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<h2 id="background-relationship-with-language">Background: relationship with language</h2> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Written_language/QQ5DlfoK">Written language</a></p> <p>According to most contemporary definitions, <a href="/facts/Writing/ke1HYEU8">writing</a> is a visual and tactile notation representing <a href="/facts/Language/IRcTok2q">language</a>. As such, the use of writing by a community presupposes an analysis of the structure of language at some level.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> The symbols used in writing correspond systematically to functional units of either a <a href="/facts/Spoken_language/4BTtv1kU">spoken</a> or <a href="/facts/Signed_language/Wjfl9Db6">signed language</a>. This definition excludes a broader class of symbolic markings, such as drawings and maps.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> A text is any instance of written material, including transcriptions of spoken material.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> The act of composing and recording a text is referred to as <i>writing</i>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> and the act of viewing and interpreting the text as <i><a href="/facts/Reading/HUEBU26z">reading</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p><p>The relationship between writing and language more broadly has been the subject of philosophical analysis as early as <a href="/facts/Aristotle/U2bDlBFW">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BC).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> While the use of language is universal across human societies, writing is not; writing emerged much more recently, and was independently invented in only a handful of locations throughout history. While most spoken languages have not been written, all written languages have been predicated on an existing spoken language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> When those with signed languages as their first language read writing associated with a spoken language, this functions as literacy in a second, acquired language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> A single language (e.g. <a href="/facts/Hindustani_language/rPnbEyYP">Hindustani</a>) can be written using multiple writing systems, and a writing system can also represent multiple languages. For example, <a href="/facts/Chinese_characters/5pn1PFvj">Chinese characters</a> have been used to write multiple languages throughout the <a href="/facts/Sinosphere/WY2269Xy">Sinosphere</a> – including the <a href="/facts/Vietnamese_language/J3Pbx58C">Vietnamese language</a> from at least the 13th century, until their replacement with the Latin-based <a href="/facts/Vietnamese_alphabet/NyAkHElo">Vietnamese alphabet</a> in the 20th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p><p>In the first several decades of modern <a href="/facts/Linguistics/oQuamvf2">linguistics</a> as a scientific discipline, linguists often characterized writing as merely the technology used to record speech – which was treated as being of paramount importance, for what was seen as the unique potential for its study to further the understanding of human cognition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="general-terminology">General terminology</h2> <p>While researchers of writing systems generally use some of the same core terminology, precise definitions and interpretations can vary by author, often depending on the theoretical approach being employed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p><p>A <a href="/facts/Grapheme/uzXGIsAr">grapheme</a> is the basic functional unit of a writing system. Graphemes are generally defined as minimally significant elements which, when taken together, comprise the set of symbols from which texts may be constructed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> All writing systems require a set of defined graphemes, collectively called a <i>script</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> The concept of the grapheme is similar to that of the <a href="/facts/Phoneme/EXGHlJ7a">phoneme</a> in the study of spoken languages. Likewise, as many sonically distinct <a href="/facts/Phone_(phonetics)/SDJtYApq">phones</a> may function as the same phoneme depending on the speaker, dialect, and context, many visually distinct <a href="/facts/Glyph/A7Gesbxj">glyphs</a> (or <i>graphs</i>) may be identified as the same grapheme. These variant glyphs are known as the <i><a href="/facts/Allograph/70ULMWmY">allographs</a></i> of a grapheme: For example, the lowercase letter ⟨a⟩ may be represented by the double-storey |a| and single-storey |ɑ| shapes,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> or others written in cursive, block, or printed styles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> The choice of a particular allograph may be influenced by the medium used, the writing instrument used, the stylistic choice of the writer, the preceding and succeeding graphemes in the text, the time available for writing, the intended audience, and the largely unconscious features of an individual's handwriting. </p><p><a href="/facts/Orthography/sJPhCpsU">Orthography</a> (lit. 'correct writing') refers to the rules and conventions for writing shared by a community, including the ordering of and relationship between graphemes. Particularly for <a href="/facts/Alphabet/vqfRpS3E">alphabets</a>, orthography includes the concept of <a href="/facts/Spelling/nUQ3g7IM">spelling</a>. For example, <a href="/facts/English_orthography/1Exe2W6G">English orthography</a> includes <a href="/facts/Uppercase_and_lowercase/KQcwaUUD">uppercase and lowercase</a> forms for 26 <a href="/facts/Letter_(alphabet)/uRnrbGIJ">letters</a> of the <a href="/facts/Latin_alphabet/pqWVHpBz">Latin alphabet</a> (with these graphemes corresponding to various phonemes), punctuation marks (mostly non-phonemic), and other symbols, such as numerals. Writing systems may be regarded as complete if they are able to represent all that may be expressed in the spoken language, while a partial writing system cannot represent the spoken language in its entirety.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="history">History</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/History_of_writing/AX0eC1vr">History of writing</a></p> <p>In each instance, writing emerged from systems of <a href="/facts/Proto-writing/LW2yoFHG">proto-writing</a>, though historically most proto-writing systems did not produce writing systems. Proto-writing uses <a href="/facts/Ideographic/7NvclbIG">ideographic</a> and mnemonic symbols to communicate, but lacks the capability to fully encode language. Examples include: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/facts/Jiahu_symbols/xbbLMIrK">Jiahu symbols</a> (c. 7th millennium BC) carved into tortoise shells, found in 24 <a href="/facts/Neolithic/wRS0Bnh4">Neolithic</a> graves excavated at <a href="/facts/Jiahu/k6wHPGne">Jiahu</a> in northern China.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a></li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Vin%25C4%258Da_symbols/yGN6KkNR">Vinča symbols</a> (c. 6th–5th millennia BC) found on artefacts of the <a href="/facts/Vin%25C4%258Da_culture/H9379tTl">Vinča culture</a> of <a href="/facts/Central_Europe/VdxzSbJz">Central</a> and <a href="/facts/Southeast_Europe/zxgEvCdQ">Southeast Europe</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a></li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Indus_script/HTwS3ruS">Indus script</a> (c. 2600 – c. 2000 BC) found on different types of artefacts produced by the <a href="/facts/Indus_Valley_Civilization/6xM4aK23">Indus Valley Civilization</a> on the <a href="/facts/Indian_subcontinent/0XUWGXpx">Indian subcontinent</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Quipu/stJkKV9v">Quipu</a> (15th century AD), a system of knotted cords used as mnemonic devices by the <a href="/facts/Inca_Empire/GjNowI6t">Inca Empire</a> in South America.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a></li></ul> <p>Writing has been invented independently multiple times in human history – first emerging between 3400 and 3200 BC as <a href="/facts/Cuneiform/MgIQoGu8">cuneiform</a>, a system initially used to write the <a href="/facts/Sumerian_language/LM6x88vp">Sumerian language</a> in southern Mesopotamia; it was later adapted to write <a href="/facts/Akkadian_language/esQDlrFw">Akkadian</a> as its speakers spread throughout the region, with Akkadian writing appearing in significant quantities c. 2350 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> Cuneiform was closely followed by <a href="/facts/Egyptian_hieroglyphs/qXRpprLe">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a>. It is generally agreed that the two systems were invented independently from one another; both evolved from proto-writing systems with the earliest coherent texts dated c. 2600 BC. <a href="/facts/Chinese_characters/5pn1PFvj">Chinese characters</a> emerged independently in the <a href="/facts/Yellow_River/LajkLtUU">Yellow River</a> valley c. 1200 BC. There is no evidence of contact between China and the literate peoples of the Near East, and the Mesopotamian and Chinese approaches for representing sound and meaning are distinct.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Mesoamerican_writing_systems/SGQJgooK">Mesoamerican writing systems</a>, including <a href="/facts/Olmec/5saF7yjT">Olmec</a> and the <a href="/facts/Maya_script/MYVpESKV">Maya script</a>, were also invented independently.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> </p><p>With each independent invention of writing, the ideographs used in proto-writing were decoupled from the direct representation of ideas, and gradually came to represent words instead. This occurred via application of the <a href="/facts/Rebus/mXc8uR8I">rebus</a> principle, where a symbol was appropriated to represent an additional word that happened to be similar in pronunciation to the word for the idea originally represented by the symbol. This allowed words without concrete visualizations to be represented by symbols for the first time; the gradual shift from ideographic symbols to those wholly representing language took place over centuries, and required the conscious analysis of a given language by those attempting to write it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> </p><p>Alphabetic writing descends from previous morphographic writing, and first appeared before 2000 BC to write a Semitic language spoken in the <a href="/facts/Sinai_Peninsula/SEyERdHm">Sinai Peninsula</a>. Most of the world's alphabets either descend directly from this <a href="/facts/Proto-Sinaitic_script/aqPygGcT">Proto-Sinaitic script</a>, or were directly inspired by its design. Descendants include the <a href="/facts/Phoenician_alphabet/Vr4smuYg">Phoenician alphabet</a> (c. 1050 BC), and its child in the <a href="/facts/Greek_alphabet/1cHwB8Dg">Greek alphabet</a> (c. 800 BC).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Latin_alphabet/pqWVHpBz">Latin alphabet</a>, which descended from the Greek alphabet, is by far the most common script used by writing systems.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="classification-by-basic-linguistic-unit">Classification by basic linguistic unit</h2> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/List_of_writing_systems/lMVN4qrb">List of writing systems</a></p> <p>Writing systems are most often categorized according to what units of language a system's graphemes correspond to.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> At the most basic level, writing systems can be either phonographic (lit. 'sound writing') when graphemes represent units of sound in a language, or morphographic ('form writing') when graphemes represent units of meaning (such as <a href="/facts/Word/UXNbIy5y">words</a> or <a href="/facts/Morpheme/4JNcPMHs">morphemes</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> Depending on the author, the older term <i>logographic</i> ('word writing') is often used, either with the same meaning as <i>morphographic</i>, or specifically in reference to systems where the basic unit being written is the word. Recent scholarship generally prefers <i>morphographic</i> over <i>logographic</i>, with the latter seen as potentially vague or misleading – in part because systems usually operate on the level of morphemes, not words.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> </p><p>Many classifications define three primary categories, where phonographic systems are subdivided into syllabic and alphabetic (or <i>segmental</i>) systems. Syllabaries use symbols called syllabograms to represent <a href="/facts/Syllable/Ylt7pyJe">syllables</a> or <a href="/facts/Mora_(linguistics)/7uNR6X4c">moras</a>. Alphabets use symbols called letters that correspond to spoken phonemes (or more technically, to <a href="/facts/Diaphoneme/y32pX3gm">diaphonemes</a>). Alphabets are generally classified into three subtypes, with <a href="/facts/Abjad/Hn50ebWn">abjads</a> having letters for <a href="/facts/Consonant/81X2SGS6">consonants</a>, pure alphabets having letters for both consonants and <a href="/facts/Vowel/BNhCeFtH">vowels</a>, and <a href="/facts/Abugida/FWhLePru">abugidas</a> having characters that correspond to consonant–vowel pairs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> <a href="/facts/David_Diringer/TXNQ82Bw">David Diringer</a> proposed a five-fold classification of writing systems, comprising pictographic scripts, ideographic scripts, analytic transitional scripts, phonetic scripts, and alphabetic scripts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> </p><p>In practice, writing systems are classified according to the primary type of symbols used, and typically include exceptional cases where symbols function differently. For example, logographs found within phonetic systems like English include the <a href="/facts/Ampersand/emmXUXuB">ampersand</a> ⟨&⟩ and the numerals ⟨0⟩, ⟨1⟩, etc. – which correspond to specific words (<i>and</i>, <i>zero</i>, <i>one</i>, etc.) and not to the underlying sounds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> Most writing systems can be described as mixed systems that feature elements of both phonography and morphography.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> </p> <h3>Logographic systems</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Logogram/wWYAITGc">Logogram</a></p> <p>A logogram is a character that represents a morpheme within a language. <a href="/facts/Chinese_characters/5pn1PFvj">Chinese characters</a> represent the only major logographic writing systems still in use: they have historically been used to write the <a href="/facts/Varieties_of_Chinese/MNGv4yrP">varieties of Chinese</a>, as well as <a href="/facts/Japanese_language/EEv485a5">Japanese</a>, <a href="/facts/Korean_language/dmNnRxAA">Korean</a>, <a href="/facts/Vietnamese_language/J3Pbx58C">Vietnamese</a>, and other languages of the <a href="/facts/Sinosphere/WY2269Xy">Sinosphere</a>. As each character represents a single unit of meaning, thousands are required to write all the words of a language. If the logograms do not adequately represent all meanings and words of a language, written language can be confusing or ambiguous to the reader.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> </p><p>Logograms are sometimes conflated with <a href="/facts/Ideogram/7NvclbIG">ideograms</a>, symbols which graphically represent abstract ideas; most linguists now reject this characterization:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> Chinese characters are often semantic–phonetic compounds, which include a component related to the character's meaning, and a component that gives a hint for its pronunciation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> </p> <h3>Syllabaries</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Syllabary/GCbFXaJ4">Syllabary</a></p> <p>A syllabary is a set of written symbols (called <i>syllabograms</i>) that represent either <a href="/facts/Syllable/Ylt7pyJe">syllables</a> or <a href="/facts/Mora_(linguistics)/7uNR6X4c">moras</a> – a unit of <a href="/facts/Prosody_(linguistics)/UDzAIz46">prosody</a> that is often but not always a syllable in length.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> Syllabaries are best suited to languages with relatively simple syllable structure, since a different symbol is needed for every syllable. Japanese, for example, contains about 100 moras, which are represented by moraic <a href="/facts/Hiragana/RTn1gxfS">hiragana</a>. By contrast, English features complex syllable structures with a relatively large inventory of vowels and complex <a href="/facts/Consonant_cluster/CxFhVk8X">consonant clusters</a> – for a total of 15–16 thousand distinct syllables. Some syllabaries have larger inventories: the <a href="/facts/Yi_script/VE9bfJKS">Yi script</a> contains 756 different symbols.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> </p> <h3>Alphabets</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Alphabet/vqfRpS3E">Alphabet</a></p> <p>An alphabet uses symbols (called <i>letters</i>) that correspond to the phonemes of a language, e.g. its vowels and consonants. However, these correspondences are rarely uncomplicated, and <a href="/facts/Spelling/nUQ3g7IM">spelling</a> is often mediated by other factors than just which sounds are used by a speaker.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> The word <i>alphabet</i> is derived from <i><a href="/facts/Alpha/I51VqVVm">alpha</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Beta/oTWMRsHj">beta</a></i>, the names for the first two letters in the <a href="/facts/Greek_alphabet/1cHwB8Dg">Greek alphabet</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> An <a href="/facts/Abjad/Hn50ebWn">abjad</a> is an alphabet whose letters only represent the consonantal sounds of a language. They were the first alphabets to develop historically,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> with most used to write <a href="/facts/Semitic_languages/WCYrz4Qm">Semitic languages</a>, and originally deriving from the <a href="/facts/Proto-Sinaitic_script/aqPygGcT">Proto-Sinaitic script</a>. The <a href="/facts/Morphology_(linguistics)/fWkzsYE8">morphology</a> of Semitic languages is particularly suited to this approach, as the denotation of vowels is generally redundant.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> Optional markings for vowels may be used for some abjads, but are generally limited to applications like education.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> Many pure alphabets were derived from abjads through the addition of dedicated vowel letters, as with the derivation of the Greek alphabet from the Phoenician alphabet c. 800 BC. <i>Abjad</i> is the word for "alphabet" in Arabic, and analogously derives from the traditional order of letters in the <a href="/facts/Arabic_alphabet/hCA1a0xq">Arabic alphabet</a> (<i>'alif</i>, <i>bā'</i>, <i>jīm</i>, <i>dāl</i>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> </p> <p>An <a href="/facts/Abugida/FWhLePru">abugida</a> is a type of alphabet with symbols corresponding to consonant–vowel pairs, where basic symbols for each consonant are associated with an <a href="/facts/Inherent_vowel/B4W5nSzA">inherent vowel</a> by default, and other possible vowels for each consonant are indicated via predictable modifications made to the basic symbols.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> In an abugida, there may be a sign for <i>k</i> with no vowel, but also one for <i>ka</i> (if <i>a</i> is the inherent vowel), and <i>ke</i> is written by modifying the <i>ka</i> sign in a way consistent with how <i>la</i> would be modified to get <i>le</i>. In many abugidas, modification consists of the addition of a vowel sign; other possibilities include rotation of the basic sign, or addition of <a href="/facts/Diacritic/Rw6lMzQW">diacritics</a>. </p><p>While true syllabaries have one symbol per syllable and no systematic visual similarity, the graphic similarity in most abugidas stems from their origins as abjads – with added symbols comprising markings for different vowels added onto a pre-existing base symbol. The largest single group of abugidas is the <a href="/facts/Brahmic_family/mwHJWt6d">Brahmic family</a> of scripts, however, which includes nearly all the scripts used in India and Southeast Asia. The name <i>abugida</i> was derived by linguist <a href="/facts/Peter_T._Daniels/gymIqfRu">Peter T. Daniels</a> (b. 1951) from the first four characters of an order of the <a href="/facts/Ge%25CA%25BDez_script/K4RRPwCl">Geʽez script</a>, which is used for certain Nilo-Saharan and Afro-Asiatic languages of Ethiopia and Eritrea.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> </p> <h3>Featural systems</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Featural_writing_system/n3maaHKA">Featural writing system</a></p> <p>Originally proposed as a category by <a href="/facts/Geoffrey_Sampson/QPSSt8qY">Geoffrey Sampson</a> (b. 1944),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> a featural system uses symbols representing sub-phonetic elements – e.g. those traits that can be used to distinguish between and analyse a language's phonemes, such as their <a href="/facts/Voice_(phonetics)/VdqrEGQ3">voicing</a> or <a href="/facts/Place_of_articulation/exCzaxeF">place of articulation</a>. The only prominent example of a featural system is the <a href="/facts/Hangul/prUQxzfJ">hangul</a> script used to write Korean, where featural symbols are combined into letters, which are in turn joined into syllabic blocks. Many scholars, including <a href="/facts/John_DeFrancis/wjEYC0eg">John DeFrancis</a> (1911–2009), reject a characterization of hangul as a featural system – with arguments including that Korean writers do not themselves think in these terms when writing – or question the viability of Sampson's category altogether.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> </p><p>As hangul was consciously created by literate experts, Daniels characterizes it as a "sophisticated <a href="/facts/Grammatogeny/T1had3H3">grammatogeny</a>"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> – a writing system intentionally designed for a specific purpose, as opposed to having evolved gradually over time. Other featural grammatogenies include <a href="/facts/Shorthand/LdCYfSu9">shorthands</a> developed by professionals and <a href="/facts/Constructed_script/T1had3H3">constructed scripts</a> created by hobbyists and creatives, like the <a href="/facts/Tengwar/cYR4N79C">Tengwar</a> script designed by <a href="/facts/J._R._R._Tolkien/41HPhk5C">J. R. R. Tolkien</a> to write the Elven languages he also constructed. Many of these feature advanced graphic designs corresponding to phonological properties. The basic unit of writing in these systems can map to anything from phonemes to words. It has been shown that even the Latin script has sub-character features.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="classification-by-graphical-properties">Classification by graphical properties</h2> <h3>Linearity</h3> <p>All writing is linear in the broadest sense – i.e., the spatial arrangement of symbols indicates the order in which they should be read.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> On a more granular level, systems with discontinuous marks like <a href="/facts/Diacritic/Rw6lMzQW">diacritics</a> can be characterized as less linear than those without.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> In the initial historical distinction, <i>linear</i> writing systems (e.g. the Phoenician alphabet) generally form glyphs as a series of connected lines or strokes, while systems that generally use discrete, more pictorial marks (e.g. cuneiform) are sometimes termed <i>non-linear</i>. The historical abstraction of logographs into phonographs is often associated with a linearization of the script.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> </p><p>In <a href="/facts/Braille/SKtJVCmc">Braille</a>, raised bumps on the writing <a href="/facts/Substrate_(printing)/xBzyrdUG">substrate</a> are used to encode non-linear symbols. The original system – which <a href="/facts/Louis_Braille/r4lKlvqC">Louis Braille</a> (1809–1852) invented in order to allow people with <a href="/facts/Visual_impairment/sFuqKj3n">visual impairments</a> to read and write – used characters that corresponded to the letters of the Latin alphabet.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> Moreover, that Braille is equivalent to visual writing systems in function demonstrates that the phenomenon of writing is fundamentally spatial in nature, not merely visual.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> </p> <h3> Directionality and orientation</h3> <p>Writing systems may be characterized by how text is graphically divided into lines, which are to be read in sequence:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> </p> Axis Whether lines of text are laid out as horizontal rows or vertical columns Lining How each line is positioned relative to the one previous on the medium – in practice only vertical scripts vary whether columns are read in a left- or rightward order, as all horizontal scripts sequence rows from top to bottom<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> Directionality How individual lines are read – whether starting from the left or right on a horizontal axis, or from the top or bottom on a vertical axis <p>In left-to-right scripts (LTR), horizontal rows are sequenced from top to bottom on a page, with each row read from left to right. Right-to-left scripts (RTL), which use the opposite directionality, include the <a href="/facts/Arabic_alphabet/hCA1a0xq">Arabic alphabet</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> </p><p>Egyptian hieroglyphs were written either left-to-right or right-to-left, with the animal and human glyphs turned to face the beginning of the line. The early alphabet did not have a fixed direction, and was written both vertically and horizontally; it was most commonly written <a href="/facts/Boustrophedon/pfqxtPj7">boustrophedonically</a>: starting in one horizontal direction, then turning at the end of the line and reversing direction.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> </p><p>The right-to-left direction of the Phoenician alphabet initially stabilized after c. 800 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> Left-to-right writing has an advantage that, since most people are <a href="/facts/Right-handed/wb7Urd7u">right-handed</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> the hand does not interfere with what is being written (which, when inked, may not have dried yet) as the hand is to the right side of the pen. The <a href="/facts/Greek_alphabet/1cHwB8Dg">Greek alphabet</a> and its successors settled on a left-to-right pattern, from the top to the bottom of the page. Other scripts, such as <a href="/facts/Arabic_alphabet/hCA1a0xq">Arabic</a> and <a href="/facts/Hebrew_alphabet/qQStmr5u">Hebrew</a>, came to be written right to left. Scripts that historically incorporate Chinese characters have traditionally been written vertically in columns arranged from right to left, while a horizontal direction from left to right was only widely adopted in the 20th century due to Western influence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> </p><p>Several scripts used in the Philippines and Indonesia, such as <a href="/facts/Hanunoo_script/zfUlkY5W">Hanunoo</a>, are traditionally written with lines moving away from the writer, from bottom to top, but are read left to right;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Ogham/5xPwd2Ju">ogham</a> is written from bottom to top, commonly on the corner of a stone.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> The ancient <a href="/facts/Libyco-Berber_alphabet/7U9cSXhv">Libyco-Berber alphabet</a> was also written from bottom to top.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul> <li>Languages portal</li><li>Literature portal</li><li>Writing portal</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Bidirectional_text/7xafVLBG">Bidirectional text</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Complex_text_layout/HP7pIK39">Complex text layout</a> (CTL)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Defective_script/E2rbuzGu">Defective script</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Digraphia/Du8t01rg">Digraphia</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Epigraphy/E9UbNeDh">Epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Formal_language/crDTyP8q">Formal language</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/ISO_15924/jSzSBtjf">ISO 15924</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Pasigraphy/wsEs07oC">Pasigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Penmanship/q3pgv33e">Penmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Palaeography/QsVXMhMj">Palaeography</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Script_(Unicode)/YLXSr4DH">Script (Unicode)</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Transcription_(linguistics)/tt1dQtlE">Transcription (linguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/X-SAMPA/LEkkVBgw">X-SAMPA</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h3>Sources</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/William_G._Boltz/sVLq6CTa">Boltz, William G.</a> (1999). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC&q=The+Origin+and+Early+Development+of+the+Chinese+Writing+System.&pg=PA108">"Language and writing"</a>. In <a href="/facts/Michael_Loewe/zsYh11GS">Loewe, Michael</a>; <a href="/facts/Edward_L._Shaughnessy/W7RXlfMf">Shaughnessy, Edward L.</a> (eds.). <i>The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-47030-8.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Hadumod_Bu%25C3%259Fmann/5vy2MkzY">Bußmann, Hadumod</a> (1998). <i>Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics</i>. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-203-98005-7.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Stephen_D._Houston/p0u6tPBT">Houston, Stephen</a>, ed. (2004). <i>The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-83861-0. <ul><li><a href="/facts/Robert_Bagley/SpV1hhUv">Bagley, Robert</a>. "Anyang writing and the origin of the Chinese writing system". In Houston (2004), pp. 190–249.</li> <li>Robertson, John S. "The possibility and actuality of writing". In Houston (2004), pp. 16–38.</li></ul></li> <li>Condorelli, Marco (2022). <i>Introducing Historical Orthography</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-00-910073-1.</li> <li>———; Rutkowska, Hanna, eds. (2023). <i>The Cambridge Handbook of Historical Orthography</i>. Cambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-108-48731-3. <ul><li>Barbarić, Vuk-Tadija. "Grapholinguistics". In Condorelli & Rutkowska (2023), pp. 118–137.</li> <li>Gnanadesikan, Amalia E. "Classifying and comparing early writing systems". In Condorelli & Rutkowska (2023), pp. 29–49.</li> <li>Hartmann, Stefan; Szczepaniak, Renata. "Elements of writing systems". In Condorelli & Rutkowska (2023), pp. 50–72.</li> <li>Joyce, Terry. "Typologies of writing systems". 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Oxbow. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-78570-644-8.</li> <li>———; Boyes, Philip J., eds. (2022). <i>Writing Around the Ancient Mediterranean: Practices and Adaptations</i>. Contexts Of and Relations Between Early Writing Systems. Vol. 6. Oxbow. p. 232. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-78925-850-9.</li> <li>Tabouret-Keller, Andrée; Le Page, Robert B.; Gardner-Chloros, Penelope; Varro, Gabrielle, eds. (1997). <i>Vernacular Literacy: A Re-Evaluation</i>. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics. Vol. 13. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-823635-1. <ul><li>Baker, Philip. "Developing ways of writing vernaculars: problems and solutions in a historical perspective". In Tabouret-Keller et al. (1997), pp. 93–141.</li></ul></li> <li>Taylor, Insup; Olson, David R., eds. (1995). <i>Scripts and Literacy: Reading and Learning to Read Alphabets, Syllabaries and Characters</i>. Neuropsychology and Cognition. Vol. 7. Springer. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-94-010-4506-3. <ul><li>Scholes, Robert J. "Orthography, vision, and phonemic awareness". In Taylor & Olson (1995), pp. 359–374.</li></ul></li> <li>Voogt, Alexander J. de; Quack, Joachim Friedrich, eds. (2012). <i>The Idea of Writing: Writing Across Borders</i>. Brill. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-04-21545-0. <ul><li>Krispijn, Theo J. H. "Writing Semitic with cuneiform script. The interaction of Sumerian and Akkadian orthography in the second half of the third millennium BC". In Voogt & Quack (2012), pp. 181–218.</li></ul></li> <li>Woods, Christopher; Emberling, Geoff; Teeter, Emily (2010). <i>Visible Language: Inventions of Writing in the Ancient Middle East and Beyond</i>. Oriental Institute Museum Publications. Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-885923-76-9.</li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Robinson, Andrew (2009). <i>Writing and Script: A Very Short Introduction</i>. Very Short Introductions. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-956778-2.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="https://www.worldswritingsystems.org/">The World's Writing Systems</a> – all 294 known writing systems, each with a typographic reference glyph and Unicode status</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Coulmas (2002), pp. 151–152. - ——— (2002). Writing Systems: An Introduction to Their Linguistic Analysis. Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78217-3. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>This view is sometimes called the "narrow definition" of writing. The "broad definition" of writing also includes semasiography – i.e. meaningful symbols without a direct relationship to language.[3] <a href="/wiki/Semasiography" target="_blank">/wiki/Semasiography</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Meletis & Dürscheid (2022), p. 14. - ———; Dürscheid, Christa (2022). Writing Systems and Their Use: An Overview of Grapholinguistics. Trends in Linguistics. Vol. 369. De Gruyter Mouton. ISBN 978-3-11-075777-4. <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Crystal (2008), p. 481. - Crystal, David (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. The Language Library (6th ed.). Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-5296-9. <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Bußmann (1998), p. 1294. - Bußmann, Hadumod (1998). Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-98005-7. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Bußmann (1998), p. 979. - Bußmann, Hadumod (1998). Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-98005-7. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Rutkowska (2023), p. 96. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Rogers (2005), p. 2. - Rogers, Henry (2005). Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach. Blackwell Textbooks in Linguistics. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-23463-0. <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>This is to be distinguished from the use of notation systems designed to record signed languages, such as SignWriting. <a href="/wiki/SignWriting" target="_blank">/wiki/SignWriting</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Meletis & Dürscheid (2022), p. 17; citing Morford et al. (2011) - ———; Dürscheid, Christa (2022). Writing Systems and Their Use: An Overview of Grapholinguistics. Trends in Linguistics. Vol. 369. De Gruyter Mouton. ISBN 978-3-11-075777-4. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Coulmas (1991), pp. 113–115; Hannas (1997), pp. 73, 84–87. - Coulmas, Florian (1991) [1989]. The Writing Systems of the World. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-18028-9. <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Sampson (2016), p. 41. - ——— (2016). "Writing systems: methods for recording language". In Allan, Keith (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Linguistics. Routledge. pp. 47–61. ISBN 978-0-415-83257-1. <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Condorelli & Rutkowska (2023), p. 4.Joyce (2023), p. 141, citing Gnanadesikan (2017), p. 15. - ———; Rutkowska, Hanna, eds. (2023). The Cambridge Handbook of Historical Orthography. Cambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-48731-3. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Köhler, Altmann & Fan (2008), pp. 4–5; Coulmas (1996), pp. 174–175. - Köhler, Reinhard; Altmann, Gabriel; Fan, Fengxiang, eds. (2008). Analyses of Script: Properties of Characters and Writing Systems. Quantitative Linguistics. Vol. 63. Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-019641-2. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Coulmas (2002), p. 35. - ——— (2002). Writing Systems: An Introduction to Their Linguistic Analysis. Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78217-3. <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Steele & Boyes (2022), p. 232. - ———; Boyes, Philip J., eds. (2022). Writing Around the Ancient Mediterranean: Practices and Adaptations. Contexts Of and Relations Between Early Writing Systems. Vol. 6. Oxbow. p. 232. ISBN 978-1-78925-850-9. <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Meletis & Dürscheid (2022), pp. 153–155. - ———; Dürscheid, Christa (2022). Writing Systems and Their Use: An Overview of Grapholinguistics. Trends in Linguistics. Vol. 369. De Gruyter Mouton. ISBN 978-3-11-075777-4. <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Ottenheimer (2012), p. 194. - Ottenheimer, Harriet Joseph (2012). The Anthropology of Language: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology. Cengage. ISBN 978-1-133-70909-1. <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Houston (2004), pp. 245–246. - Houston, Stephen, ed. (2004). The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83861-0. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Condorelli (2022), pp. 20–21; Daniels (2018), p. 148. - Condorelli, Marco (2022). Introducing Historical Orthography. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-00-910073-1. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Sproat (2010), p. 110. - Sproat, Richard (2010). Language, Technology, and Society. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-954938-2. <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Coulmas (2002), p. 20. - ——— (2002). Writing Systems: An Introduction to Their Linguistic Analysis. Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78217-3. <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Krispijn (2012), p. 184. <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Bagley (2004), p. 190. <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Boltz (1999), p. 108. - Boltz, William G. (1999). "Language and writing". In Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC&q=The+Origin+and+Early+Development+of+the+Chinese+Writing+System.&pg=PA108" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC&q=The+Origin+and+Early+Development+of+the+Chinese+Writing+System.&pg=PA108</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Keightley (1983), pp. 415–416. - Keightley, David N. (1983). The Origins of Chinese Civilization. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04229-2. <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Gnanadesikan (2023), p. 36. <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Robertson 2004, pp. 21–24. <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Fischer (2001), pp. 84–86. - Fischer, Steven Roger (2001). A History of Writing. Globalities. Reaktion. ISBN 978-1-86189-101-3. <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Millard (1986), p. 396. - Millard, A. R. (1986). "The Infancy of the Alphabet". World Archaeology. 17 (3): 390–398. doi:10.1080/00438243.1986.9979978. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1986.9979978" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1986.9979978</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Haarmann (2004), p. 96. - Haarmann, Harald (2004) [2002]. Geschichte der Schrift [History of Writing] (in German) (2nd ed.). C. H. Beck. ISBN 978-3-406-47998-4. <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Gnanadesikan (2023), p. 32. <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Rogers (2005), pp. 13–15; Meletis (2020), p. 144. - Rogers, Henry (2005). Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach. Blackwell Textbooks in Linguistics. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-23463-0. <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Joyce (2023), pp. 152–153. <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Joyce (2023), p. 142. <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Diringer (1962), pp. 21–23. - Diringer, David (1962). Writing: Ancient Peoples And Places. Frederick A. Praeger. OCLC 2824973. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2824973" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2824973</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Gnanadesikan (2023), p. 32. <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Meletis & Dürscheid (2022), p. 219. - ———; Dürscheid, Christa (2022). Writing Systems and Their Use: An Overview of Grapholinguistics. Trends in Linguistics. Vol. 369. De Gruyter Mouton. ISBN 978-3-11-075777-4. <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Coulmas (2002), pp. 40–41. - ——— (2002). Writing Systems: An Introduction to Their Linguistic Analysis. Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78217-3. <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Coulmas (1991), pp. 62, 103–104; Steele (2017), p. 9. - Coulmas, Florian (1991) [1989]. The Writing Systems of the World. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-18028-9. <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Rogers (2005), p. 34. - Rogers, Henry (2005). Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach. Blackwell Textbooks in Linguistics. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-23463-0. <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Meletis & Dürscheid (2022), pp. 240–241. - ———; Dürscheid, Christa (2022). Writing Systems and Their Use: An Overview of Grapholinguistics. Trends in Linguistics. Vol. 369. De Gruyter Mouton. ISBN 978-3-11-075777-4. <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>DeFrancis (1989), p. 147. - DeFrancis, John (1989). Visible Speech: The Diverse Oneness of Writing Systems. University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1207-2. <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Coulmas (2002), pp. 99–100, 113–114. - ——— (2002). Writing Systems: An Introduction to Their Linguistic Analysis. Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78217-3. <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Condorelli (2022), p. 26. - Condorelli, Marco (2022). Introducing Historical Orthography. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-00-910073-1. <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Condorelli (2022), p. 25. - Condorelli, Marco (2022). Introducing Historical Orthography. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-00-910073-1. <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>Fischer (2001), pp. 85–90; Rogers (2005). - Fischer, Steven Roger (2001). A History of Writing. Globalities. Reaktion. ISBN 978-1-86189-101-3. <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Fischer (2001), p. 148; Meletis & Dürscheid (2022), p. 230. - Fischer, Steven Roger (2001). A History of Writing. Globalities. Reaktion. ISBN 978-1-86189-101-3. <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Coulmas (2002), p. 113. - ——— (2002). Writing Systems: An Introduction to Their Linguistic Analysis. Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78217-3. <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>Daniels (2018), p. 84. - ——— (2018). An Exploration of Writing. Equinox. ISBN 978-1-78179-528-6. <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>Meletis & Dürscheid (2022), p. 222. - ———; Dürscheid, Christa (2022). Writing Systems and Their Use: An Overview of Grapholinguistics. Trends in Linguistics. Vol. 369. De Gruyter Mouton. ISBN 978-3-11-075777-4. <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>Sampson (1985), p. 40. - Sampson, Geoffrey (1985). Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1254-5. <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>Collinge (2002), p. 382. - Collinge, N. E. (2002). "Language and Writing Systems". An Encyclopedia of Language. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-97716-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1PbO7NveuRgC&pg=RA7-PT21" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=1PbO7NveuRgC&pg=RA7-PT21</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Coulmas (2002), p. 165; DeFrancis (1989), p. 197. - ——— (2002). Writing Systems: An Introduction to Their Linguistic Analysis. Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78217-3. <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Daniels (2013), p. 55. - ——— (2013). "The history of writing as a history of linguistics". In Allan, Keith (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Oxford University Press. pp. 53–70. ISBN 978-0-19-958584-7. <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Primus (2004), pp. 242–243. - ——— (2004). "A featural analysis of the Modern Roman Alphabet" (PDF). Written Language and Literacy. 7 (2). John Benjamins: 235–274. doi:10.1075/wll.7.2.06pri. eISSN 1570-6001. ISSN 1387-6732. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2017. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171010183819/http://idsl1.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/fileadmin/IDSLI/dozentenseiten/artikel_primus/Primus_Featural_Analysis_2004.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20171010183819/http://idsl1.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/fileadmin/IDSLI/dozentenseiten/artikel_primus/Primus_Featural_Analysis_2004.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Rogers (2005), p. 9; Coulmas (2002), p. 152. - Rogers, Henry (2005). Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach. Blackwell Textbooks in Linguistics. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-23463-0. <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>Rogers (2005), pp. 9–10; Daniels (2018), pp. 194–195. - Rogers, Henry (2005). Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach. Blackwell Textbooks in Linguistics. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-23463-0. <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>Powell (2009), pp. 155–161, 259; Dobbs-Allsopp (2023), pp. 28–30; Coulmas (1991), pp. 23–24, 94. - Powell, Barry B. (2012) [2009]. Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-118-25532-2. <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>Sproat (2010), pp. 183–186; Scholes (1995), p. 364. - Sproat, Richard (2010). Language, Technology, and Society. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-954938-2. <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>Harris (1995), p. 45. - Harris, Roy (1995). Signs of Writing. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10088-7. <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>Condorelli (2022), p. 83. - Condorelli, Marco (2022). Introducing Historical Orthography. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-00-910073-1. <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:63"><p>Meletis & Dürscheid (2022), p. 112. - ———; Dürscheid, Christa (2022). Writing Systems and Their Use: An Overview of Grapholinguistics. Trends in Linguistics. Vol. 369. De Gruyter Mouton. ISBN 978-3-11-075777-4. <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:64"><p>Meletis & Dürscheid (2022), p. 112. - ———; Dürscheid, Christa (2022). Writing Systems and Their Use: An Overview of Grapholinguistics. Trends in Linguistics. Vol. 369. De Gruyter Mouton. ISBN 978-3-11-075777-4. <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:65"><p>Powell (2009), p. 235. - Powell, Barry B. (2012) [2009]. Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-118-25532-2. <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:66"><p>Fischer (2001), p. 91. - Fischer, Steven Roger (2001). A History of Writing. Globalities. Reaktion. ISBN 978-1-86189-101-3. <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:67"><p>de Kovel, Carrión-Castillo & Francks (2019), p. 584; Papadatou-Pastou et al. (2020), p. 482. - de Kovel, Carolien G. F.; Carrión-Castillo, Amaia; Francks, Clyde (2019). "A large-scale population study of early life factors influencing left-handedness". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 584. Bibcode:2019NatSR...9..584D. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-37423-8. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6345846. PMID 30679750. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6345846" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6345846</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:68"><p>Fischer (2001), pp. 177–178. - Fischer, Steven Roger (2001). A History of Writing. Globalities. Reaktion. ISBN 978-1-86189-101-3. <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:69"><p>Gnanadesikan (2009), p. 180. - Gnanadesikan, Amalia E. (2009). The Writing Revolution: Cuneiform to the Internet. The Language Library. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-5406-2. <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:70"><p>Fischer (2001), pp. 53–54. - Fischer, Steven Roger (2001). A History of Writing. Globalities. Reaktion. ISBN 978-1-86189-101-3. <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:71"><p>Daniels & Bright (1996), p. 112. - Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William, eds. (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>