Menu
Home
People
Places
Arts
History
Plants & Animals
Science
Life & Culture
Technology
Reference.org
Interventricular foramina (neuroanatomy)
open-in-new
<h2 id="structure">Structure</h2> <p>The interventricular foramina are two holes (<a href="/facts/Latin_language/pM3Kge85">Latin</a>: <i>foramen</i>, pl. <i>foramina</i>) that connect the left and the right <a href="/facts/Lateral_ventricle/gwTt9Voz">lateral ventricles</a> to the third ventricle.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> They are located on the underside near the midline of the lateral ventricles,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> and join the third ventricle where its roof meets its anterior surface.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> In front of the foramen is the <a href="/facts/Fornix_of_brain/0A8UVSjr">fornix</a> and behind is the <a href="/facts/Thalamus/UHDtUStc">thalamus</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> The foramen is normally crescent-shaped, but rounds and increases in size depending on the size of the lateral ventricles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> </p> <h3>Development</h3> <p>The development and shape of the ventricular system relates to the differential development of different parts of the brain, with the ventricular system ultimately arising from the <a href="/facts/Neural_tube/xv4a9Il7">neural tube</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> The lateral ventricles remain connected to the third ventricle throughout development, themselves developing as outpouchings from the third ventricle.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> The foramina develop slowly in a forward and outward direction as the fornix grows in size.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="function">Function</h2> <p>The interventricular foramina connect the <a href="/facts/Lateral_ventricle/gwTt9Voz">lateral ventricles</a> to the <a href="/facts/Third_ventricle/JnauuUYy">third ventricle</a>. This allows <a href="/facts/Cerebrospinal_fluid/tcWG7hhv">cerebrospinal fluid</a> produced in the lateral ventricles to reach the third ventricle and then the rest of the brain's <a href="/facts/Ventricular_system/VMuY39Kp">ventricular system</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p><p>The walls of the interventricular foramina contain <a href="/facts/Choroid_plexus/glqWkmkG">choroid plexus</a>, a specialized structure that produces cerebrospinal fluid. The choroid plexus of the third ventricles continues through the foramina into the lateral ventricles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p><p>End branches of the <a href="/facts/Posterior_cerebral_artery/HWchoPmM"> medial posterior choroidal arteries</a>, <a href="/facts/Superior_thalamostriate_veins/uKKzDz5L">superior thalamostriate</a>, <a href="/facts/Choroid_veins/lNt17asT">superior choroid veins</a> and <a href="/facts/Septal_veins/kb9ren2u">septal veins</a> also pass through the foramina.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="clinical-significance">Clinical significance</h2> <p>The interventricular foramina give rise to disease when they are narrowed or blocked.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> Narrowing of the foramen is more common in children<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> and linked to: inflammation and scarring from congenital infections, particularly <a href="/facts/TORCH_infections/vQsupcXl">TORCH infections</a>; developmental abnormalities, including of the <a href="/facts/Basilar_artery/Krm82RGT">basilar artery</a> and <a href="/facts/Choroid_plexus/glqWkmkG">choroid plexus</a>; and abnormal surrounding tissue growths, such as <a href="/facts/Colloid_cyst/CJ0vTlwB">colloid cysts</a>, <a href="/facts/Subependymal_zone/2MacgujQ">subependymal</a> <a href="/facts/Subependymal_giant_cell_astrocytoma/yzS1lrdj">giant-cell tumours</a>, nodules and harmatomas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> </p><p>The most common symptom of blockage is <a href="/facts/Headache/mdmmC9DP">headache</a>;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> other symptoms include <a href="/facts/Syncope_(medicine)/AqU1whYh">fainting</a>, dementia, and coma, all of which are associated with <a href="/facts/Obstructive_hydrocephalus/HF9jQqTq">obstructive hydrocephalus</a> of the affected side or sides.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> Hydrocephalus can be identified by a <a href="/facts/CT_scan/NusPJ2S8">CT scan</a> or <a href="/facts/MRI_scan/Vh9yG9qq">MRI scan</a> of the brain,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> and treatment involves a <a href="/facts/Neurosurgical/39HXY3tc">neurosurgical</a> operation in which an <a href="/facts/Endoscope/oIXca2vs">endoscope</a> (i.e., a tiny camera and tools) is used to widen the foramen or create a new opening through the <a href="/facts/Septum_pellucidum/2nWCICEj">septum pellucidum</a> between the lateral ventricles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> If an obstructing mass is too large or too difficult to remove endoscopically, an <a href="/facts/Minimally_invasive_procedures/Lm4xbpYG">open operation</a> or the insertion of an <a href="/facts/VP_shunt/0Se60HPA">artificial path between the ventricles and peritoneum</a> may be required.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> Because of the intimate nature of pathways within the brain, such operations may result in damage to nearby structures, with complications including <a href="/facts/Anterograde_amnesia/9peb9rmv">anterograde amnesia</a>, <a href="/facts/Hemiparesis/W44QM11N">inability to move half the body</a>, <a href="/facts/Akinetic_mutism/DQjLgaPr">akinetic mutism</a> and <a href="/facts/Disconnection_syndrome/pfqFqvz2">disconnection syndromes</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="history">History</h2> <p>The foramina were named after the <a href="/facts/Scotland/VGwbbxB2">Scottish</a> physician and <a href="/facts/University_of_Edinburgh_Medical_School/kWvyUlhT">University of Edinburgh</a> graduate <a href="/facts/Alexander_Monro_(secundus)/s7FV0bG6">Alexander Monro</a>, who first described an enlarged foramen in the context of <a href="/facts/Hydrocephalus/HF9jQqTq">hydrocephalus</a> in a presentation to the <a href="/facts/Philosophical_Society_of_Edinburgh/0U0vEtuK">Philosophical Society of Edinburgh</a> in 1764,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> and subsequently in his 1783 publication, <i>Observations on the Structure and Functions of the Nervous System</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> </p><p>In this publication, Monro notes that the ventricular system has been noted to be connected, implying the presence of the foramen, since the time of the physician anatomist <a href="/facts/Galen/9gDqPdwl">Galen</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> Monro described it as: </p> <blockquote><p>... an oval hole, large enough to admit a goose quill, under forepart of the fornix. From this hole, a probe can be readily passed into the other lateral ventricle, shewing [sic], in the first place that the two lateral ventricles communicate with each other<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a></p></blockquote> <p>Monro's original description, of two lateral ventricles joined by a foramen that then joined the third ventricle, is in fact incorrect.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> As noted by Monro himself, previous authors have also described the ventricles as having connections; consequently, the <a href="/facts/Eponym/2q9tXlTQ">eponym</a> of "Monro" has been disputed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p> Books <ul><li>Susan Standring; Neil R. Borley; et al., eds. (2008). <i>Gray's anatomy : the anatomical basis of clinical practice</i> (40th ed.). London: Churchill Livingstone. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8089-2371-8.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Interventricular foramina. <ul><li><i><a href="http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/941.html">doctor/941</a></i> at <a href="/facts/Whonamedit%253F/vrFl9FIC">Whonamedit?</a></li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120722052451/http://www.tk.de/rochelexikon/pics/s13048.000-3.html">"Anatomy diagram: 13048.000-3"</a>. <i>Roche Lexicon – illustrated navigator</i>. Elsevier. Archived from <a href="http://www.tk.de/rochelexikon/pics/s13048.000-3.html">the original</a> on 22 July 2012.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Gray's Anatomy 2008, p. 237. - Susan Standring; Neil R. Borley; et al., eds. (2008). Gray's anatomy : the anatomical basis of clinical practice (40th ed.). London: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978-0-8089-2371-8. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Gray's Anatomy 2008, p. 287. - Susan Standring; Neil R. Borley; et al., eds. (2008). Gray's anatomy : the anatomical basis of clinical practice (40th ed.). London: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978-0-8089-2371-8. <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Tubbs, R. Shane; Oakes, Peter; Maran, Ilavarasy S.; Salib, Christian; Loukas, Marios (31 July 2014). "The foramen of Monro: a review of its anatomy, history, pathology, and surgery". Child's Nervous System. 30 (10): 1645–1649. doi:10.1007/s00381-014-2512-6. PMID 25079886. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Tubbs, R. Shane; Oakes, Peter; Maran, Ilavarasy S.; Salib, Christian; Loukas, Marios (31 July 2014). "The foramen of Monro: a review of its anatomy, history, pathology, and surgery". Child's Nervous System. 30 (10): 1645–1649. doi:10.1007/s00381-014-2512-6. PMID 25079886. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Tubbs, R. Shane; Oakes, Peter; Maran, Ilavarasy S.; Salib, Christian; Loukas, Marios (31 July 2014). "The foramen of Monro: a review of its anatomy, history, pathology, and surgery". Child's Nervous System. 30 (10): 1645–1649. doi:10.1007/s00381-014-2512-6. PMID 25079886. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Tubbs, R. Shane; Oakes, Peter; Maran, Ilavarasy S.; Salib, Christian; Loukas, Marios (31 July 2014). "The foramen of Monro: a review of its anatomy, history, pathology, and surgery". Child's Nervous System. 30 (10): 1645–1649. doi:10.1007/s00381-014-2512-6. PMID 25079886. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Tubbs, R. Shane; Oakes, Peter; Maran, Ilavarasy S.; Salib, Christian; Loukas, Marios (31 July 2014). "The foramen of Monro: a review of its anatomy, history, pathology, and surgery". Child's Nervous System. 30 (10): 1645–1649. doi:10.1007/s00381-014-2512-6. PMID 25079886. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Tubbs, R. Shane; Oakes, Peter; Maran, Ilavarasy S.; Salib, Christian; Loukas, Marios (31 July 2014). "The foramen of Monro: a review of its anatomy, history, pathology, and surgery". Child's Nervous System. 30 (10): 1645–1649. doi:10.1007/s00381-014-2512-6. PMID 25079886. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Gray's Anatomy 2008, p. 383. - Susan Standring; Neil R. Borley; et al., eds. (2008). Gray's anatomy : the anatomical basis of clinical practice (40th ed.). London: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978-0-8089-2371-8. <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Gray's Anatomy 2008, p. 237. - Susan Standring; Neil R. Borley; et al., eds. (2008). Gray's anatomy : the anatomical basis of clinical practice (40th ed.). London: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978-0-8089-2371-8. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Gray's Anatomy 2008, p. 242. - Susan Standring; Neil R. Borley; et al., eds. (2008). Gray's anatomy : the anatomical basis of clinical practice (40th ed.). London: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978-0-8089-2371-8. <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Tubbs, R. Shane; Oakes, Peter; Maran, Ilavarasy S.; Salib, Christian; Loukas, Marios (31 July 2014). "The foramen of Monro: a review of its anatomy, history, pathology, and surgery". Child's Nervous System. 30 (10): 1645–1649. doi:10.1007/s00381-014-2512-6. PMID 25079886. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Tubbs, R. Shane; Oakes, Peter; Maran, Ilavarasy S.; Salib, Christian; Loukas, Marios (31 July 2014). "The foramen of Monro: a review of its anatomy, history, pathology, and surgery". Child's Nervous System. 30 (10): 1645–1649. doi:10.1007/s00381-014-2512-6. PMID 25079886. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Martínez-Berganza, Maria Teresa Escolar; Bergua, Beatriz Sierra; del Río Pérez, Clara; Ballarín, Susana Monzón (May 2011). "Biventricular Hydrocephalus Due to Idiopatic Occlussion of Foramina of Monro". The Neurologist. 17 (3): 154–156. doi:10.1097/NRL.0b013e31821733af. PMID 21532385. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Tubbs, R. Shane; Oakes, Peter; Maran, Ilavarasy S.; Salib, Christian; Loukas, Marios (31 July 2014). "The foramen of Monro: a review of its anatomy, history, pathology, and surgery". Child's Nervous System. 30 (10): 1645–1649. doi:10.1007/s00381-014-2512-6. PMID 25079886. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Martínez-Berganza, Maria Teresa Escolar; Bergua, Beatriz Sierra; del Río Pérez, Clara; Ballarín, Susana Monzón (May 2011). "Biventricular Hydrocephalus Due to Idiopatic Occlussion of Foramina of Monro". The Neurologist. 17 (3): 154–156. doi:10.1097/NRL.0b013e31821733af. PMID 21532385. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Martínez-Berganza, Maria Teresa Escolar; Bergua, Beatriz Sierra; del Río Pérez, Clara; Ballarín, Susana Monzón (May 2011). "Biventricular Hydrocephalus Due to Idiopatic Occlussion of Foramina of Monro". The Neurologist. 17 (3): 154–156. doi:10.1097/NRL.0b013e31821733af. PMID 21532385. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Tubbs, R. Shane; Oakes, Peter; Maran, Ilavarasy S.; Salib, Christian; Loukas, Marios (31 July 2014). "The foramen of Monro: a review of its anatomy, history, pathology, and surgery". Child's Nervous System. 30 (10): 1645–1649. doi:10.1007/s00381-014-2512-6. PMID 25079886. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Martínez-Berganza, Maria Teresa Escolar; Bergua, Beatriz Sierra; del Río Pérez, Clara; Ballarín, Susana Monzón (May 2011). "Biventricular Hydrocephalus Due to Idiopatic Occlussion of Foramina of Monro". The Neurologist. 17 (3): 154–156. doi:10.1097/NRL.0b013e31821733af. PMID 21532385. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Martínez-Berganza, Maria Teresa Escolar; Bergua, Beatriz Sierra; del Río Pérez, Clara; Ballarín, Susana Monzón (May 2011). "Biventricular Hydrocephalus Due to Idiopatic Occlussion of Foramina of Monro". The Neurologist. 17 (3): 154–156. doi:10.1097/NRL.0b013e31821733af. PMID 21532385. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Tubbs, R. Shane; Oakes, Peter; Maran, Ilavarasy S.; Salib, Christian; Loukas, Marios (31 July 2014). "The foramen of Monro: a review of its anatomy, history, pathology, and surgery". Child's Nervous System. 30 (10): 1645–1649. doi:10.1007/s00381-014-2512-6. PMID 25079886. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Tubbs, R. Shane; Oakes, Peter; Maran, Ilavarasy S.; Salib, Christian; Loukas, Marios (31 July 2014). "The foramen of Monro: a review of its anatomy, history, pathology, and surgery". Child's Nervous System. 30 (10): 1645–1649. doi:10.1007/s00381-014-2512-6. PMID 25079886. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Martínez-Berganza, Maria Teresa Escolar; Bergua, Beatriz Sierra; del Río Pérez, Clara; Ballarín, Susana Monzón (May 2011). "Biventricular Hydrocephalus Due to Idiopatic Occlussion of Foramina of Monro". The Neurologist. 17 (3): 154–156. doi:10.1097/NRL.0b013e31821733af. PMID 21532385. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Tubbs, R. Shane; Oakes, Peter; Maran, Ilavarasy S.; Salib, Christian; Loukas, Marios (31 July 2014). "The foramen of Monro: a review of its anatomy, history, pathology, and surgery". Child's Nervous System. 30 (10): 1645–1649. doi:10.1007/s00381-014-2512-6. PMID 25079886. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Wu, Osmond C.; Manjila, Sunil; Malakooti, Nima; Cohen, Alan R. (June 2012). "The remarkable medical lineage of the Monro family: contributions of Alexander and". Journal of Neurosurgery. 116 (6): 1337–1346. doi:10.3171/2012.2.JNS111366. PMID 22482794. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Tubbs, R. Shane; Oakes, Peter; Maran, Ilavarasy S.; Salib, Christian; Loukas, Marios (31 July 2014). "The foramen of Monro: a review of its anatomy, history, pathology, and surgery". Child's Nervous System. 30 (10): 1645–1649. doi:10.1007/s00381-014-2512-6. PMID 25079886. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Tubbs, R. Shane; Oakes, Peter; Maran, Ilavarasy S.; Salib, Christian; Loukas, Marios (31 July 2014). "The foramen of Monro: a review of its anatomy, history, pathology, and surgery". Child's Nervous System. 30 (10): 1645–1649. doi:10.1007/s00381-014-2512-6. PMID 25079886. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00381-014-2512-6</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Sharp, JA (1961). "Alexander Monro Secundus and the interventricular foramen". Medical History. 5 (1): 83–89. doi:10.1017/S0025727300025941. PMC 1034587. PMID 16562219. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1034587" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1034587</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Wu, Osmond C.; Manjila, Sunil; Malakooti, Nima; Cohen, Alan R. (June 2012). "The remarkable medical lineage of the Monro family: contributions of Alexander and". Journal of Neurosurgery. 116 (6): 1337–1346. doi:10.3171/2012.2.JNS111366. PMID 22482794. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Sharp, JA (1961). "Alexander Monro Secundus and the interventricular foramen". Medical History. 5 (1): 83–89. doi:10.1017/S0025727300025941. PMC 1034587. PMID 16562219. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1034587" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1034587</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Sharp, JA (1961). "Alexander Monro Secundus and the interventricular foramen". Medical History. 5 (1): 83–89. doi:10.1017/S0025727300025941. PMC 1034587. PMID 16562219. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1034587" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1034587</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>