Pārśvanātha

<h2 id="historicity">Historicity</h2>
Pārśvanātha is the earliest Jaina tīrthaṅkaras who is generally acknowledged as a historical figure.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a>
According to some scholars, Jainism's origin can be traced to him.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a> According to <a href="/facts/Paul_Dundas/cBzE4sh4">Paul Dundas</a>, <a href="/facts/Jain_text/gw4tubm3">Jaina texts</a> such as section 31 of Isibhasiyam (a description of his teachings, which may be historical) provide circumstantial evidence that he lived in ancient India.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a> Historians such as <a href="/facts/Hermann_Jacobi/N5XmUtej">Hermann Jacobi</a> have accepted him as a historical figure because his Caturyāma Dharma (Four Vows) are mentioned in <a href="/facts/Buddhist_texts/1jSFL7Wd">Buddhist texts</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> In the Manorathapurani, a Buddhist commentary on the <a href="/facts/Anguttara_Nikaya/Kf3HmbRS">Anguttara Nikaya</a>, Vappa, the <a href="/facts/Gautama_Buddha/8UchTM1s">Buddha</a>'s uncle, was a follower of Pārśvanātha.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a>
Section 2.15 of the <a href="/facts/%25C4%2580c%25C4%2581r%25C4%2581%25E1%25B9%2585ga_S%25C5%25ABtra/ILkCU5gl">Ācārāṅga Sūtra</a> says that Mahāvīra's parents (<a href="/facts/Tri%25C5%259Bal%25C4%2581/6bSK29ma">Triśalā</a> and <a href="/facts/Siddhartha_of_Kundagrama/CDjVhI1l">Siddhārtha</a>) were lay devotees of Pārśvanātha.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a>
Despite the generally accepted historicity, some historical claims such as the link between him and Mahāvīra, whether Mahāvīra renounced in the ascetic tradition of Pārśvanātha, and other biographical details have led to different scholarly conclusions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> There may be a "historical nucleus"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a> within the traditional accounts of his life, although these <a href="/facts/Hagiography/CtKDrTXm">hagiographic</a> writings are otherwise considered later, legendary, and not historically reliable.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a> The earliest biographical description of his life is from a chapter of the <a href="/facts/Kalpa_S%25C5%25ABtra/PX6eHbVX">Kalpa Sūtra</a> (traditionally ascribed to sage <a href="/facts/Bhadrabahu/CJhDvpcf">Bhadrabāhu</a> during 4th-3rd century BCE, but most likely dating from 2nd-1st century BCE<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a>): it is "extremely short in extent and probably modelled on that of Mahāvīra",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> so as it is of a formulaic and hagiographic nature, "its value as a historical document is somewhat doubtful".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a>

Pārśvanātha's biography with Jaina texts says that he preceded Mahāvīra by 273 years and that he lived 100 years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a> Mahāvīra is dated to c. 599 – c. 527 BCE in the Jaina tradition, and Pārśvanātha is dated to c. 872 – c. 772 BCE.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a> According to Dundas, historians outside the Jaina tradition date Mahāvīra as contemporaneous with the <a href="/facts/Buddha/8UchTM1s">Buddha</a> in the 5th century BCE which, based on the 273-year gap, would date Pārśvanātha to the 8th or 7th century BCE.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a> However, Dundas further states, "It is impossible to be certain about the relationship between Mahāvīra and Pārśva and in actuality the chronological distance between the two teachers may have been much less than two and a half centuries."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a>
Additionally, Long points out "some scholars have suggested that Pārśvanātha and Mahāvīra were actually closer in time than the tradition claims",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> referring to studies by <a href="/facts/Madhusudan_Dhaky/r5c9AIKX">Madhusudan Dhaky</a>—who has identified certain Jaina texts containing wording which implies that not so many years had elapsed between the two, leading Dhaky to suggest "Pārśva could not have started his ascetic career before the beginning of the sixth century BC" and "may have passed away only a few decades before Vardhamāna [i.e., Mahāvīra] had started his preaching career".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a> In Jaina tradition, Pārśva is said to have visited some cities which, according to archaeological and historical evidence, first came to prominence during India's <a href="/facts/Second_Urbanisation/ntYkAYDQ">Second Urbanisation</a> period, in the 7th–6th century BCE.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a>
Having compiled the traditional accounts about Pārśvanātha, states <a href="/facts/Helmuth_von_Glasenapp/tGejbV15">Glasenapp</a>, it is the historian's approach "to try to obtain an approximate idea of his life and his teachings from the scanty material which stands the test of a critical examination", but there remain many uncertainties.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a> <a href="/facts/Heinrich_Zimmer/cahGLnAQ">Zimmer</a> considers him to be a historical figure, but "in the biography of Pārśva the element of legend is so strong that one can scarcely sense an actually living, breathing human being," in contrast to better documented era of Mahāvīra.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a> Comparing Jaina legends of Pārśva to similar "parallel stories" in Buddhist legends, <a href="/facts/Edward_Joseph_Thomas/MWTFUGg7">Thomas</a> concludes, "It appears as if the legends grew side by side and mutually influenced the rival hagiographers" of Jainism and Buddhism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a> According to Glasenapp, it cannot be known for certain how much the "colourful circle of legends [...] correspond to the historical facts": he accepts "the main tenets of Pārśva's doctrine", and that the "holy legend" probably does "conceal a historical nucleus",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a> with an essential "correctness of tradition" that Pārśva had been "of noble birth", a "young man from a wealthy family" who renounced the worldly life and riches to become a wandering ascetic, dedicated "completely to the attainment and proclamation of philosophical knowledge"—although many details of his life were "excessively embellished by his followers later".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a>
However, some other scholars are more skeptical in their considerations. According to Gough, "the historicity of Pārśva is not, however, firmly established," referring to the argument by historian Bansidhar Bhatt, who has argued that Pārśva "must be a mythological figure" and only later came to be dated to the 9th century BCE.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a> Gough additionally notes that the stories about Pārśva are rather reflective of the much later historical context when they were written: according to Gough, "since early Jaina biographical accounts of the tīrthaṅkaras were composed in north India around the turn of the first millennium", "there is no evidence that he lived in Varanasi", which more likely reflects the city's status as "an important commercial center of north India in the early centuries of the Common Era", i.e., "the time periods when monks composed and developed these stories."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a>
Doubts about Pārśvanātha's historicity are also supported by the oldest Jaina texts, which present Mahāvīra with sporadic mentions of ancient ascetics and teachers without specific names (such as sections 1.4.1 and 1.6.3 of the Acaranga Sutra).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a> The earliest layer of Jaina literature on cosmology and universal history pivots around two <a href="/facts/Arihant_(Jainism)/Czg9DPG1">jinas</a>: the Adinatha (<a href="/facts/Rishabhanatha/DuY2Ka76">Rishabhanatha</a>) and Mahāvīra. Stories of Pārśvanātha and <a href="/facts/Neminatha/pIpBXty2">Neminatha</a> appear in later Jaina texts, with the <a href="/facts/Kalpa_S%25C5%25ABtra/PX6eHbVX">Kalpa Sūtra</a> the first known text. However, these texts present the tīrthaṅkaras with unusual, non-human physical dimensions; the characters lack individuality or depth, and the brief descriptions of the tīrthaṅkaras are largely modelled on Mahāvīra.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> The Kalpa Sūtra is the most ancient known Jaina text with the 24 tirthankar, but it lists 20; three, including Pārśvanātha, have brief descriptions compared with Mahāvīra.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a> Early archaeological finds, such as the statues and reliefs near <a href="/facts/Mathura/ShS7I2c5">Mathura</a>, lack <a href="/facts/Iconography/YUcIQLN7">iconography</a> such as lions and serpents.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a>
Two of the early bronze images of Pārśvanātha can be found on <a href="/facts/Chhatrapati_Shivaji_Maharaj_Vastu_Sangrahalaya/PpW5AlXo">Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya</a> and <a href="/facts/Patna_Museum/lNCCffev">Patna Museum</a> dating back to the second century BCE to the first century CE.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a> A first century BCE <a href="/facts/Ayagapata/M06qAFwd">Ayagapata</a> is in <a href="/facts/State_Museum_Lucknow/Gd8EUJlC">State Museum Lucknow</a> containing the image of Pārśvanātha.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> A seventh century CE statue was found in the <a href="/facts/Asthal_Bohar/CKK92ocl">Asthal Bohar</a> village of <a href="/facts/Rohtak/4bAqy532">Rohtak</a>, <a href="/facts/Haryana/bo4Qo3c8">Haryana</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a>

<h2 id="jaina-biography">Jaina biography</h2>

Pārśvanātha was the 23rd of 24 tīrthaṅkaras in Jaina tradition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a>

<h3>Life before renunciation</h3>
He was born on the tenth day of the dark half of the Hindu month of <a href="/facts/Pausha/mPYA4ESX">Pausha</a> to King Ashwasena and Queen Vamadevi of <a href="/facts/Varanasi_district/4mmwCYUe">Varanasi</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a> Pārśvanātha belonged to the <a href="/facts/Ikshvaku_dynasty/AR7otF7b">Ikshvaku dynasty</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a> Before his birth, Jaina texts state that he ruled as the god <a href="/facts/Indra/LLN2uI9D">Indra</a> in the 13th heaven of Jaina cosmology.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a> While Pārśvanātha was in his mother's womb, gods performed the garbha-kalyana (enlivened the fetus). His mother dreamt 14 auspicious dreams, an indicator in Jaina tradition that a tirthankar was about to be born.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> According to the Jaina texts, the thrones of the Indras shook when he was born and the Indras came down to earth to celebrate his janma-kalyanaka (his auspicious birth).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a>
Pārśvanātha was born with blue-black skin. A strong, handsome boy, he played with the gods of water, hills and trees. At the age of eight, Pārśvanātha began practising the twelve basic duties of the adult Jaina householder.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a> He lived as a prince and soldier in Varanasi.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a> 
The <a href="/facts/Bhelupur_Jain_temple/dkc2aYb4">temples in Bhelupur</a> were built to commemorate place for <a href="/facts/Panch_Kalyanaka/0IpWSpnv">three kalyanaka</a> of Pārśvanātha.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a>
According to the <a href="/facts/Digambara/xFbhn0WI">Digambara</a> school, Pārśvanātha never married; <a href="/facts/%25C5%259Av%25C4%2593t%25C4%2581mbara/SKHpc6l8">Śvētāmbara</a> texts say that he married Prabhavati, the daughter of <a href="/facts/Prasenajit/yMQ9ueos">Prasenajit</a> (king of Kusasthala).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a> <a href="/facts/Heinrich_Zimmer/cahGLnAQ">Heinrich Zimmer</a> translated a Jaina text that sixteen-year-old Pārśvanātha refused to marry when his father told him to do so; he began meditating instead because the "soul is its only friend".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a>

<h3>Renunciation</h3>

At age 30, on the 11th day of the moon's waxing in the month of <a href="/facts/Pausha/mPYA4ESX">Pausha</a> (December–January), Pārśvanātha renounced the world to become a monk after seeing the image of <a href="/facts/Neminatha/pIpBXty2">Neminatha</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a> He removed his clothes and hair and began fasting strictly.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a> Pārśvanātha meditated for 84 days before he attained <a href="/facts/Kevala_Jnana/f2Qdby8T">omniscience</a> under a <a href="/facts/Dhaataki/ycjtb42u">dhaataki</a> tree near Benares.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a> His meditation period included asceticism and strict vows. Pārśvanātha's practices included careful movement, measured speech, guarded desires, mental restraint and physical activity, essential in Jaina tradition to renounce the ego.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a> According to the Jaina texts, lions and fawns played around him during his asceticism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a>
<a href="/facts/Ahichchhatra/Vk5oUeG0">Ahichchhatra</a> is believed to be the place where Pārśvanātha attained <a href="/facts/Kevala_Jnana/f2Qdby8T">Kevala Jnana</a> (omniscience). According to <a href="/facts/Vividha_Tirtha_Kalpa/Lz1WmH88">Vividha Tirtha Kalpa</a>, Kamath in an attempt to obstruct Pārśvanātha from achieving Kevala Jnana caused continuous rain. Pārśvanātha was immersed in water up to his neck and to protect him the serpent god <a href="/facts/Dharanendra/2HRG6vtj">Dharanendra</a> held a canopy of thousand hoods over his head and the goddess <a href="/facts/Padmavati_(Jainism)/Doxv1cqB">Padmavati</a> coiled herself around his body. <a href="/facts/Ahichchhatra_Jain_temples/SSBb7SWl">Ahichchhatra Jaina temples</a> are built to commemorate Pārśvanātha attaining <a href="/facts/Panch_Kalyanaka/0IpWSpnv">Kēvalajñāna kalyāṇaka</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a> On the 14th day of the moon's waning cycle in the month of <a href="/facts/Chaitra/fHTWPV6m">Chaitra</a> (March–April), Pārśvanātha attained omniscience.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a> Heavenly beings built him a <a href="/facts/Samavasarana/Un70jAMR">samavasarana</a> (preaching hall), so he could share his knowledge with his followers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a>
After preaching for 70 years, Pārśvanath attained <a href="/facts/Moksha_(Jainism)/UKSF1T36">moksha</a> at <a href="/facts/Shikharji/fxjyeH64">Shikharji</a> on <a href="/facts/Parasnath/KnzT3QA8">Parasnath</a> hill<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a> at the age of 100 on Shravana Shukla Saptami according to Lunar Calendar.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a> His <a href="/facts/Moksha_(Jainism)/UKSF1T36">moksha</a> (liberation from the cycle of birth and death) in Jaina tradition<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a> is celebrated as Moksha Saptami. This day is celebrated on large scale at Parasnath tonk of the mountain, in northern <a href="/facts/Jharkhand/eYFQURjk">Jharkhand</a>, part of the Parasnath Range<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a> by offering Nirvana <a href="/facts/Laddu/a4yNIYeC">Laddu</a> (Sugar balls) and reciting of <a href="/facts/Nirvana_Kanda/SmI1VjzR">Nirvana Kanda</a>. Pārśvanātha has been called purisādāṇīya (beloved of the people) by Jains.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a>

<h3>Previous lives</h3>

Jaina mythology contains legends about Pārśvanātha's human and animal rebirths and the maturing of his soul towards inner harmony like legends found in other Indian religions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a> His rebirths include:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a>

<ul><li>Marubhuti – Vishwabhuti, King Aravinda's prime minister, had two sons; the elder one was Kamath and the younger one was Marubhuti (Pārśvanātha). Kamath committed adultery with Marubhuti's wife. The king learned about the adultery, and asked Marubhuti how his brother should be punished; Marubhuti suggested forgiveness. Kamath went into a forest, became an ascetic, and acquired demonic powers to take revenge. Marubhuti went to the forest to invite his brother back home, but Kamath killed Marubhuti by crushing him with a stone. Marubhuti was one of Pārśvanātha's earlier rebirths.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a></li>
<li>Vajraghosha (Thunder), an elephant – He was then reborn as an elephant because of the "violence of the death and distressing thoughts he harbored at the time of his previous death".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a> Vajraghosha lived in the forests of <a href="/facts/Vindhya_Range/4co9kBBh">Vindyachal</a>. Kamath was reborn as a serpent.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a></li></ul>
King Aravinda, after the death of his minister's son, renounced his throne and led an ascetic life. When an angry Vajraghosha approached Aravinda, the ascetic saw that the elephant was the reborn Marubhuti. Aravinda asked the elephant to give up "sinful acts, remove his demerits from the past, realize that injuring other beings is the greatest sin, and begin practicing the vows". The elephant realized his error, became calm, and bowed at Aravinda's feet. When Vajraghosha went to a river one day to drink, the serpent Kamath bit him. He died peacefully this time, however, without distressing thoughts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a>

<ul><li>Sasiprabha – Vajraghosha was reborn as Sashiprabha (Lord of the Moon)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a> in the twelfth heaven, surrounded by abundant pleasures. Sashiprabha, however, did not let the pleasures distract him and continued his ascetic life.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108">108</a></li>
<li>Agnivega – Sashiprabha died, and was reborn as Prince Agnivega ("strength of fire"). After he became king, he met a sage who told him about the impermanence of all things and the significance of a spiritual life. Agnivega realized the importance of religious pursuits, and his worldly life lost its charms. He renounced it to lead an ascetic life, joining the sage's monastic community. Agnivega meditated in the <a href="/facts/Himalayas/eRSf0yyE">Himalayas</a>, reducing his attachment to the outside world. He was bitten by a snake (the reborn Kamath), but the poison did not disturb his inner peace and he calmly accepted his death.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109">109</a></li></ul>
Agnivega was reborn as a god with a life of "twenty-two oceans of years", and the serpent went to the sixth hell.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110">110</a> The soul of Marubhuti-Vajraghosa-Sasiprabha-Agnivega was reborn as Pārśvanātha. He saved serpents from torture and death during that life; the serpent god <a href="/facts/Dharanendra/2HRG6vtj">Dharanendra</a> and the goddess <a href="/facts/Padmavati_(Jainism)/Doxv1cqB">Padmavati</a> protected him, and are part of Pārśvanath's iconography. <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111">111</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112">112</a>

<h3>Disciples</h3>

According to the <a href="/facts/Kalpa_S%25C5%25ABtra/PX6eHbVX">Kalpa Sūtra</a> (a <a href="/facts/%25C5%259Av%25C4%2593t%25C4%2581mbara/SKHpc6l8">Śvētāmbara</a> text), Pārśvanātha had 164,000 <a href="/facts/%25C5%259Ar%25C4%2581vaka_(Jainism)/8vdwrd6z">śrāvakas</a> (male lay followers), 327,000 śrāvikās (female lay followers), 16,000 <a href="/facts/Jain_monasticism/t2jXJTC3">sādhus</a> (monks) and 38,000 Sadhvis or <a href="/facts/Aryika/PsqSakuG">aryikas</a> (nuns).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113">113</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114">114</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115">115</a> According to Śvētāmbara tradition, he had eight <a href="/facts/Ganadhara/n3WkqqG1">ganadharas</a> (chief monks): Śubhadatta, Āryaghoṣa, Vasiṣṭha, Brahmacāri, Soma, Śrīdhara, Vīrabhadra and Yaśas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116">116</a> After his death, the Śvētāmbara believe that Śubhadatta became head of the monastic order and was succeeded by Haridatta, Āryasamudra and <a href="/facts/Kesi_(Ganadhara)/8B1nDemC">Keśī</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117">117</a>
According to <a href="/facts/Digambara/xFbhn0WI">Digambara</a> tradition (including the Avasyaka niryukti), Pārśvanātha had 10 ganadhars and Svayambhu was their leader. Śvētāmbara texts such as the <a href="/facts/Samavayanga_Sutra/X8058BRu">Samavayanga</a> and Kalpa Sūtras cite Pushpakula as the chief aryika of his female followers,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118">118</a> but the Digambara Tiloyapannati text identifies her as Suloka or Sulocana.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119">119</a> Pārśvanātha's <a href="/facts/Digambara_monk/CX4epesk">nirgrantha</a> (without bonds) monastic tradition was influential in ancient India, with Mahāvīra's parents part of it as lay householders who supported the ascetics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120">120</a>

<h3>Upkeśa Gaccha</h3>
The time period between Pārśvanātha and <a href="/facts/Mahavira/46A5AGc3">Mahāvīra</a> was only 250 years, which is relatively short when compared to the periods between any two consecutive <a href="/facts/Tirthankara/cf8K8DIL">tīrthaṅkaras</a>. According to ancient <a href="/facts/%25C5%259Avet%25C4%2581mbara/SKHpc6l8">Śvetāmbara</a> texts such as <a href="/facts/Uttaradhyayana/qqkSlFCk">Uttaradhyayana Sutra</a>, owing to this short period of time between both the <a href="/facts/Tirthankara/cf8K8DIL">tīrthaṅkaras</a>, monks of Pārśvanātha's lineage existed during Mahāvīra's time period. <a href="/facts/Kesi_(Ganadhara)/8B1nDemC">Keśiśramanācharya</a>, a monk of Parhsvanatha's lineage, is also said to have met <a href="/facts/Gautama_Swami/zrzQ1v8A">Gautama Swami</a>, the prime disciple of Mahāvīra.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121">121</a> Pārśvanātha's monastic lineage is said to have begun with his prime disciple Arya Śubhadatta. Later, this lineage came to be known as the <a href="/facts/Upke%25C5%259Ba_Gaccha/ut71xbAy">Upkeśa Gaccha</a> of the Śvetāmbara tradition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122">122</a>
<a href="/facts/Kesi_(Ganadhara)/8B1nDemC">Keśī's</a> (the 4th head of the monastic order in Pārśvanātha's monastic lineage) disciple <a href="/facts/Swayamprabhasuri/yKkexE9U">Swayamprabha</a>sūriwent on to create the <a href="/facts/Porwal/bRrmA3my">Porwal</a> and <a href="/facts/Bhinmal/NrkNamej">Srimali</a> castes by preaching <a href="/facts/Jainism/h0glxhjH">Jainism</a> and strongly opposing <a href="/facts/Animal_sacrifice_in_Hinduism/44dNSbAf">animal sacrifice</a> in <a href="/facts/Bhinmal/NrkNamej">Bhinmal</a> and Padmavati region of present-day <a href="/facts/Rajasthan/rC0MvrRD">Rajasthan</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123">123</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124">124</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125">125</a> Later, Swayamprabhasuri's disciple <a href="/facts/Ratnaprabhasuri/s0xmIHNw">Ratnaprabha</a>sūripreached Jainism in <a href="/facts/Osian%2c_Jodhpur/c1tydopk">Osian</a> and created the <a href="/facts/Oswal/lwRcjbuz">Oswal</a> caste.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126">126</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127">127</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128">128</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129">129</a> The monastic lineage of <a href="/facts/Upke%25C5%259Ba_Gaccha/ut71xbAy">Upkeśa Gaccha</a> is particularly important as it narrates the <a href="/facts/History_of_Jainism/b7DTKP98">history of Jainism</a> before <a href="/facts/Mahavira/46A5AGc3">Mahāvīra</a> and describes the creation of three of the most prominent castes of Jaina followers. It also suggests the antiquity of the Śvetāmbara tradition and that white-clad ascetics were the original followers of Jainism and of Pārśvanātha, who preceded naked ascetics of the <a href="/facts/Digambara/xFbhn0WI">Digambara</a> sect.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130">130</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131">131</a>

<h3>Avakinnayo Karakandu</h3>
Karakandu was a great devotee of the 23rd Jaina tīrthaṅkaras <a href="/facts/Parshvanatha/8dVsg0Cf">Pārśvanātha</a> who preached Jainism in Kaliṅgaaround 850 BCE.
Also Jaina tradition mentions that King Avakinnayo Karakandu is responsible for the spread of Jainism in southern and western India. Due to this Jainism become the prominent religion of Kalinga and Dravida country during 8th century BCE even before the birth of the 24th Jaina tīrthaṅkaras <a href="/facts/Mahavira/46A5AGc3">Mahāvīra</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132">132</a> 
According to Kanakmara, Karakanda had very strong faith in the teachings of the 23rd Jaina tīrthaṅkaras <a href="/facts/Parshvanatha/8dVsg0Cf">Pārśvanātha</a> of his era. He strictly followed the Anuvratas and Gunavratas principles of Jainism, which are applicable for both monks and household people according to Jainism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133">133</a>

<h2 id="teachings">Teachings</h2>
Texts of the two major Jaina sects (Digambara and Śvētāmbara) have different views of Pārśvanātha and Mahāvīra's teachings, which underlie disputes between the sects.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134">134</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135">135</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136">136</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137">137</a> Digambaras maintain that no difference exists between the teachings of Pārśvanātha and Mahāvīra.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138">138</a> According to the Śvētāmbaras, Mahāvīra expanded the scope of Pārśvanātha's first four restraints with his ideas on <a href="/facts/Ahimsa/gV8J0KQI">ahimsa</a> (non-violence) and added the fifth monastic vow (celibacy) to the practice of asceticism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139">139</a> Pārśvanātha did not require celibacy,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140">140</a> and allowed monks to wear simple outer garments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141">141</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142">142</a> Śvētāmbara texts such as section 2.15 of the <a href="/facts/%25C4%2580c%25C4%2581r%25C4%2581%25E1%25B9%2585ga_S%25C5%25ABtra/ILkCU5gl">Ācārāṅga Sūtra</a> say that Mahāvīra's parents were followers of Pārśvanātha,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143">143</a> linking Mahāvīra to a preexisting theology as a reformer of Jaina mendicant tradition.
According to the Śvētāmbara tradition, Pārśvanātha and the ascetic community he founded exercised a fourfold restraint; Mahāvīra stipulated five great vows for his ascetic initiation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144">144</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145">145</a> This difference and its reason have often been discussed in Śvētāmbara texts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146">146</a>
The Uttardhyayana Sutra<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147">147</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148">148</a> (a Śvētāmbara text) describes <a href="/facts/Ke%25C5%259Bin_D%25C4%2581lbhya/mx3HobFf">Keśin Dālbhya</a> as a follower of Pārśvanātha and <a href="/facts/Indrabhuti_Gautama/zrzQ1v8A">Indrabhuti Gautama</a> as a disciple of Mahāvīra and discusses which doctrine is true: the fourfold restraint or the five great vows. Gautama says that there are outward differences, and these differences are "because the moral and intellectual capabilities of the followers of the ford-makers have differed".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149">149</a>
According to <a href="/facts/Wendy_Doniger/uSPshx4G">Wendy Doniger</a>, Pārśvanātha allowed monks to wear clothes; Mahāvīra recommended nude asceticism, a practice which has been a significant difference between the Digambara and Śvētāmbara traditions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:150" href="#fn:150">150</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:151" href="#fn:151">151</a>
According to the Śvētāmbara texts, Pārśvanātha's four restraints were ahimsa, <a href="/facts/Aparigraha/ukm0Gb0V">aparigraha</a> (non-possession), <a href="/facts/Asteya/wYIFJGUY">asteya</a> (non-stealing) and <a href="/facts/Satya/cRVcP3GF">satya</a> (non-lying).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:152" href="#fn:152">152</a> Ancient Buddhist texts (such as the <a href="/facts/Sama%25C3%25B1%25C3%25B1aphala_Sutta/3c9z9D2X">Samaññaphala Sutta</a>) which mention Jaina ideas and Mahāvīra cite the four restraints, rather than the five vows of later Jaina texts. This has led scholars such as Hermann Jacobi to say that when Mahāvīra and the Buddha met, the Buddhists knew only about the four restraints of the Pārśvanātha tradition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:153" href="#fn:153">153</a> Further scholarship suggests a more complex situation, because some of the earliest Jaina literature (such as section 1.8.1 of the Ācārāṅga Sūtra) connects Mahāvīra with three restraints: non-violence, non-lying, and non-possession. <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:154" href="#fn:154">154</a>
The "less than five vows" view of Śvētāmbara texts is not accepted by the Digambaras, a tradition whose canonical texts have been lost and who do not accept Śvētāmbara texts as canonical.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:155" href="#fn:155">155</a> Digambaras have a sizable literature, however, which explains their disagreement with Śvētāmbara interpretations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:156" href="#fn:156">156</a> Prafulla Modi rejects the theory of differences between Pārśvanātha's and Mahāvīra's teachings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:157" href="#fn:157">157</a> <a href="/facts/Champat_Rai_Jain/Xobdq3w7">Champat Rai</a> Jaina writes that Śvētāmbara texts insist on celibacy for their monks (the fifth vow in Mahāvīra's teachings), and there must not have been a difference between the teachings of Pārśvanātha and Mahāvīra.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:158" href="#fn:158">158</a>
<a href="/facts/Padmanabh_Jaini/vXsTAhTB">Padmanabh Jaini</a> writes that the Digambaras interpret "fourfold" as referring "not to four specific vows", but to "four modalities" (which were adapted by Mahāvīra into five vows).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:159" href="#fn:159">159</a> Western and some Indian scholarship "has been essentially Śvētāmbara scholarship", and has largely ignored Digambara literature related to the controversy about Pārśvanātha's and Mahāvīra's teachings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:160" href="#fn:160">160</a> <a href="/facts/Paul_Dundas/cBzE4sh4">Paul Dundas</a> writes that medieval Jaina literature, such as that by the 9th-century Silanka, suggests that the practices of "not using another's property without their explicit permission" and celibacy were interpreted as part of non-possession.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:161" href="#fn:161">161</a>

<h2 id="in-literature">In literature</h2>

The <a href="/facts/Kalpa_S%25C5%25ABtra/PX6eHbVX">Kalpa Sūtra</a> contains biographies of the tīrthaṅkaras Pārśvanātha and Mahāvīra.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:162" href="#fn:162">162</a> <a href="/facts/Vy%25C4%2581khy%25C4%2581praj%25C3%25B1apti/rEueEfgL">Vyākhyāprajñapti</a> sūtra is one of the earliest texts mentioning Pārśvanātha as Arhat.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:163" href="#fn:163">163</a> <a href="/facts/Uvasagharam_Stotra/b1xo9vFF">Uvasagharam Stotra</a> is an ode to Pārśvanātha which was written by sage <a href="/facts/Bhadrabahu/CJhDvpcf">Bhadrabahu</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:164" href="#fn:164">164</a> <a href="/facts/Jinasena/GSws2tRp">Jinasena</a>'s <a href="/facts/Mahapurana_(Jainism)/aDtCoR6E">Mahapurāṇa</a> includes "<a href="/facts/%25C4%2580di_pur%25C4%2581%25E1%25B9%2587a/jXFIh3o1">Ādi purāṇa</a>" and <a href="/facts/Uttarapurana/Xwq8I1pu">Uttarapurāṇa</a>. It was completed by Jinasena's 8th-century disciple, Gunabhadra. "Ādi purāṇa" describes the lives of <a href="/facts/Rishabhanatha/DuY2Ka76">Rishabhanatha</a>, <a href="/facts/Bahubali/3R3zLvcj">Bahubali</a> and <a href="/facts/Bharata_Chakravartin/GLMtrLCE">Bharata</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:165" href="#fn:165">165</a> Pārśvabhyudaya by Jinsena is a narration of the life of Pārśvanātha.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:166" href="#fn:166">166</a> Bhayahara Stotra composed by <a href="/facts/Acharya_Manatunga/KRtg3B5Y">Acharya Manatunga</a>, 7th century, is an adoration of Pārśvanātha.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:167" href="#fn:167">167</a> Sankhesvara Stotram is hymn to Pārśvanātha compiled by <a href="/facts/Mahopadhyaya_Yashovijaya/Fvk2Gx7C">Mahopadhyaya Yashovijaya</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:168" href="#fn:168">168</a> Shankheshwar Pārśvanath Stavan, hymn dedicated to Shankheshwar Pārśvanath, is one of the most performed Jaina prayer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:169" href="#fn:169">169</a>
Pasanaha-chairu is a hagiography of Pārśvanātha composed by Shridhara in 1132 AD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:170" href="#fn:170">170</a> Pārśvanath bhavaantar is a <a href="/facts/Kirtan/9YcQTMFL">kirtan</a> (devotion song), compiled by Gangadas in 1690 AD, which narrates life of previous nine births.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:171" href="#fn:171">171</a> The medieval forty-four verse hymn Kalyanamandira stotra, composed by Digambar kumudachandra, is a praise to Pārśvanātha is popular among both Digambar and Śvētāmbara.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:172" href="#fn:172">172</a> Pārśvanātha charite is a poem composed by Shantikirt Muni in 1730 AD, this poem narrates the seven siddhis of Pārśvanātha.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:173" href="#fn:173">173</a>
<a href="/facts/Guru_Gobind_Singh/26qDqoyu">Guru Gobind Singh</a> wrote a biography of Pārśvanātha in the 17th-century <a href="/facts/Paranath_Avtar/39Nj8Rzr">Paranath Avtar</a>, part of the <a href="/facts/Dasam_Granth/GjlzxNAJ">Dasam Granth</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:174" href="#fn:174">174</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:175" href="#fn:175">175</a>

<h2 id="iconography">Iconography</h2>

Pārśvanātha is a popular tirthankar who is worshiped (<a href="/facts/Bhakti/HXpPYMEf">bhakti</a>) with Rishabhanatha, <a href="/facts/Shantinatha/lc3roVmt">Shantinatha</a>, <a href="/facts/Neminatha/pIpBXty2">Neminatha</a> and Mahāvīra.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:176" href="#fn:176">176</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:177" href="#fn:177">177</a> He is believed to have the power to remove obstacles and save devotees.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:178" href="#fn:178">178</a> In Shvetambara tradition, there are 108 prominent idols of Pārśvanath idols these idols derive their name from a geographical region, such as <a href="/facts/Shankheshwar_Jain_Temple/4IqILVBQ">Shankheshwar Pārśvanath</a> and <a href="/facts/Panchasara_Parshvanath_Temple/lhunJWzF">Panchasara Pārśvanath</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:179" href="#fn:179">179</a>
Pārśvanātha is usually depicted in a <a href="/facts/Lotus_position/RwXjoVgT">lotus</a> or <a href="/facts/Kayotsarga/wdTLFthG">kayotsarga</a> posture. Statues and paintings show his head shielded by a multi-headed serpent, fanned out like an umbrella. Pārśvanātha's snake emblem is carved (or stamped) beneath his legs as an icon identifier. His <a href="/facts/Iconography/YUcIQLN7">iconography</a> is usually accompanied by Dharnendra and Padmavati, Jainism's snake god and goddess.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:180" href="#fn:180">180</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:181" href="#fn:181">181</a>
Serpent-hood iconography is not unique to Pārśvanātha; it is also found above the icons of <a href="/facts/Suparshvanatha/MeY5589t">SuPārśvanātha</a>, the seventh of the 24 tīrthaṅkaras, but with a small difference.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:182" href="#fn:182">182</a> SuPārśvanātha's serpent hood has five heads, and a seven (or more)-headed serpent is found in Pārśvanātha icons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:183" href="#fn:183">183</a> Statues of both tīrthaṅkaras with serpent hoods have been found in Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, dating to the 5th to 10th centuries.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:184" href="#fn:184">184</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:185" href="#fn:185">185</a> Earliest images of Pārśvanātha having seven snakes over his head date back to first century BCE.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:186" href="#fn:186">186</a>
Archeological sites and medieval Pārśvanātha iconography found in temples and caves include scenes and <a href="/facts/Yaksha/PK7sGajX">yaksha</a>. Digambara and Śvētāmbara iconography differs; Śvētāmbara art shows Pārśvanātha with a serpent hood and a <a href="/facts/Ganesha/ENEQDyRN">Ganesha</a>-like yaksha, and Digambara art depicts him with serpent hood and Dhranendra.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:187" href="#fn:187">187</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:188" href="#fn:188">188</a> According to Umakant Premanand Shah, Hindu gods (such as Ganesha) as yaksha and Indra as serving Pārśvanātha, assigned them to a subordinate position.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:189" href="#fn:189">189</a>
The <a href="/facts/Parsvanatha_ayagapata/8jgV5uxp">Parsvanatha ayagapata</a>, a circa 15 CE <a href="/facts/Ayagapata/M06qAFwd">ayagapata</a> excavated from <a href="/facts/Kankali_Tila/XBIrRFsW">Kankali Tila</a>, is a tablet of homage dedicated to Pārśvanātha.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:190" href="#fn:190">190</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:191" href="#fn:191">191</a> The table represents Pārśvanātha in the center surrounded by a bunches of lotus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:192" href="#fn:192">192</a> Pārśvanātha is depicted in <a href="/facts/Mudra/5YzetmTs">dhyāna mudrā</a> with ankle crossed in lotus position seated on a pedestal with a seven-hooded sesha hood above his head and <a href="/facts/Shrivatsa/IEKPfj5J">shrivatsa</a> on the chest.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:193" href="#fn:193">193</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:194" href="#fn:194">194</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:195" href="#fn:195">195</a>
The <a href="/facts/Kahaum_pillar/Fn1UfwUu">Kahaum pillar</a>, erected in 460 CE during the reign of <a href="/facts/Skandagupta/SkQDttqP">Skandagupta</a>, <a href="/facts/Gupta_Empire/KbMVInGv">Gupta Empire</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:196" href="#fn:196">196</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:197" href="#fn:197">197</a> bears an inscription that is adoration to <a href="/facts/Arihant_(Jainism)/Czg9DPG1">Arihant</a> and features a carving of Pārśvanātha.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:198" href="#fn:198">198</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:199" href="#fn:199">199</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:200" href="#fn:200">200</a>

<h2 id="colossal-statues">Colossal statues</h2>
<ol><li>The <a href="/facts/Navagraha_Jain_Temple/hCeDRYmX">Navagraha Jaina Temple</a> has the tallest statue of Pārśvanātha: 61 feet (18.6 m), on a 48-foot (14.6-m) pedestal. The statue, in the kayotsarga position, weighs about 185 tons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:201" href="#fn:201">201</a></li>
<li>The <a href="/facts/Gopachal_rock_cut_Jain_monuments/y6LCuXhd">Gopachal rock cut Jaina monuments</a> were built between 1398 and 1536. The largest cross-legged statue of Pārśvanātha – 47 feet (14 m) tall and 30 feet (9.1 m) wide – is in one of the caves.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:202" href="#fn:202">202</a></li>
<li>An 11th-century <a href="/facts/Parshvanatha_basadi%2c_Shravanabelgola/sBFzV8nW">Pārśvanātha basadi</a> in <a href="/facts/Shravanabelagola/nELMPXJ8">Shravanabelagola</a> enshrines an 18-foot-tall (5.5 m) statue of Pārśvanātha in a <a href="/facts/Kayotsarga/wdTLFthG">kayotsarga</a> position.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:203" href="#fn:203">203</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Jain_temples%2c_Halebidu/G3Eo71rS">Pārśvanātha basadi, Halebidu</a>, built by Boppadeva in 1133 AD during the reign of King <a href="/facts/Vishnuvardhana/VUD8zKHR">Vishnuvardhana</a>, contains an 18-foot (5.5 m) black granite kayotsarga statue of Pārśvanātha.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:204" href="#fn:204">204</a></li>
<li>A 31-foot (9.4 m) kayotsarga statue was installed in 2011 at the Vahelna Jaina Temple.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:205" href="#fn:205">205</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Vadodara_Municipal_Corporation/o2I0Y4lf">VMC</a> has approved construction of 100 foot tall statue in Sama pond in <a href="/facts/Vadodara/yBCJlPJt">Vadodara</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:206" href="#fn:206">206</a></li></ol>

<h2 id="temples">Temples</h2>

Pārśvanātha is one of the five most devotionally revered tīrthaṅkaras, along with Mahāvīra, Rishabhanatha, Neminatha and Shantinatha.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:207" href="#fn:207">207</a> Various Jaina temple complexes across India feature him, and these are important pilgrimage sites in Jainism. Mount <a href="/facts/Parasnath/KnzT3QA8">Parasnath</a> of <a href="/facts/Jharkhand/eYFQURjk">Jharkhand</a>, for example, which is believed to have been a place where 20 out of 24 tīrthaṅkaras achieved <a href="/facts/Moksha_(Jainism)/UKSF1T36">nirvana</a>, along with Pārśvanātha.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:208" href="#fn:208">208</a> <a href="/facts/Shankheshwar_Parshvanath/4IqILVBQ">Shankheshwar Pārśvanath</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:209" href="#fn:209">209</a> in northern <a href="/facts/Gujarat/HwmVfMwr">Gujarat</a>, along with Mount <a href="/facts/Shatrunjaya/t9BQ3013">Shatrunjaya</a> is considered the holiest shrine among <a href="/facts/%25C5%259Av%25C4%2593t%25C4%2581mbara/SKHpc6l8">Śvētāmbara</a> murtipujaka.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:210" href="#fn:210">210</a> The replicas of Pārśvanath temples are popular among Śvētāmbara murtipujaka, for example, <a href="/facts/Godiji/UNgPhJpB">Godiji</a> is located in <a href="/facts/Sindh/1cbCeMv8">Sindh</a> has a replica in <a href="/facts/Mumbai/BdoEc10R">Mumbai</a>. According to Jaina belief, worshipping these local replication idols allow them to directly worship to the original idol.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:211" href="#fn:211">211</a> Pārśvanath is prayed to obtain various desires, especially <a href="/facts/Tantra/PWp3GPK9">tantric rites</a>, is therefore also known as Chintamani (wish fulfilling gem) and a tantric diagram called 'Chintamani <a href="/facts/Yantra/w2dLDLhK">yantra</a>' is also worship.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:212" href="#fn:212">212</a>
Important Pārśvanātha temple complexes include: <a href="/facts/Shikharji/fxjyeH64">Shikharji</a> (Sammet Sikhar) in Jharkhand, <a href="/facts/Mirpur_Jain_Temple/oqu8SPD1">Mirpur Jaina Temple</a>, <a href="/facts/Kanakagiri_Jain_tirth/66ngPPGh">Kanakagiri Jaina tirth</a>, <a href="/facts/Panchasara_Jain_temple/lhunJWzF">Panchasara Jaina temple</a>, <a href="/facts/Humcha_Jain_temples/p4w9G0BA">Humcha Jaina temples</a>, <a href="/facts/Ahichchhatra_Jain_temples/SSBb7SWl">Ahi Kshetra</a>, <a href="/facts/Kallil_Temple/k6AM5Sfr">Kallil Temple</a>, <a href="/facts/Mel_Sithamur_Jain_Math/XDyooRgB">Mel Sithamur Jaina Math</a>, <a href="/facts/Pateriaji/mryDkxGI">Pateriaji</a>, <a href="/facts/Nainagiri/8m2QN5MX">Nainagiri</a>, <a href="/facts/Kundadri/nPYkoIQ8">Kundadri</a>, <a href="/facts/Bijoliaji/vNbvrGep">Bijoliaji</a>, <a href="/facts/Jirawala/gXISoaXx">Jirawala</a>, <a href="/facts/Gajpanth/ghgTyWxk">Gajpanth</a>, <a href="/facts/Andeshwar_Parshwanath/Wa5bjkwA">Andeshwar</a>, <a href="/facts/Bada_Gaon/KskV86mp">Bada Gaon</a>, <a href="/facts/Akkana_Basadi/Yk2HhFQW">Akkana Basadi</a>, and <a href="/facts/Guru_Basadi/LKrYfq44">Guru Basadi</a>.

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Naminath/RSAS0jz2">Naminath</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Mahavira/46A5AGc3">Mahāvīra</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="notes">Notes</h2>

<h3>Citations</h3>

<h3>Sources</h3>
<h4>Books</h4>

<ul><li>Basham, A.L. (1951). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BiGQzc5lRGYC">History and Doctrines of the Ājīvikas: A Vanished Indian Religion</a>. Jainism Series. Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-81-208-1204-8. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/D._R._Bhandarkar/FNDPr0qf">Bhandarkar, Devadatta Ramakrishna</a> (1981). <a href="/facts/B._Ch._Chhabra/m9234A9E">Chhabra, Bahadur Chand</a> (ed.). <a href="https://ignca.gov.in/Asi_data/68681.pdf">Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum (Revised)</a> (PDF). Vol. 3. <a href="/facts/Archaeological_Survey_of_India/aVeou2RT">Archaeological Survey of India</a>.</li>
<li>Bhattacharya, B. C. (1974) [1939]. <a href="https://ignca.gov.in/Asi_data/57452.pdf">The Jain Iconography</a> (PDF) (2nd ed.). <a href="/facts/Motilal_Banarsidass/y0ty0e4m">Motilal Banarsidass</a>.</li>
<li>Bhattacharya, Sabyasachi (2011). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P4CF8RAsuwkC">Approaches to History: Essays in Indian Historiography</a>. Primus Books. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9789380607177.</li>
<li>Brown, Robert L. (1991). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oF-Hqih3pBAC">Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God</a>. State University of New York Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7914-0656-4.</li>
<li>Chapple, Christopher K (2011). Andrew R. Murphy (ed.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MF2Oxz3a0XwC">The Blackwell Companion to Religion and Violence</a>. John Wiley. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4443-9573-0.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Vincent_Arthur_Smith/n0aB5Xvv">Smith, Vincent A.</a> (1901). <a href="https://ignca.gov.in/Asi_data/21585.pdf">Jain Stupa and other antiquitie</a> (PDF). Vol. 20. Allahabad: Superintendent, Government Press.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/John_E._Cort/7LeAhB4d">Cort, John E.</a> (2001). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC">Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India</a>. <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-803037-9.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/John_E._Cort/7LeAhB4d">Cort, John E.</a> (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC">Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History</a>. <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-538502-1.</li>
<li>Coulter, Charles Russell (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sEIngqiKOugC">Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities</a>. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-135-96390-3.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Roshen_Dalal/3cXPqMMw">Dalal, Roshen</a> (2010) [2006]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC">The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths</a>. <a href="/facts/Penguin_books/Q2ETlwbp">Penguin books</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-14-341517-6.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Alain_Dani%25C3%25A9lou/yeQQgngt">Danielou, Alain</a> (1971), <a href="https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofin00dani">L'Histoire de l'Inde Translated from French by Kenneth Hurry</a>, Inner Traditions/Bear, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-89281-923-2</li>
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<li>Dhaky, M.A. (1997). <a href="https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.424121/mode/2up">Arhat Pārśva and Dharaṇendra Nexus</a>. Bhogilal Leharchand Institute of Indology, Delhi.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Wendy_Doniger/uSPshx4G">Doniger, Wendy</a>, ed. (1999). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC">Encyclopedia of World Religions</a>. <a href="/facts/Merriam-Webster/yEt22M9H">Merriam-Webster</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-87779-044-0.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Paul_Dundas/cBzE4sh4">Dundas, Paul</a> (2002) [1992]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ">The Jains</a> (Second ed.). <a href="/facts/Routledge/aSwcES11">Routledge</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-26605-5.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Mary_Pat_Fisher/JaTBIe8p">Fisher, Mary Pat</a> (1997). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ytOHbLdtSY4C">Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths</a>. <a href="/facts/London/KozCCsy9">London</a>: <a href="/facts/I.B.Tauris/ByRmsQ1N">I.B.Tauris</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-86064-148-0.</li>
<li>Ghatage, A.M. (1951), "Jainism", in <a href="/facts/R.C._Majumdar/Rrhrhjx5">Majumdar, R.C.</a>; Pusalker, A.D. (eds.), The Age of Imperial Unity, <a href="/facts/Bombay/BdoEc10R">Bombay</a>{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Peter_Heehs/8l6E5RlX">Heehs, Peter</a> (2002). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jgsu-aIm3ncC">Indian Religions: A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and Experience</a>. <a href="/facts/New_York_University_Press/12gzb04e">New York University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8147-3650-0.</li>
<li>Hoiberg, Dale (2000). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ISFBJarYX7YC">Students' Britannica India, Volume 4: Miraj to Shastri</a>. Popular Prakashan. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-85229-760-5.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Hermann_Jacobi/N5XmUtej">Jacobi, Hermann</a> (1964). Max Muller (The Sacred Books of the East Series, Volume XXII) (ed.). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/jainasutrasparti029233mbp#page/n333/mode/2up">Jaina Sutras (Translation)</a>. Motilal Banarsidass (Original: Oxford University Press).</li>
<li>Jacobi, Hermann (1884). Müller, F. Max (ed.). <a href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/jai/sbe22/index.htm">Kalpa Sutra, Jain Sutras Part I, Sacred Books of the East</a>. Vol. 22. Oxford: <a href="/facts/The_Clarendon_Press/CYyTzzWG">The Clarendon Press</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Champat_Rai_Jain/Xobdq3w7">Jain, Champat Rai</a> (1939). <a href="https://archive.org/details/TheChangeOfHeart">The Change of Heart</a>.</li>
<li>Jain, Kailash Chand (1991). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8-TxcO9dfrcC">Lord Mahāvīra and His Times</a>. <a href="/facts/Motilal_Banarsidass/y0ty0e4m">Motilal Banarsidass</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-81-208-0805-8.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Padmanabh_Jaini/vXsTAhTB">Jaini, Padmanabh S.</a> (1998) [1979]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C">The Jaina Path of Purification</a>. <a href="/facts/Delhi/Xa6CKgnf">Delhi</a>: <a href="/facts/Motilal_Banarsidass/y0ty0e4m">Motilal Banarsidass</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-81-208-1578-0.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Padmanabh_S._Jaini/vXsTAhTB">Jaini, Padmanabh S.</a> (2001). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlyDot9RyGcC">Collected Papers on Buddhist Studies</a>. <a href="/facts/Motilal_Banarsidass/y0ty0e4m">Motilal Banarsidass</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-81-208-1776-0.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Padmanabh_Jaini/vXsTAhTB">Jaini, Padmanabh S.</a>, ed. (2000). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HPggiM7y1aYC">Collected Papers On Jaina Studies</a> (First ed.). <a href="/facts/Delhi/Xa6CKgnf">Delhi</a>: <a href="/facts/Motilal_Banarsidass/y0ty0e4m">Motilal Banarsidass</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-81-208-1691-6.</li>
<li>Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006), <a href="http://www.vedamu.org/veda/encyhinduism.pdf">Encyclopedia of Hinduism</a> (PDF), Infobase Publishing, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8160-7564-5</li>
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<li>Kapoor, Subodh (2002). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=43Fzt-G_-XYC&pg=PA17">Encyclopaedia of Ancient Indian Geography</a>. Vol. 1 (Second ed.). New Delhi: Cosmo Publication. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9788177552980.</li>
<li>Kuiper, Kathleen (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6cabAAAAQBAJ">The Culture of India</a>. Understanding India. Britannica Educational Publishing. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-61530-203-1.</li>
<li>Long, Jeffery D. (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JmRlAgAAQBAJ">Jainism: An Introduction</a>. <a href="/facts/I._B._Tauris/ByRmsQ1N">I. B. Tauris</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-84511-625-5.</li>
<li>Kenoyer, Jonathan M.; Heuston, Kimberley Burton (2005). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7CjvF88iEE8C">The Ancient South Asian World</a>. <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-522243-2.</li>
<li>Mansukhani, Gobind Singh (1993). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=59EOQ2M7dQkC">Hymns from the Dasam Granth</a>. Hemkunt Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9788170101802.</li>
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<li>Pal, Pratapaditya (1995). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eY7XAAAAMAAJ">Ganesh, the Benevolent</a>. Marg Publications. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-81-85026-31-2.</li>
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<li><a href="/facts/Swami_Dayananda_Saraswati/dK5PRT2L">Sarasvati, Swami Dayananda</a> (1970). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hy-vBgAAQBAJ">An English translation of the Satyarth Prakash</a>. <a href="/facts/Swami_Dayananda_Sarasvati/dK5PRT2L">Swami Dayananda Sarasvati</a>.[permanent dead link]</li>
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<li><a href="/facts/Edward_Joseph_Thomas/MWTFUGg7">Thomas, Edward Joseph</a> (1949). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NE-fmHzumWkC&pg=PA231">The Life of Buddha as Legend and History</a>. Dover books on Western philosophy. Dover Publications. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-486-41132-3. Retrieved 20 February 2025. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/A.N._Upadhye/MvCSF5Ml">Upadhye, Dr. A. N.</a> (2000). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GHfzERhGUjQC">Mahāvīra His Times and His philosophy of life</a>. <a href="/facts/Bharatiya_Jnanpith/FRlguoBQ">Bharatiya Jnanpith</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Helmuth_von_Glasenapp/tGejbV15">von Glasenapp, Helmuth</a> (1999). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC">Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation</a> [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion]. Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.). <a href="/facts/Delhi/Xa6CKgnf">Delhi</a>: <a href="/facts/Motilal_Banarsidass/y0ty0e4m">Motilal Banarsidass</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-81-208-1376-2.</li>
<li>Vyas, Dr. R. T., ed. (1995). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fETebHcHKogC">Studies in Jaina Art and Iconography and Allied Subjects</a>. The Director, Oriental Institute, on behalf of the Registrar, M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 81-7017-316-7.</li>
<li>Wiley, Kristi L. (2009) [1949]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cIhCCwAAQBAJ">The A to Z of Jainism</a>. Vol. 38. <a href="/facts/Scarecrow_Press/NJNX9xwH">Scarecrow Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8108-6337-8.</li>
<li>Williams, Paul, ed. (2005). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pgrZnmKUKtgC">Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies</a>. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-33226-2.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Heinrich_Zimmer/cahGLnAQ">Zimmer, Heinrich</a> (1953) [April 1952]. <a href="/facts/Joseph_Campbell/Fk70dIR3">Campbell, Joseph</a> (ed.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC">Philosophies Of India</a>. <a href="/facts/London/KozCCsy9">London</a>: <a href="/facts/Routledge/aSwcES11">Routledge</a> & Kegan Paul Ltd. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-81-208-0739-6. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Heinrich_Zimmer/cahGLnAQ">Zimmer, Heinrich</a> (1969) [1951]. <a href="/facts/Joseph_Campbell/Fk70dIR3">Campbell, Joseph</a> (ed.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bRQ5fpTmwoAC">Philosophies Of India</a>. <a href="/facts/Princeton%2c_New_Jersey/fceTzdde">Princeton, New Jersey</a>: <a href="/facts/Princeton_University_Press/kwvFlKEj">Princeton University Press</a>.</li>
<li>Suriji, Acharya Kalyanbodhi (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PpRBAgAAQBAJ">Sankhesvara Stotram</a>. Multy Graphics.</li></ul>

<h4>Books</h4>

<ul><li>Clines, Gregory M. (2017), <a href="https://www.academia.edu/34492961">"Pārśvanātha (Jainism)"</a>, in Sarao, K. T. S.; Long, Jeffery D. (eds.), Buddhism and Jainism, Encyclopedia of Indian Religions, <a href="/facts/Netherlands/y8xn5stT">Netherlands</a>: <a href="/facts/Springer_Publishing/JfRev59b">Springer Publishing</a>, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-94-024-0851-5</li>
<li>Deo, S. B. (1954). <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/42929542">"The History of Jaina Monachism from Inscriptions and Literature"</a>. Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 16 (1/4). <a href="/facts/Deccan_College_Post-Graduate_and_Research_Institute/gSFDcJKf">Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</a>: 1–608. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42929542">42929542</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/555200984">555200984</a>. Retrieved 8 July 2022.</li>
<li>Gough, Ellen (9 March 2020). <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11030117">"Situating Pārśva's Biography in Varanasi"</a>. Religions. 11 (3). MDPI AG: 117. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11030117">10.3390/rel11030117</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2077-1444">2077-1444</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Mary_Whitney_Kelting/pm9e2vpV">Kelting, M. Whitney</a> (2007). <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/27643255">"Candanbala's Tears: Recovering the Emotional Life of Jainism"</a>. <a href="/facts/Numen_(journal)/PIEkW8T3">Numen</a>. 54 (2): 109–37. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156852707X184989">10.1163/156852707X184989</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27643255">27643255</a>. Retrieved 25 January 2023.</li>
<li>Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2000). <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3249941">"Āyāgapaṭas: Characteristics, Symbolism, and Chronology"</a>. <a href="/facts/Artibus_Asiae/6mYR2gn6">Artibus Asiae</a>. 60 (1): 79–137. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3249941">10.2307/3249941</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3249941">3249941</a>. Retrieved 20 April 2022.</li>
<li>Vajpeyi, Raghavendra (1983). <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/44139823">"Skandagupta's Bhitari Grant To Visnu-sarngin And Bhitari Excavations"</a>. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 44. <a href="/facts/Indian_History_Congress/xE5gJ222">Indian History Congress</a>: 70–78. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44139823">44139823</a>.</li>
<li><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Parshvanatha">Parshvanatha: Jaina Saint, in Encyclopaedia Britannica</a>, <a href="/facts/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica/CEyVsjlN">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>, 2009</li>
<li><a href="https://muzaffarnagar.nic.in/tourist-place/vehlna/">"Vahelna – Jain temple"</a>. <a href="/facts/Government_of_Uttar_Pradesh/1survnuU">Government of Uttar Pradesh</a>.</li>
<li>Uttar Pradesh Tourism. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220525220525/https://uptourism.gov.in/pdf/E-Brochure/ahicchatra_high.pdf">"Ahicchatra"</a> (PDF). <a href="/facts/Uttar_Pradesh_Tourism/hTErJ6IS">Uttar Pradesh Tourism</a>. Archived from <a href="https://uptourism.gov.in/pdf/E-Brochure/ahicchatra_high.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 25 May 2022. Retrieved 21 April 2022.</li>
<li><a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/vadodara/standing-committee-nod-for-100-foot-tall-parshwanath-statue-in-sama-pond/articleshow/70403100.cms">"100-feet Parshwanath idol gets Vadodara civic body nod"</a>. <a href="/facts/The_Times_of_India/oKvScjgf">The Times of India</a>. 27 July 2019.</li></ul>

<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>
<ul><li> Media related to Parshvanatha at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Dundas 2002, pp. 30–31. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Kuiper 2010, p. 144. - Kuiper, Kathleen (2010). The Culture of India. Understanding India. Britannica Educational Publishing. ISBN 978-1-61530-203-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6cabAAAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=6cabAAAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">von Glasenapp 1999, p. 16. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1999). Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion]. Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Dundas 2002, pp. 30–33, 39–40. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Rapson 1935, pp. 154. - Rapson, E. J. (1935), The Cambridge History of India, Cambridge University Press <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gYg8AAAAIAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=gYg8AAAAIAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Kuiper 2010, p. 144. - Kuiper, Kathleen (2010). The Culture of India. Understanding India. Britannica Educational Publishing. ISBN 978-1-61530-203-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6cabAAAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=6cabAAAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Long 2009, p. 212. - Long, Jeffery D. (2009). Jainism: An Introduction. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-625-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JmRlAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=JmRlAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Dhaky 1997, pp. 3–4. - Dhaky, M.A. (1997). Arhat Pārśva and Dharaṇendra Nexus. Bhogilal Leharchand Institute of Indology, Delhi. <a href="https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.424121/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.424121/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Basham 1951, p. 108. - Basham, A.L. (1951). History and Doctrines of the Ājīvikas: A Vanished Indian Religion. Jainism Series. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1204-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BiGQzc5lRGYC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=BiGQzc5lRGYC</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">"Rude Travel: Down The Sages Vir Sanghavi". 13 September 2013. <a href="https://www.hindustantimes.com/brunch/rude-travel-down-the-sages/story-SYVGGDouZrOTgJogiul6IN.html" target="_blank">https://www.hindustantimes.com/brunch/rude-travel-down-the-sages/story-SYVGGDouZrOTgJogiul6IN.html</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Sangave 2001, p. 103. - Sangave, Vilas Adinath (2001). Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. ISBN 978-81-7154-839-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QzEQJHWUwXQC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=QzEQJHWUwXQC</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Heehs 2002, p. 90. - Heehs, Peter (2002). Indian Religions: A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and Experience. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-3650-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jgsu-aIm3ncC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Jgsu-aIm3ncC</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Jaini 2001, p. 62. - Jaini, Padmanabh S. (2001). Collected Papers on Buddhist Studies. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1776-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlyDot9RyGcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlyDot9RyGcC</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Zimmer 1953, p. 182–183, 220. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">von Glasenapp 1999, p. 24. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1999). Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion]. Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Dundas 2002, pp. 30–31. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Zimmer 1953, p. 183. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Sangave 2001, p. 103. - Sangave, Vilas Adinath (2001). Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. ISBN 978-81-7154-839-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QzEQJHWUwXQC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=QzEQJHWUwXQC</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Dundas 2002, p. 30. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Kailash Chand Jain 1991, p. 11. - Jain, Kailash Chand (1991). Lord Mahāvīra and His Times. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0805-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8-TxcO9dfrcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8-TxcO9dfrcC</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Encyclopaedia of Oriental Philosophy. Global Vision Pub House. 2005. ISBN 978-81-8220-113-2. <a href="978-81-8220-113-2" target="_blank">978-81-8220-113-2</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Heehs 2002, pp. 90–91. - Heehs, Peter (2002). Indian Religions: A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and Experience. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-3650-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jgsu-aIm3ncC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Jgsu-aIm3ncC</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Kailash Chand Jain 1991, p. 32. - Jain, Kailash Chand (1991). Lord Mahāvīra and His Times. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0805-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8-TxcO9dfrcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8-TxcO9dfrcC</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Dundas 2002, p. 30. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Dundas 2002, pp. 30–33. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">von Glasenapp 1999, p. 16. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1999). Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion]. Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Dundas 2002, pp. 30–33, 39–40. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Zimmer 1969, p. 220. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1969) [1951]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bRQ5fpTmwoAC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=bRQ5fpTmwoAC</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Thomas 1949, p. 231-232. - Thomas, Edward Joseph (1949). The Life of Buddha as Legend and History. Dover books on Western philosophy. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-41132-3. Retrieved 20 February 2025. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NE-fmHzumWkC&pg=PA231" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=NE-fmHzumWkC&pg=PA231</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Gough 2020. - Gough, Ellen (9 March 2020). "Situating Pārśva's Biography in Varanasi". Religions. 11 (3). MDPI AG: 117. doi:10.3390/rel11030117. ISSN 2077-1444. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11030117" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11030117</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">Dundas 2002, p. 23. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Dundas 2002, pp. 30–31. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Rapson 1935, pp. 154. - Rapson, E. J. (1935), The Cambridge History of India, Cambridge University Press <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gYg8AAAAIAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=gYg8AAAAIAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Britannica 2009. - Parshvanatha: Jaina Saint, in Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009 <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Parshvanatha" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/biography/Parshvanatha</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">Dundas 2002, pp. 30–31. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Sangave 2001, p. 128. - Sangave, Vilas Adinath (2001). Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. ISBN 978-81-7154-839-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QzEQJHWUwXQC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=QzEQJHWUwXQC</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">Britannica 2009. - Parshvanatha: Jaina Saint, in Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009 <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Parshvanatha" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/biography/Parshvanatha</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">Zimmer 1953, p. 183. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">Martin & Runzo 2001, pp. 200–201. - Martin, Nancy M.; Runzo, Joseph (2001). Ethics in the World Religions. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1-85168-247-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jQHXAAAAMAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=jQHXAAAAMAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">Dundas 2002, pp. 30–31. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">Dundas 2002, p. 32. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">Long 2009, p. 212. - Long, Jeffery D. (2009). Jainism: An Introduction. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-625-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JmRlAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=JmRlAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">Dhaky 1997, pp. 3–4. - Dhaky, M.A. (1997). Arhat Pārśva and Dharaṇendra Nexus. Bhogilal Leharchand Institute of Indology, Delhi. <a href="https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.424121/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.424121/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">Dhaky 1997, pp. 3–4. - Dhaky, M.A. (1997). Arhat Pārśva and Dharaṇendra Nexus. Bhogilal Leharchand Institute of Indology, Delhi. <a href="https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.424121/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.424121/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">von Glasenapp 1999, p. 24. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1999). Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion]. Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">Zimmer 1969, p. 220. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1969) [1951]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bRQ5fpTmwoAC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=bRQ5fpTmwoAC</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:47">Thomas 1949, p. 231-232. - Thomas, Edward Joseph (1949). The Life of Buddha as Legend and History. Dover books on Western philosophy. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-41132-3. Retrieved 20 February 2025. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NE-fmHzumWkC&pg=PA231" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=NE-fmHzumWkC&pg=PA231</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:48">von Glasenapp 1999, p. 16. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1999). Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion]. Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:49">von Glasenapp 1999, p. 24. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1999). Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion]. Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:50">Gough 2020, note 24: citing Bhatt, Bansidhar. 2009. "Is Pārśva the Twenty-Third Jina a Legendary Figure? A Critical Survey of Early Jain Sources" (Abstract). Jaina Studies: Newsletter of the Centre of Jaina Studies 6: 6. - Gough, Ellen (9 March 2020). "Situating Pārśva's Biography in Varanasi". Religions. 11 (3). MDPI AG: 117. doi:10.3390/rel11030117. ISSN 2077-1444. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11030117" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11030117</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:51">Gough 2020. - Gough, Ellen (9 March 2020). "Situating Pārśva's Biography in Varanasi". Religions. 11 (3). MDPI AG: 117. doi:10.3390/rel11030117. ISSN 2077-1444. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11030117" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11030117</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:52">Dundas 2002, p. 39. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:53">Dundas 2002, pp. 39–40. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:54">Dundas 2002, pp. 39–40. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:55">Umakant P. Shah 1987, p. 83–84. - Shah, Umakant Premanand (1987). Jaina-rūpa-maṇḍana: Jaina iconography. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-208-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:56">Dundas 2002, pp. 39–40. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:57">Umakant P. Shah 1987, pp. 82–85, Quote: "Thus the list of twenty-four Tirthankaras was either already evolved or was in the process of being evolved in the age of the Mathura sculptures in the first three centuries of the Christian era.". - Shah, Umakant Premanand (1987). Jaina-rūpa-maṇḍana: Jaina iconography. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-208-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:58">Vyas 1995, p. 16. - Vyas, Dr. R. T., ed. (1995). Studies in Jaina Art and Iconography and Allied Subjects. The Director, Oriental Institute, on behalf of the Registrar, M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara. ISBN 81-7017-316-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fETebHcHKogC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=fETebHcHKogC</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:59">Vyas 1995, p. 16. - Vyas, Dr. R. T., ed. (1995). Studies in Jaina Art and Iconography and Allied Subjects. The Director, Oriental Institute, on behalf of the Registrar, M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara. ISBN 81-7017-316-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fETebHcHKogC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=fETebHcHKogC</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:60">Vyas 1995, pp. 67–68. - Vyas, Dr. R. T., ed. (1995). Studies in Jaina Art and Iconography and Allied Subjects. The Director, Oriental Institute, on behalf of the Registrar, M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara. ISBN 81-7017-316-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fETebHcHKogC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=fETebHcHKogC</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">Fisher 1997, p. 115. - Fisher, Mary Pat (1997). Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths. London: I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-148-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ytOHbLdtSY4C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=ytOHbLdtSY4C</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">Dundas 2002, p. 30. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">Zimmer 1953, p. 184. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:64">Sangave 2001, p. 104. - Sangave, Vilas Adinath (2001). Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. ISBN 978-81-7154-839-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QzEQJHWUwXQC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=QzEQJHWUwXQC</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:65">Ghatage 1951, p. 411. - Ghatage, A.M. (1951), "Jainism", in Majumdar, R.C.; Pusalker, A.D. (eds.), The Age of Imperial Unity, Bombay <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:66">Deo 1954, p. 60. - Deo, S. B. (1954). "The History of Jaina Monachism from Inscriptions and Literature". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 16 (1/4). Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute: 1–608. JSTOR 42929542. OCLC 555200984. Retrieved 8 July 2022. <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/42929542" target="_blank">http://www.jstor.org/stable/42929542</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:67">Zimmer 1953, pp. 183–184. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:68">Zimmer 1953, pp. 194–196. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:69">Zimmer 1953, p. 196. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:70">Zimmer 1953, p. 196. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:71">According to Zimmer, the Tattvarthadhigama Sutra state the twelve householder vows to be: (1) do not kill any being, (2) do not lie, (3) do not use another's property without permission, (4) be chaste, (5) limit your possessions, (6) take a perpetual and daily vow to go only certain distances and take only certain directions, (7) avoid useless talk and action, (8) do not think sinful acts, (9) limit diet and enjoyments, (10) worship at fixed times in the morning, noon and evening, (11) fast on some days and (12) give charity by donating knowledge, money and such every day.[48] <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:72">Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 208. - Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006), Encyclopedia of Hinduism (PDF), Infobase Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5 <a href="http://www.vedamu.org/veda/encyhinduism.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.vedamu.org/veda/encyhinduism.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:73">Cort 2001, p. 179. - Cort, John E. (2001). Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-803037-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:74">"kalyanak-bhumi". jainuniversity.org. Archived from the original on 22 October 2012. Retrieved 10 December 2012. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121022161637/http://www.jainuniversity.org/kalyanak-bhumi.aspx" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20121022161637/http://www.jainuniversity.org/kalyanak-bhumi.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:75">Singh 2009, p. 32. - Singh, Rana (2009), Banaras: Making of India's Heritage City, Planet Earth & Cultural Understanding, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, ISBN 9781443815796 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JwMaBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=JwMaBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:76">Kailash Chand Jain 1991, p. 12. - Jain, Kailash Chand (1991). Lord Mahāvīra and His Times. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0805-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8-TxcO9dfrcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8-TxcO9dfrcC</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:77">Umakant P. Shah 1987, p. 171. - Shah, Umakant Premanand (1987). Jaina-rūpa-maṇḍana: Jaina iconography. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-208-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC</a> <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:78">Zimmer 1953, pp. 199–200. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:79">Shah 2004, p. 26. - Shah, Natubhai (2004), Jainism: The World of Conquerors, vol. 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 9788120819382 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qLNQKGcDIhsC&pg=PA26" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=qLNQKGcDIhsC&pg=PA26</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:80">von Glasenapp 1999, pp. 24–28. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1999). Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion]. Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC</a> <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:81">Zimmer 1953, p. 201. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:82">Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 325. - Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006), Encyclopedia of Hinduism (PDF), Infobase Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5 <a href="http://www.vedamu.org/veda/encyhinduism.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.vedamu.org/veda/encyhinduism.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:83">Danielou 1971, p. 376. - Danielou, Alain (1971), L'Histoire de l'Inde Translated from French by Kenneth Hurry, Inner Traditions/Bear, ISBN 978-0-89281-923-2 <a href="https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofin00dani" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofin00dani</a> <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:84">Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 325. - Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006), Encyclopedia of Hinduism (PDF), Infobase Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5 <a href="http://www.vedamu.org/veda/encyhinduism.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.vedamu.org/veda/encyhinduism.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:85">Zimmer 1953, p. 201. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:86">Jain mythology describes a heavenly being attempting to distract (or harm) Parshvanatha, but the serpent god Dharanendra and the goddess Padmavati guard his journey to omniscience.[61] <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:87">UP tourism, p. 2. sfn error: no target: CITEREFUP_tourism (help) <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:88">Kapoor 2002, p. 17. - Kapoor, Subodh (2002). Encyclopaedia of Ancient Indian Geography. Vol. 1 (Second ed.). New Delhi: Cosmo Publication. ISBN 9788177552980. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=43Fzt-G_-XYC&pg=PA17" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=43Fzt-G_-XYC&pg=PA17</a> <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:89">Zimmer 1953, pp. 202–203. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:90">Zimmer 1953, pp. 203–204. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:91">Some texts call the place Mount Sammeta.[66] It is revered in Jainism because 20 of its 24 tirthankars are believed to have attained moksha there.[67] <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:92">Wiley 2009, p. 148. - Wiley, Kristi L. (2009) [1949]. The A to Z of Jainism. Vol. 38. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6337-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cIhCCwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=cIhCCwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:93">Dundas 2002, p. 221. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:94">Dundas 2002, p. 30. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:95">Sangave 2001, p. 104. - Sangave, Vilas Adinath (2001). Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. ISBN 978-81-7154-839-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QzEQJHWUwXQC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=QzEQJHWUwXQC</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:96">Kailash Chand Jain 1991, p. 13. - Jain, Kailash Chand (1991). Lord Mahāvīra and His Times. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0805-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8-TxcO9dfrcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8-TxcO9dfrcC</a> <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:97">Jacobi 1964, p. 271 with footnote 1. - Jacobi, Hermann (1964). Max Muller (The Sacred Books of the East Series, Volume XXII) (ed.). Jaina Sutras (Translation). Motilal Banarsidass (Original: Oxford University Press). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/jainasutrasparti029233mbp#page/n333/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/stream/jainasutrasparti029233mbp#page/n333/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:98">Kailash Chand Jain 1991, pp. 12–13. - Jain, Kailash Chand (1991). Lord Mahāvīra and His Times. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0805-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8-TxcO9dfrcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8-TxcO9dfrcC</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:99">Schubring 1964, p. 220. - Schubring, Walther (1964), Jinismus, in: Die Religionen Indiens, vol. 3, Stuttgart <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:100">Zimmer 1953, p. 187–188. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:101">The Jataka tales, for example, describe the Buddha's previous lives.[75] <a href="/wiki/Jataka_tales" target="_blank">/wiki/Jataka_tales</a> <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:102">Clines 2017, pp. 867–872. - Clines, Gregory M. (2017), "Pārśvanātha (Jainism)", in Sarao, K. T. S.; Long, Jeffery D. (eds.), Buddhism and Jainism, Encyclopedia of Indian Religions, Netherlands: Springer Publishing, ISBN 978-94-024-0851-5 <a href="https://www.academia.edu/34492961" target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/34492961</a> <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:103">Zimmer 1953, pp. 186–187. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:104">Zimmer 1953, p. 189. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:105">Zimmer 1953, pp. 189–190. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:105" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:106">Zimmer 1953, pp. 189–190. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:106" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:107">Also known as Chandraprabha,[80] he also appears in Buddhist and Hindu mythology[81] and is the eighth of twenty-four entities in Jain cosmology.[82] <a href="#fnref:107" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:108">Zimmer 1953, p. 190. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:108" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:109">Zimmer 1953, pp. 190–191. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:109" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:110">Zimmer 1953, p. 191. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952]. Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies Of India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=U-m9nVvcjCcC</a> <a href="#fnref:110" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:111">Britannica 2009. - Parshvanatha: Jaina Saint, in Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009 <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Parshvanatha" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/biography/Parshvanatha</a> <a href="#fnref:111" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:112">Cort 2010, pp. 26, 134, 186. - Cort, John E. (2010). Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-538502-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC</a> <a href="#fnref:112" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:113">Clines 2017, pp. 867–872. - Clines, Gregory M. (2017), "Pārśvanātha (Jainism)", in Sarao, K. T. S.; Long, Jeffery D. (eds.), Buddhism and Jainism, Encyclopedia of Indian Religions, Netherlands: Springer Publishing, ISBN 978-94-024-0851-5 <a href="https://www.academia.edu/34492961" target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/34492961</a> <a href="#fnref:113" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:114">Jacobi 1964, p. 274. - Jacobi, Hermann (1964). Max Muller (The Sacred Books of the East Series, Volume XXII) (ed.). Jaina Sutras (Translation). Motilal Banarsidass (Original: Oxford University Press). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/jainasutrasparti029233mbp#page/n333/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/stream/jainasutrasparti029233mbp#page/n333/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:114" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:115">Cort 2001, p. 47. - Cort, John E. (2001). Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-803037-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC</a> <a href="#fnref:115" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:116">Kailash Chand Jain 1991, p. 13. - Jain, Kailash Chand (1991). Lord Mahāvīra and His Times. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0805-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8-TxcO9dfrcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8-TxcO9dfrcC</a> <a href="#fnref:116" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:117">von Glasenapp 1999, pp. 24–28. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1999). Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion]. Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC</a> <a href="#fnref:117" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:118">Jacobi 1964, p. 274. - Jacobi, Hermann (1964). Max Muller (The Sacred Books of the East Series, Volume XXII) (ed.). Jaina Sutras (Translation). Motilal Banarsidass (Original: Oxford University Press). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/jainasutrasparti029233mbp#page/n333/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/stream/jainasutrasparti029233mbp#page/n333/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:118" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:119">Umakant P. Shah 1987, p. 171. - Shah, Umakant Premanand (1987). Jaina-rūpa-maṇḍana: Jaina iconography. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-208-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC</a> <a href="#fnref:119" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:120">Dalal 2010, p. 220. - Dalal, Roshen (2010) [2006]. The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths. Penguin books. ISBN 978-0-14-341517-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC</a> <a href="#fnref:120" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:121">"Jaina Sutras, Part II (SBE45): Uttarâdhyayana: Twenty-Third Lecture. Kêsi and Gautama". sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 13 June 2024. <a href="https://sacred-texts.com/jai/sbe45/sbe4525.htm" target="_blank">https://sacred-texts.com/jai/sbe45/sbe4525.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:121" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:122">Indian Antiquary: A Journal of Oriental Research, Vol-19, Issue no.-January–December. <a href="https://archive.org/details/dli.calcutta.06227/page/n249/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/dli.calcutta.06227/page/n249/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:122" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:123">Maharaja, Gyansundar. "Oswal Porwal Aur Shreemal Jatiyo Ka Sachitra Prachin Itihas". jainqq.org. Retrieved 13 June 2024. <a href="https://jainqq.org/explore/034569/15" target="_blank">https://jainqq.org/explore/034569/15</a> <a href="#fnref:123" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:124">Cort, John E. (1 January 1998). Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-3785-8. <a href="978-0-7914-3785-8" target="_blank">978-0-7914-3785-8</a> <a href="#fnref:124" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:125">Jain, Chagganlal. "Jaino Ka Itihas Darshan Vyavahar Evam Vaignanik Adhar". jainqq.org. Retrieved 14 June 2024. <a href="https://jainqq.org/explore/002322/66" target="_blank">https://jainqq.org/explore/002322/66</a> <a href="#fnref:125" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:126">Dodhia, Rati. "Rise and Glory History of Halari Visa Oshwals". jainqq.org. Retrieved 14 June 2024. <a href="https://jainqq.org/explore/007575/45" target="_blank">https://jainqq.org/explore/007575/45</a> <a href="#fnref:126" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:127">Baya, D S. "Oswals and Other Jains of Rajasthan". jainqq.org. Retrieved 14 June 2024. <a href="https://jainqq.org/explore/250235/2" target="_blank">https://jainqq.org/explore/250235/2</a> <a href="#fnref:127" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:128">Sangve, Vilas. "Jaina Community, a Social Survey". jainqq.org. Retrieved 14 June 2024. <a href="https://jainqq.org/explore/007019/110" target="_blank">https://jainqq.org/explore/007019/110</a> <a href="#fnref:128" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:129">History of Oswals. Panchshil Publications. ISBN 978-81-923730-2-7. <a href="978-81-923730-2-7" target="_blank">978-81-923730-2-7</a> <a href="#fnref:129" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:130">Indian Antiquary: A Journal of Oriental Research, Vol-19, Issue no.-January–December. <a href="https://archive.org/details/dli.calcutta.06227/page/n249/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/dli.calcutta.06227/page/n249/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:130" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:131">"Jaina Sutras, Part II (SBE45): Uttarâdhyayana: Twenty-Third Lecture. Kêsi and Gautama". sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 13 June 2024. <a href="https://sacred-texts.com/jai/sbe45/sbe4525.htm" target="_blank">https://sacred-texts.com/jai/sbe45/sbe4525.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:131" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:132">"Jain Heritage of Odisha" (PDF).[permanent dead link] <a href="http://odisha.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/2008/Sept-Octo-2008/engpdf/78-80.pdf" target="_blank">http://odisha.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/2008/Sept-Octo-2008/engpdf/78-80.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:132" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:133">"Doctrine of Vratas" (PDF). <a href="http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/94856/9/09_chapter%204.pdf" target="_blank">http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/94856/9/09_chapter%204.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:133" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:134">Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 211. - Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006), Encyclopedia of Hinduism (PDF), Infobase Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5 <a href="http://www.vedamu.org/veda/encyhinduism.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.vedamu.org/veda/encyhinduism.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:134" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:135">Umakant P. Shah 1987, p. 5. - Shah, Umakant Premanand (1987). Jaina-rūpa-maṇḍana: Jaina iconography. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-208-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC</a> <a href="#fnref:135" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:136">Dundas 2002, pp. 31–33. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:136" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:137">Jaini 2000, pp. 27–28. - Jaini, Padmanabh S., ed. (2000). Collected Papers On Jaina Studies (First ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1691-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HPggiM7y1aYC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=HPggiM7y1aYC</a> <a href="#fnref:137" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:138">Umakant P. Shah 1987, p. 5. - Shah, Umakant Premanand (1987). Jaina-rūpa-maṇḍana: Jaina iconography. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-208-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC</a> <a href="#fnref:138" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:139">Chapple 2011, pp. 263–267. - Chapple, Christopher K (2011). Andrew R. Murphy (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to Religion and Violence. John Wiley. ISBN 978-1-4443-9573-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MF2Oxz3a0XwC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=MF2Oxz3a0XwC</a> <a href="#fnref:139" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:140">Kenoyer & Heuston 2005, pp. 96–98. - Kenoyer, Jonathan M.; Heuston, Kimberley Burton (2005). The Ancient South Asian World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-522243-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7CjvF88iEE8C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=7CjvF88iEE8C</a> <a href="#fnref:140" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:141">Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 211. - Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006), Encyclopedia of Hinduism (PDF), Infobase Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5 <a href="http://www.vedamu.org/veda/encyhinduism.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.vedamu.org/veda/encyhinduism.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:141" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:142">Hoiberg 2000, p. 158. - Hoiberg, Dale (2000). Students' Britannica India, Volume 4: Miraj to Shastri. Popular Prakashan. ISBN 978-0-85229-760-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ISFBJarYX7YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=ISFBJarYX7YC</a> <a href="#fnref:142" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:143">Heehs 2002, pp. 90–91. - Heehs, Peter (2002). Indian Religions: A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and Experience. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-3650-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jgsu-aIm3ncC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Jgsu-aIm3ncC</a> <a href="#fnref:143" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:144">Dundas 2002, pp. 30–32. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:144" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:145">Price 2010, p. 90. - Price, Joan (2010). Sacred Scriptures of the World Religions: An Introduction. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-0-8264-2354-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J0eycqQq9U4C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=J0eycqQq9U4C</a> <a href="#fnref:145" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:147">Jaini 1998, p. 14. - Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1998) [1979]. The Jaina Path of Purification. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1578-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C</a> <a href="#fnref:147" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:149">Dundas 2002, pp. 31–32. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:149" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:154">Dundas 2002, p. 283 with note 30. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:154" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:157">Umakant P. Shah 1987, p. 5. - Shah, Umakant Premanand (1987). Jaina-rūpa-maṇḍana: Jaina iconography. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-208-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC</a> <a href="#fnref:157" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:161">Dundas 2002, p. 283 with note 30. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:161" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:166">Sangave 2001, p. 201. - Sangave, Vilas Adinath (2001). Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. ISBN 978-81-7154-839-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QzEQJHWUwXQC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=QzEQJHWUwXQC</a> <a href="#fnref:166" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:167">Dalal 2010, p. 754. - Dalal, Roshen (2010) [2006]. The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths. Penguin books. ISBN 978-0-14-341517-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC</a> <a href="#fnref:167" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:171">Datta 1988, p. 1781. - Datta, Amaresh (1988). Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Devraj to Jyoti. Vol. 2. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 9788126011940. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&pg=PA1781" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&pg=PA1781</a> <a href="#fnref:171" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:172">Orsini & Schofield 2015, p. 79. - Orsini, Francesca; Schofield, Katherine Butler (2015). Tellings and Texts: Music, Literature and Performance in North India. Open Book Publishers. ISBN 9781783741021. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P0SlCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA79" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=P0SlCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA79</a> <a href="#fnref:172" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:173">Reddy 2022, p. 232. - Reddy, Pedarapu Chenna (2022). Nagabharana: Recent Trends in Jainism Studies. Blue Rose Publishers. ISBN 978-93-56114-46-3. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kfNgEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA232" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=kfNgEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA232</a> <a href="#fnref:173" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:175">Mansukhani 1993, p. 6. - Mansukhani, Gobind Singh (1993). Hymns from the Dasam Granth. Hemkunt Press. ISBN 9788170101802. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=59EOQ2M7dQkC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=59EOQ2M7dQkC</a> <a href="#fnref:175" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:176">Dundas 2002, p. 40. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:176" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:177">Cort 2010, pp. 86, 95–98, 132–133. - Cort, John E. (2010). Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-538502-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC</a> <a href="#fnref:177" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:178">Dundas 2002, pp. 33, 40. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:178" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:179">Cort 2001, p. 234. - Cort, John E. (2001). Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-803037-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC</a> <a href="#fnref:179" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:180">Britannica 2009. - Parshvanatha: Jaina Saint, in Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009 <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Parshvanatha" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/biography/Parshvanatha</a> <a href="#fnref:180" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:181">Cort 2010, pp. 26, 134, 186. - Cort, John E. (2010). Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-538502-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC</a> <a href="#fnref:181" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:182">Cort 2010, pp. 278–279. - Cort, John E. (2010). Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-538502-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC</a> <a href="#fnref:182" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:183">Vyas 1995, p. 19. - Vyas, Dr. R. T., ed. (1995). Studies in Jaina Art and Iconography and Allied Subjects. The Director, Oriental Institute, on behalf of the Registrar, M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara. ISBN 81-7017-316-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fETebHcHKogC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=fETebHcHKogC</a> <a href="#fnref:183" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:184">Harvard. "From the Harvard Art Museums' collections Tirthankara Suparsvanatha in Kayotsarga, or Standing Meditation, Posture and Protected by a Five-Headed Naga". www.harvardartmuseums.org. Archived from the original on 24 March 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2019. <a href="https://www.harvardartmuseums.org/collections/object/337768" target="_blank">https://www.harvardartmuseums.org/collections/object/337768</a> <a href="#fnref:184" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:186">Vyas 1995, p. 19. - Vyas, Dr. R. T., ed. (1995). Studies in Jaina Art and Iconography and Allied Subjects. The Director, Oriental Institute, on behalf of the Registrar, M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara. ISBN 81-7017-316-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fETebHcHKogC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=fETebHcHKogC</a> <a href="#fnref:186" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:187">Brown 1991, pp. 105–106. - Brown, Robert L. (1991). Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0656-4. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oF-Hqih3pBAC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=oF-Hqih3pBAC</a> <a href="#fnref:187" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:188">Pal 1995, p. 87. - Pal, Pratapaditya (1995). Ganesh, the Benevolent. Marg Publications. ISBN 978-81-85026-31-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eY7XAAAAMAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=eY7XAAAAMAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:188" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:189">Umakant P. Shah 1987, pp. 220–221. - Shah, Umakant Premanand (1987). Jaina-rūpa-maṇḍana: Jaina iconography. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-208-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC</a> <a href="#fnref:189" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:200">Bhattacharya 1974, p. 15. - Bhattacharya, B. C. (1974) [1939]. The Jain Iconography (PDF) (2nd ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="https://ignca.gov.in/Asi_data/57452.pdf" target="_blank">https://ignca.gov.in/Asi_data/57452.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:200" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:201">Hubli gets magnificent 'jinalaya'. The Hindu, 6 January 2009. <a href="http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/hubli-gets-magnificent-jinalaya/article368643.ece" target="_blank">http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/hubli-gets-magnificent-jinalaya/article368643.ece</a> <a href="#fnref:201" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:202">"Welcome to official website of District Administration Gwalior (M.P.) India". gwalior.nic.in. Archived from the original on 7 December 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2016. <a href="http://gwalior.nic.in/Tourism.html" target="_blank">http://gwalior.nic.in/Tourism.html</a> <a href="#fnref:202" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:203">"Shravanabelagola- A Unique Destination". Anand Bharat. 22 October 2016. Archived from the original on 7 October 2018. Retrieved 13 January 2019. <a href="http://anandbharat.com/2016/10/22/shravanabelagola-a-unique-destination/" target="_blank">http://anandbharat.com/2016/10/22/shravanabelagola-a-unique-destination/</a> <a href="#fnref:203" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:204">"Parsvanatha Basti, Halebid". Archaeological Survey of India. Archived from the original on 18 November 2017. Retrieved 10 June 2017. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171118222232/http://asibengalurucircle.in/parsvanatha-basti-halebid" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20171118222232/http://asibengalurucircle.in/parsvanatha-basti-halebid</a> <a href="#fnref:204" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:205">Vahelna & Government of Uttar Pradesh. - "Vahelna – Jain temple". Government of Uttar Pradesh. <a href="https://muzaffarnagar.nic.in/tourist-place/vehlna/" target="_blank">https://muzaffarnagar.nic.in/tourist-place/vehlna/</a> <a href="#fnref:205" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:206">Times of India 2019. - "100-feet Parshwanath idol gets Vadodara civic body nod". The Times of India. 27 July 2019. <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/vadodara/standing-committee-nod-for-100-foot-tall-parshwanath-statue-in-sama-pond/articleshow/70403100.cms" target="_blank">https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/vadodara/standing-committee-nod-for-100-foot-tall-parshwanath-statue-in-sama-pond/articleshow/70403100.cms</a> <a href="#fnref:206" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:207">Dundas 2002, p. 40. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:207" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:208">Cort 2010, pp. 130–133. - Cort, John E. (2010). Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-538502-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC</a> <a href="#fnref:208" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:209">Clines 2017, pp. 867–872. - Clines, Gregory M. (2017), "Pārśvanātha (Jainism)", in Sarao, K. T. S.; Long, Jeffery D. (eds.), Buddhism and Jainism, Encyclopedia of Indian Religions, Netherlands: Springer Publishing, ISBN 978-94-024-0851-5 <a href="https://www.academia.edu/34492961" target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/34492961</a> <a href="#fnref:209" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:210">Cort 2010, pp. 143–144. - Cort, John E. (2010). Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-538502-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC</a> <a href="#fnref:210" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:211">Cort 2010, pp. 186. - Cort, John E. (2010). Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-538502-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC</a> <a href="#fnref:211" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:212">Umakant P. Shah 1987, p. 187. - Shah, Umakant Premanand (1987). Jaina-rūpa-maṇḍana: Jaina iconography. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-208-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC</a> <a href="#fnref:212" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

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