound metadata</a> Macaulay Library, Cornell Lab of Ornithology</li> <li><a href="https://vireo.acnatsci.org/search.html?Form=Search&SEARCHBY=Common&KEYWORDS=redhead&showwhat=images&AGE=All&SEX=All&ACT=All&Search=Search&VIEW=All&ORIENTATION=All&RESULTS=24">Redhead photo gallery</a> at VIREO (Drexel University)</li> <li><a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22680367/137752425">Interactive range map of <i>Aythya americana</i></a> at <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org">IUCN Red List</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Jobling, James A (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 44, 64. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4. <a href="978-1-4081-2501-4" target="_blank">978-1-4081-2501-4</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Carboneras, C. (1992). "Family Anatidae (Ducks, Geese and Swans)". In del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J. (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 1: Ostrich to Ducks. Barcelona, Spain: Lynx Edicions. p. 616. ISBN 84-87334-10-5. <a href="84-87334-10-5" target="_blank">84-87334-10-5</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Madge, Steve; Burn, Hilary (1988). Wildfowl: An Identification Guide to the Ducks, Geese and Swans of the World. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-0-7470-2201-5. <a href="978-0-7470-2201-5" target="_blank">978-0-7470-2201-5</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Madge, Steve; Burn, Hilary (1988). Wildfowl: An Identification Guide to the Ducks, Geese and Swans of the World. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-0-7470-2201-5. <a href="978-0-7470-2201-5" target="_blank">978-0-7470-2201-5</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Livezey, Bradley C. (1996-01-01). "A Phylogenetic Analysis of Modern Pochards (Anatidae: Aythyini)". The Auk. 113 (1): 74–93. doi:10.2307/4088937. JSTOR 4088937. <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4088937" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4088937</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Johnson, W.P.; Lockwood, M. (2013). Texas Waterfowl. College Station (TX): Texas A & M University Press. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Madge, Steve; Burn, Hilary (1988). Wildfowl: An Identification Guide to the Ducks, Geese and Swans of the World. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-0-7470-2201-5. <a href="978-0-7470-2201-5" target="_blank">978-0-7470-2201-5</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1975). Waterfowl of North America. Waterfowl of North America: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253363602. <a href="9780253363602" target="_blank">9780253363602</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1975). Waterfowl of North America. Waterfowl of North America: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253363602. <a href="9780253363602" target="_blank">9780253363602</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>R. Wagstaffe (1978-12-01). Type Specimens of Birds in the Merseyside County Museums (formerly City of Liverpool Museums). <a href="http://archive.org/details/type-specimens-of-birds-in-the-merseyside-county-museums-wagstaffe" target="_blank">http://archive.org/details/type-specimens-of-birds-in-the-merseyside-county-museums-wagstaffe</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Eyton, T. C. (1838). A monograph on the Anatidae or duck tribe. Shrewsbury: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, & Longman. pp. 155. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.51971. <a href="https://archive.org/details/monographonanati00eyto" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/monographonanati00eyto</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>R. Wagstaffe (1978-12-01). Type Specimens of Birds in the Merseyside County Museums (formerly City of Liverpool Museums). <a href="http://archive.org/details/type-specimens-of-birds-in-the-merseyside-county-museums-wagstaffe" target="_blank">http://archive.org/details/type-specimens-of-birds-in-the-merseyside-county-museums-wagstaffe</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Livezey, Bradley C. (1996-01-01). "A Phylogenetic Analysis of Modern Pochards (Anatidae: Aythyini)". The Auk. 113 (1): 74–93. doi:10.2307/4088937. JSTOR 4088937. <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4088937" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4088937</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Livezey, Bradley C. (1996-01-01). "A Phylogenetic Analysis of Modern Pochards (Anatidae: Aythyini)". The Auk. 113 (1): 74–93. doi:10.2307/4088937. JSTOR 4088937. <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4088937" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4088937</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1975). Waterfowl of North America. Waterfowl of North America: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253363602. <a href="9780253363602" target="_blank">9780253363602</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1965). Handbook of Waterfowl Behavior. Ithaca (NY): Comstock Pub. Associates. <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Johnson, W.P.; Lockwood, M. (2013). Texas Waterfowl. College Station (TX): Texas A & M University Press. <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Madge, Steve; Burn, Hilary (1988). Wildfowl: An Identification Guide to the Ducks, Geese and Swans of the World. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-0-7470-2201-5. <a href="978-0-7470-2201-5" target="_blank">978-0-7470-2201-5</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Johnson, W.P.; Lockwood, M. (2013). Texas Waterfowl. College Station (TX): Texas A & M University Press. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Madge, Steve; Burn, Hilary (1988). Wildfowl: An Identification Guide to the Ducks, Geese and Swans of the World. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-0-7470-2201-5. <a href="978-0-7470-2201-5" target="_blank">978-0-7470-2201-5</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1975). Waterfowl of North America. Waterfowl of North America: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253363602. <a href="9780253363602" target="_blank">9780253363602</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Johnson, W.P.; Lockwood, M. (2013). Texas Waterfowl. College Station (TX): Texas A & M University Press. <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Johnson, W.P.; Lockwood, M. (2013). Texas Waterfowl. College Station (TX): Texas A & M University Press. <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1975). Waterfowl of North America. Waterfowl of North America: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253363602. <a href="9780253363602" target="_blank">9780253363602</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Yerkes, T. (2000). "Nest-Site Characteristics and Brood-Habitat Selection of Redheads: An Association between Wetland Characteristics and Success". Wetlands. 20 (4): 575–580. doi:10.1672/0277-5212(2000)020[0575:NSCABH]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 39784980. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1975). Waterfowl of North America. Waterfowl of North America: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253363602. <a href="9780253363602" target="_blank">9780253363602</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Johnson, W.P.; Lockwood, M. (2013). Texas Waterfowl. College Station (TX): Texas A & M University Press. <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Yerkes, T. (2000). "Nest-Site Characteristics and Brood-Habitat Selection of Redheads: An Association between Wetland Characteristics and Success". Wetlands. 20 (4): 575–580. doi:10.1672/0277-5212(2000)020[0575:NSCABH]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 39784980. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Baldassarre, G.A.; Bolen, E.G.; Saunders, D.A. (1994). Waterfowl Ecology and Management. New York: J. Wiley. <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1975). Waterfowl of North America. Waterfowl of North America: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253363602. <a href="9780253363602" target="_blank">9780253363602</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Baldassarre, G.A.; Bolen, E.G.; Saunders, D.A. (1994). Waterfowl Ecology and Management. New York: J. Wiley. <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Mitchell Custer, C. (1993). 13.1. 11. Life History Traits and Habitat Needs of the Redhead. Waterfowl Management Handbook, 40. <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Johnson, W.P.; Lockwood, M. (2013). Texas Waterfowl. College Station (TX): Texas A & M University Press. <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Mitchell Custer, C. (1993). 13.1. 11. Life History Traits and Habitat Needs of the Redhead. Waterfowl Management Handbook, 40. <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Mitchell Custer, C. (1993). 13.1. 11. Life History Traits and Habitat Needs of the Redhead. Waterfowl Management Handbook, 40. <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Woodin, Marc C. and Thomas C. Michot. 2002. Redhead (Aythya americana), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/695 doi:10.2173/bna.695 <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Woodin, Marc C. and Thomas C. Michot. 2002. Redhead (Aythya americana), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/695 doi:10.2173/bna.695 <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1975). Waterfowl of North America. Waterfowl of North America: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253363602. <a href="9780253363602" target="_blank">9780253363602</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1975). Waterfowl of North America. Waterfowl of North America: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253363602. <a href="9780253363602" target="_blank">9780253363602</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Woodin, Marc C. and Thomas C. Michot. 2002. Redhead (Aythya americana), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/695 doi:10.2173/bna.695 <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1975). Waterfowl of North America. Waterfowl of North America: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253363602. <a href="9780253363602" target="_blank">9780253363602</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1965). Handbook of Waterfowl Behavior. Ithaca (NY): Comstock Pub. Associates. <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1975). Waterfowl of North America. Waterfowl of North America: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253363602. <a href="9780253363602" target="_blank">9780253363602</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Baldassarre, G.A.; Bolen, E.G.; Saunders, D.A. (1994). Waterfowl Ecology and Management. New York: J. Wiley. <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1975). Waterfowl of North America. Waterfowl of North America: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253363602. <a href="9780253363602" target="_blank">9780253363602</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1975). Waterfowl of North America. Waterfowl of North America: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253363602. <a href="9780253363602" target="_blank">9780253363602</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1965). Handbook of Waterfowl Behavior. Ithaca (NY): Comstock Pub. Associates. <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Woodin, Marc. C.; Michot, Thomas C. (2015). "Redhead Aythya americana Order ANSERIFORMES – Family ANATIDAE". The Birds Of North America Online. CORNELL LAB OF ORNITHOLOGY and the AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS' UNION. Retrieved October 7, 2015. <a href="http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/695/articles/systematics" target="_blank">http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/695/articles/systematics</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Mitchell Custer, C. (1993). 13.1. 11. Life History Traits and Habitat Needs of the Redhead. Waterfowl Management Handbook, 40. <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1975). Waterfowl of North America. Waterfowl of North America: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253363602. <a href="9780253363602" target="_blank">9780253363602</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1965). Handbook of Waterfowl Behavior. Ithaca (NY): Comstock Pub. Associates. <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1975). Waterfowl of North America. Waterfowl of North America: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253363602. <a href="9780253363602" target="_blank">9780253363602</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1975). Waterfowl of North America. Waterfowl of North America: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253363602. <a href="9780253363602" target="_blank">9780253363602</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1975). Waterfowl of North America. Waterfowl of North America: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253363602. <a href="9780253363602" target="_blank">9780253363602</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Johnson, W.P.; Lockwood, M. (2013). Texas Waterfowl. College Station (TX): Texas A & M University Press. <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Johnson, W.P.; Lockwood, M. (2013). Texas Waterfowl. College Station (TX): Texas A & M University Press. <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Johnsgard, P.A. (1975). Waterfowl of North America. Waterfowl of North America: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253363602. <a href="9780253363602" target="_blank">9780253363602</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>Johnson, W.P.; Lockwood, M. (2013). Texas Waterfowl. College Station (TX): Texas A & M University Press. <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>Michot, T. C.; Woodin, M. C.; Nault, A. J. (2008). "Food habits of redheads (Aythya americana) wintering in seagrass beds of coastal Louisiana and Texas, USA" (PDF). Acta Zoologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 54 (Suppl. 1): 239–250. <a href="http://actazool.nhmus.hu/54/Suppl1/azh54_S1_Michot.pdf" target="_blank">http://actazool.nhmus.hu/54/Suppl1/azh54_S1_Michot.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>