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Wisconsin Card Sorting Test
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<h2 id="method">Method</h2> <p>Stimulus cards are shown to the participant and the participant is then instructed to match the cards.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> They are not given instructions on how to match the cards but are given feedback when the matches they make are right or wrong.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> When the test was first released the method of showing the cards was done with an evaluator using paper cards with the evaluator on one side of the desk facing the participant on the other.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> The test takes approximately 12–20 minutes to carry out using manual scoring which is greatly reduced with the aid of computer testing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> The test results produce a number of useful <a href="/facts/Psychometric/56X26MDI">psychometric</a> scores, including numbers, percentages, and percentiles of: categories achieved, trials, errors, and perseverative errors.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p><p>The WCST has been shown to be reliable and valid in multiple populations including people with autism,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> people recovering from a stroke,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> pediatric populations,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> and psychiatric populations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="clinical-use">Clinical use</h2> <p>Since 1948, the test has been used by <a href="/facts/Neuropsychology/eWY83ago">neuropsychologists</a> and <a href="/facts/Clinical_psychology/dUXP6Edt">clinical psychologists</a> in patients with <a href="/facts/Acquired_brain_injury/e35vWnYY">acquired brain injury</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Neurodegenerative_disease/HTDrVEqc">neurodegenerative disease</a>, or <a href="/facts/Mental_illness/EPNjFtFf">mental illness</a> such as <a href="/facts/Schizophrenia/FMP4lQ57">schizophrenia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> It is one of several psychological tests which can be administered to patients to measure frontal lobe dysfunction.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> When administered, the WCST allows the clinician to speculate to the following frontal lobe functions: strategic planning, organized searching, utilizing environmental feedback to shift cognitive sets, directing behavior toward achieving a goal, and modulating impulsive responding.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> The test can be administered to those from 6.5 years to 89 years of age.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> The WCST, relies upon a number of cognitive functions including attention, working memory, and visual processing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> The WCST was originally developed to measure abstract reasoning<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> as such it may be used to help measure an individual's competence in abstract reasoning, and the ability to change problem-solving strategies when needed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> In this test, a number of cards are presented to the participants. The figures on the cards differ with respect to color, quantity, and shape.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p><p>Psychological tests such as the WCST, administered alone, cannot be used to measure the effects of a frontal lobe injury, or the aspects of cognitive function it may affect, such as working memory; a variety of tests must be used.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> A participant may be good at one task but show dysfunction in <a href="/facts/Executive_function/QtflLj55">executive function</a> overall. Similarly, test results can be made misleading after testing the same individual over a long period of time. The participant may get better at a task, but not because of an improvement in executive cognitive function; they may have simply learned some strategies for doing this particular task that made it no longer a good measurement tool.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Strauss, Esther; Sherman, Elizabeth M.; Spreen, Otfried (2006). <a href="http://global.oup.com/academic/product/a-compendium-of-neuropsychological-tests-9780195159578"><i>A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests: Administration, Norms, and Commentary</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-515957-8. Retrieved 14 July 2013.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="http://www.psytoolkit.org/experiment-library/wcst.html">Online demonstration of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test</a> via <a href="http://www.psytoolkit.org">PsyToolkit</a></li> <li><a href="https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.wisconsin">Android application, which demonstrates the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test</a> via <a href="https://play.google.com/store/apps/dev?id=4935634290012985526">Metatrans Apps</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Monchi, O., Petrides, M. Petre, V., Worsley, K., & Dagher, A. (2001). Wisconsin card sorting revisited: Distinct neural circuits participating in different stages of the task identified by event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging. The Journal of Neuroscience, 21(19), 7733-7741. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>E. A. Berg. (1948). A simple objective technique for measuring flexibility in thinking J. Gen. Psychol. 39: 15-22. <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Grant, D. A.; Berg, E. A. (2014). "Wisconsin Card Sorting Test". APA Psycnet. doi:10.1037/t31298-000. Retrieved 7 August 2024. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/t31298-000" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1037/t31298-000</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Barceló, Francisco (2001). "Does the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Measure Prefontral Function?". The Spanish Journal of Psychology. 4 (1): 79–100. doi:10.1017/S1138741600005680. ISSN 1138-7416. PMID 11705346. S2CID 10432180. <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1138741600005680/type/journal_article" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1138741600005680/type/journal_article</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Jodzio, Krzysztof; Biechowska, Daria (2010-11-30). "Wisconsin Card Sorting Test as a Measure of Executive Function Impairments in Stroke Patients". Applied Neuropsychology. 17 (4): 267–277. doi:10.1080/09084282.2010.525104. ISSN 0908-4282. PMID 21154040. S2CID 205615311. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09084282.2010.525104" target="_blank">https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09084282.2010.525104</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Feldstein, Simeon N.; Keller, Frederick R.; Portman, Rebecca E.; Durham, Robert L.; Klebe, Kelli J.; Davis, Hasker P. (1999). "A Comparison of Computerized and Standard Versions of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test". The Clinical Neuropsychologist. 13 (3): 303–313. doi:10.1076/clin.13.3.303.1744. ISSN 1385-4046. PMID 10726602. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1076/clin.13.3.303.1744" target="_blank">https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1076/clin.13.3.303.1744</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Heaton, R. K., & Staff, P. A. R. (1993). Wisconsin card sorting test: computer version 2. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources, 4, 1-4. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Romine, C (2004). "Wisconsin Card Sorting Test with children: a meta-analytic study of sensitivity and specificity". Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology. 19 (8): 1027–1041. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2003.12.009. PMID 15533695. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.acn.2003.12.009" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.acn.2003.12.009</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Bowden, Stephen C.; Fowler, Kylie S.; Bell, Richard C.; Whelan, Gregory; Clifford, Christine C.; Ritter, Alison J.; Long, Caroline M. (1998). "The Reliability and Internal Validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test". Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. 8 (3): 243–254. doi:10.1080/713755573. ISSN 0960-2011. <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/713755573" target="_blank">http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/713755573</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Ozonoff, Sally (1995). "Reliability and validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in studies of autism". Neuropsychology. 9 (4): 491–500. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.9.4.491. ISSN 1931-1559. <a href="http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0894-4105.9.4.491" target="_blank">http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0894-4105.9.4.491</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Chiu, En-Chi; Wu, Wen-Chi; Hung, Jen-Wen; Tseng, Yu-Hsuan (2018-07-31). "Validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in patients with stroke". Disability and Rehabilitation. 40 (16): 1967–1971. doi:10.1080/09638288.2017.1323020. ISSN 0963-8288. PMID 28494623. S2CID 205662922. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09638288.2017.1323020" target="_blank">https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09638288.2017.1323020</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Lichtenstein, Jonathan D.; Erdodi, Laszlo A.; Rai, Jaspreet K.; Mazur-Mosiewicz, Anya; Flaro, Lloyd (2018-02-17). "Wisconsin Card Sorting Test embedded validity indicators developed for adults can be extended to children". Child Neuropsychology. 24 (2): 247–260. doi:10.1080/09297049.2016.1259402. ISSN 0929-7049. PMID 27892806. S2CID 4546591. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09297049.2016.1259402" target="_blank">https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09297049.2016.1259402</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Bell, Morris D.; Greig, Tamasine Conway; Kaplan, Edward; Bryson, Gary (1997). "Wisconsin card sorting test dimensions in schizophrenia: Factorial, predictive, and divergent validity". Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. 19 (6): 933–941. doi:10.1080/01688639708403774. ISSN 1380-3395. PMID 9524888. <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01688639708403774" target="_blank">http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01688639708403774</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Chiu, En-Chi; Wu, Wen-Chi; Hung, Jen-Wen; Tseng, Yu-Hsuan (2018-07-31). "Validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in patients with stroke". Disability and Rehabilitation. 40 (16): 1967–1971. doi:10.1080/09638288.2017.1323020. ISSN 0963-8288. PMID 28494623. S2CID 205662922. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09638288.2017.1323020" target="_blank">https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09638288.2017.1323020</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Greve, Kevin W.; Bianchini, Kevin J.; Mathias, Charles W.; Houston, Rebecca J.; Crouch, John A. (2002). "Detecting Malingered Performance With the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: A Preliminary Investigation in Traumatic Brain Injury". The Clinical Neuropsychologist. 16 (2): 179–191. doi:10.1076/clin.16.2.179.13241. ISSN 1385-4046. PMID 12221480. S2CID 42534630. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1076/clin.16.2.179.13241" target="_blank">https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1076/clin.16.2.179.13241</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Drewe, E.A. (1974). "The Effect of Type and Area of Brain Lesion on Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Performance". Cortex. 10 (2): 159–170. doi:10.1016/S0010-9452(74)80006-7. PMID 4844468. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0010-9452%2874%2980006-7" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0010-9452%2874%2980006-7</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Bell, Morris D.; Greig, Tamasine Conway; Kaplan, Edward; Bryson, Gary (1997). "Wisconsin card sorting test dimensions in schizophrenia: Factorial, predictive, and divergent validity". Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. 19 (6): 933–941. doi:10.1080/01688639708403774. ISSN 1380-3395. 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