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<h2 id="essential-chemical-elements-for-humans">Essential chemical elements for humans</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Composition_of_the_human_body/bbPXIH0x">Composition of the human body</a></p> <p>Twenty chemical elements are known to be <i>required</i> to support human biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles, and there is evidence for a few more.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p><p>Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen are the most abundant elements in the body by weight and make up about 96% of the weight of a human body. Calcium makes up 920 to 1200 grams of adult body weight, with 99% of it contained in bones and teeth. This is about 1.5% of body weight.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> Phosphorus occurs in amounts of about 2/3 of calcium, and makes up about 1% of a person's body weight.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> The other major minerals (potassium, sodium, chlorine, <a href="/facts/Sulfur/IK0amTfM">sulfur</a> and magnesium) make up only about 0.85% of the weight of the body. Together these eleven chemical elements (H, C, N, O, Ca, P, K, Na, Cl, S, Mg) make up 99.85% of the body. The remaining ≈18 <a href="/facts/Ultratrace_element/Lw5lygpJ">ultratrace minerals</a> comprise just 0.15% of the body, or about one hundred grams in total for the average person. Total fractions in this paragraph are amounts based on summing percentages from the article on <a href="/facts/Chemical_composition_of_the_human_body/bbPXIH0x">chemical composition of the human body</a>. </p><p>Some diversity of opinion exist about the essential nature of various ultratrace elements in humans (and other mammals), even based on the same data. For example, whether <a href="/facts/Chromium/6sVk6Uu7">chromium</a> is essential in humans is debated. No Cr-containing biochemical has been purified. The United States and Japan designate chromium as an essential nutrient,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> but the <a href="/facts/European_Food_Safety_Authority/wooppnvX">European Food Safety Authority</a> (EFSA), representing the European Union, reviewed the question in 2014 and does not agree.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> </p><p>Most of the known and suggested mineral nutrients are of relatively low <a href="/facts/Relative_atomic_mass/A3vbuz2n">atomic weight</a>, and are reasonably common on land, or for sodium and iodine, in the ocean. They also tend to have soluble compounds at physiological pH ranges: elements without such soluble compounds tend to be either non-essential (Al) or, at best, may only be needed in traces (Si).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><th colspan="120">Essential elements for higher organisms (eucarya).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><ul><li>v</li><li>t</li><li>e</li></ul></th></tr><tr><td>H</td><td colspan="16"> </td><td>He</td></tr><tr><td>Li</td><td>Be</td><td colspan="10"> </td><td>B</td><td>C</td><td>N</td><td>O</td><td>F</td><td>Ne</td></tr><tr><td>Na</td><td>Mg</td><td colspan="10"> </td><td>Al</td><td>Si</td><td>P</td><td>S</td><td>Cl</td><td>Ar</td></tr><tr><td>K</td><td>Ca</td><td>Sc</td><td>Ti</td><td>V</td><td>Cr</td><td>Mn</td><td>Fe</td><td>Co</td><td>Ni</td><td>Cu</td><td>Zn</td><td>Ga</td><td>Ge</td><td>As</td><td>Se</td><td>Br</td><td>Kr</td></tr><tr><td>Rb</td><td>Sr</td><td>Y</td><td>Zr</td><td>Nb</td><td>Mo</td><td>Tc</td><td>Ru</td><td>Rh</td><td>Pd</td><td>Ag</td><td>Cd</td><td>In</td><td>Sn</td><td>Sb</td><td>Te</td><td>I</td><td>Xe</td></tr><tr><td>Cs</td><td>Ba</td><td>Lu</td><td>Hf</td><td>Ta</td><td>W</td><td>Re</td><td>Os</td><td>Ir</td><td>Pt</td><td>Au</td><td>Hg</td><td>Tl</td><td>Pb</td><td>Bi</td><td>Po</td><td>At</td><td>Rn</td></tr></tbody></table> <table><tbody><tr><td>Legend: The <a href="/facts/CHONPS/lI4Wve8U">six basic organic elements</a> Quantity elements Essential <a href="/facts/Dietary_element/ACv8EG7f">trace elements</a> Essentiality or function debated Not essential in humans, but essential/beneficial for some non-human eucarya</td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Roles in biological processes</h3> <table><tbody><tr><th>Dietary element</th><th>RDA/AI male/female (US) [mg]<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a></th><th>UL (US and EU) [mg]<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a></th><th>Category</th><th>High nutrient density dietary sources</th><th>Terms for deficiency/excess</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Potassium_in_biology/RVwcrmym">Potassium</a></td><td>4700</td><td>NE; NE</td><td>A systemic <a href="/facts/Electrolyte/4YE8bIVa">electrolyte</a> and is essential in coregulating <a href="/facts/Adenosine_triphosphate/nB9bwgcU">ATP</a> with sodium</td><td>Sweet potato, tomato, potato, beans, lentils, dairy products, seafood, banana, prune, carrot, orange<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Hypokalemia/XvS1S7s6">hypokalemia</a> / <a href="/facts/Hyperkalemia/epfvUg5w">hyperkalemia</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Chlorine/y27UwYBM">Chlorine</a></td><td>2300</td><td>3600; NE</td><td>Needed for production of <a href="/facts/Hydrochloric_acid/HqItJlUT">hydrochloric acid</a> in the stomach, in cellular pump functions and required in host defense</td><td><a href="/facts/Table_salt/SCplalQ3">Table salt</a> (sodium chloride) is the main dietary source.</td><td><a href="/facts/Hypochloremia/jKf8t4oJ">hypochloremia</a> / <a href="/facts/Hyperchloremia/dY9DV7qG">hyperchloremia</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Sodium_in_biology/k1ovo9kR">Sodium</a></td><td>1500</td><td>2300; NE</td><td>A systemic electrolyte and is essential in coregulating <a href="/facts/Adenosine_triphosphate/nB9bwgcU">ATP</a> with potassium</td><td>Table salt (sodium chloride, the main source), <a href="/facts/Sea_vegetable/p9BGe1Fc">sea vegetables</a>, milk, and <a href="/facts/Spinach/PwxrL0o0">spinach</a>.</td><td><a href="/facts/Hyponatremia/Mgj855r3">hyponatremia</a> / <a href="/facts/Hypernatremia/IKu0CwLv">hypernatremia</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Calcium_in_biology/wgUxKej5">Calcium</a></td><td>1000</td><td>2500; 2500</td><td>Needed for muscle, heart and digestive system health, builds bone (see <a href="/facts/Hydroxyapatite/SqcXuXVQ">hydroxyapatite</a>), supports synthesis and function of blood cells, helps in blood clotting</td><td><a href="/facts/Dairy_product/rGVJUHVb">Dairy products</a>, eggs, <a href="/facts/Fish_(food)/PEaSCDz3">canned fish with bones</a> (salmon, sardines), <a href="/facts/Green_leafy_vegetable/K30EKvpd">green leafy vegetables</a>, <a href="/facts/Nut_(fruit)/HvHpVkod">nuts</a>, <a href="/facts/Seeds/a4xGSLxJ">seeds</a>, tofu, thyme, oregano, dill, cinnamon.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Hypocalcaemia/HnwyWCL2">hypocalcaemia</a> / <a href="/facts/Hypercalcaemia/kdEeLaVd">hypercalcaemia</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Phosphorus/27xCeIqs">Phosphorus</a></td><td>700</td><td>4000; 4000</td><td>A component of bones (see <a href="/facts/Hydroxyapatite/SqcXuXVQ">hydroxyapatite</a>), cells, in energy processing, in DNA and ATP (as phosphate) and many other functions</td><td>Red meat, dairy foods, <a href="/facts/Fish_(food)/PEaSCDz3">fish</a>, poultry, bread, rice, oats.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> In biological contexts, usually seen as <a href="/facts/Phosphate/FDGVCxUG">phosphate</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Hypophosphatemia/CKCt5A94">hypophosphatemia</a> / <a href="/facts/Hyperphosphatemia/mbCIQHbx">hyperphosphatemia</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Magnesium_in_biology/ENuowoyY">Magnesium</a></td><td>420/320</td><td>350; 250</td><td>Required for processing <a href="/facts/Adenosine_triphosphate/nB9bwgcU">ATP</a> and for bones</td><td>Spinach, <a href="/facts/Legume/x6s6gVHY">legumes</a>, nuts, seeds, whole grains, peanut butter, avocado<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Hypomagnesemia/GBVGeFw9">hypomagnesemia</a> (<a href="/facts/Magnesium_deficiency_(medicine)/GBVGeFw9">magnesium deficiency</a>) / <a href="/facts/Hypermagnesemia/D1vCcEYC">hypermagnesemia</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Iron_in_biology/Ecr983cT">Iron</a></td><td>8/18</td><td>45; NE</td><td>Required for many proteins and enzymes, notably <a href="/facts/Hemoglobin/RsD1MzYA">hemoglobin</a> to prevent <a href="/facts/Anemia/AgEPPmg8">anemia</a></td><td>Meat, seafood, nuts, beans, dark chocolate<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Iron_deficiency/wK3f3IuR">iron deficiency</a> / <a href="/facts/Iron_overload_disorder/b7jEdAGr">iron overload disorder</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Zinc_in_biology/BYfLboIo">Zinc</a></td><td>11/8</td><td>40; 25</td><td>Required for several classes of enzymes such as <a href="/facts/Matrix_metalloproteinase/PqWv0Qsz">matrix metalloproteinases</a>, <a href="/facts/Liver_alcohol_dehydrogenase/XWwHgyad">liver alcohol dehydrogenase</a>, <a href="/facts/Carbonic_anhydrase/je7bk6fk">carbonic anhydrase</a> and <a href="/facts/Zinc_finger/dWrlw4t7">zinc finger proteins</a></td><td>Oysters*, red meat, poultry, nuts, whole grains, dairy products<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Zinc_deficiency/bfrcrw24">zinc deficiency</a> / <a href="/facts/Zinc_toxicity/FILEAfrr">zinc toxicity</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Manganese_in_biology/RGFJlVQW">Manganese</a></td><td>2.3/1.8</td><td>11; NE</td><td>Required co-factor for <a href="/facts/Superoxide_dismutase/8dzGVw5K">superoxide dismutase</a></td><td>Grains, legumes, seeds, nuts, leafy vegetables, tea, coffee<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Manganese_deficiency_(medicine)/IjhWYy8z">manganese deficiency</a> / <a href="/facts/Manganism/G4AtRyFu">manganism</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Copper_in_biology/99JcMvxf">Copper</a></td><td>0.9</td><td>10; 5</td><td>Required co-factor for <a href="/facts/Cytochrome_c_oxidase/U67QVCv8">cytochrome c oxidase</a></td><td>Liver, seafood, oysters, nuts, seeds; some: whole grains, legumes<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Copper_deficiency/IarUzC1A">copper deficiency</a> / <a href="/facts/Copper_toxicity/qM6ApMo7">copper toxicity</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Iodine_in_biology/45UtNjGN">Iodine</a></td><td>0.150</td><td>1.1; 0.6</td><td>Required for the synthesis of <a href="/facts/Thyroid_hormones/9k4xJtCq">thyroid hormones</a> and to help enzymes in host defense</td><td>Seaweed (<a href="/facts/Kelp/uE5Bz8B2">kelp</a> or <a href="/facts/Kombu/aHk04M1L">kombu</a>)*, grains, eggs, iodized salt<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Iodine_deficiency/NsTLf3E5">iodine deficiency</a> (<a href="/facts/Goiter/0kNGMcb6">goiter</a>) / <a href="/facts/Iodine/JlfMecMf">iodism</a> (<a href="/facts/Hyperthyroidism/H9Eqmbgk">hyperthyroidism</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a>)</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Molybdenum_in_biology/WyYLxxQu">Molybdenum</a></td><td>0.045</td><td>2; 0.6</td><td>Required for the functioning of <a href="/facts/Xanthine_oxidase/5AfnaJpl">xanthine oxidase</a>, <a href="/facts/Aldehyde_oxidase/fmdNlAJv">aldehyde oxidase</a>, and <a href="/facts/Sulfite_oxidase/WnrJJ489">sulfite oxidase</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a></td><td>Legumes, whole grains, nuts<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Molybdenum_deficiency/dapqXLN6">molybdenum deficiency</a> / molybdenum toxicity<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Selenium_in_biology/e8EDKnqT">Selenium</a></td><td>0.055</td><td>0.4; 0.3</td><td>Essential to activity of <a href="/facts/Antioxidant/4TG4MQ83">antioxidant</a> enzymes like <a href="/facts/Glutathione_peroxidase/Y7AQpAub">glutathione peroxidase</a></td><td>Brazil nuts, seafoods, organ meats, meats, grains, dairy products, eggs<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Selenium_deficiency/rwlSpwjw">selenium deficiency</a> / <a href="/facts/Selenosis/k975NApC">selenosis</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Cobalt/gqhScEw4">Cobalt</a></td><td>NE (trace); NE (trace)</td><td>NE; NE</td><td>Cobalt (as <a href="/facts/Vitamin_B12/vCk613gD">vitamin B12</a>) is required for the <a href="/facts/DNA_synthesis/ywV1plto">synthesis of DNA</a>, <a href="/facts/Erythropoiesis/HFUbNYAf">erythropoiesis</a> (red blood cell formation), and the development, myelination, and function of the <a href="/facts/Central_nervous_system/k8I6To97">central nervous system</a>. It is available for use by animals only after having been processed by bacteria. Humans contain only milligrams of cobalt in these cofactors<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a></td><td>Animal muscle and liver are good dietary sources, also shellfish and crab meat<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Pernicious_anemia/6WVBYjso">pernicious anemia</a> / <a href="/facts/Cobalt_poisoning/U237Ksen">cobalt poisoning</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Sulfur/IK0amTfM">Sulfur</a></td><td>NE (abundant); NE (abundant)</td><td>NE; NE</td><td>Sulfur (as essential amino acid <a href="/facts/Methionine/7neydPKo">methionine</a> and its derivative <a href="/facts/Cysteine/kbqvUm6d">cysteine</a>) is required for the <a href="/facts/Protein_biosynthesis/P4IcGjPd">synthesis of proteins</a>, <a href="/facts/Antioxidant/4TG4MQ83">antioxidation</a>, and the transcription, epigenetic expression, and gene regulation of <a href="/facts/DNA/nB89Iauz">DNA</a>. It is unusual in that it is a mineral that may be taken in both inorganic and organic combinations. Sulfur is the most abundant mineral found in our body after calcium and phosphorus<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a></td><td>Nuts, legumes, meats, eggs, fish, seafood, also fermented foods<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a></td><td>compromised <a href="/facts/Glutathione/5bSxjusL">glutathione</a> synthesis<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> / <a href="/facts/Hyperhomocysteinemia/PIosnq0g">hyperhomocysteinemia</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Bromine/oLfj3C7D">Bromine</a></td><td>NE (trace); NE (trace)</td><td>NE; NE</td><td>Important to <a href="/facts/Basement_membrane/vA9N6l2g">basement membrane</a> architecture and tissue development, as a needed catalyst to make <a href="/facts/Collagen_IV/v6JPysy9">collagen IV</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Bromism/oPgKIXbN">bromism</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>RDA = <a href="/facts/Recommended_Dietary_Allowance/FWaI93Dm">Recommended Dietary Allowance</a>; AI = Adequate intake; UL = <a href="/facts/Tolerable_upper_intake_level/FWaI93Dm">Tolerable upper intake level</a>; Figures shown are for adults age 31–50, male or female neither pregnant nor lactating </p><p>* One serving of seaweed exceeds the US UL of 1100 μg but not the 3000 μg UL set by Japan.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="dietary-nutrition">Dietary nutrition</h2> <p><a href="/facts/Dietitian/QykVpr91">Dietitians</a> may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element(s) of interest. The elements may be naturally present in the food (e.g., calcium in dairy milk) or added to the food (e.g., orange juice <a href="/facts/Food_fortification/Yr96v3Jj">fortified</a> with calcium; <a href="/facts/Iodised_salt/VqYHNmW8">iodized salt</a> fortified with <a href="/facts/Iodine/JlfMecMf">iodine</a>). <a href="/facts/Dietary_supplement/SHXNNxaS">Dietary supplements</a> can be formulated to contain several different chemical elements (as compounds), a combination of <a href="/facts/Vitamin/SnW0LYBL">vitamins</a> and/or other chemical compounds, or a single element (as a compound or mixture of compounds), such as <a href="/facts/Calcium/hf252CC0">calcium</a> (<a href="/facts/Calcium_carbonate/UQ1wLFna">calcium carbonate</a>, <a href="/facts/Calcium_citrate/CCklQEor">calcium citrate</a>) or <a href="/facts/Magnesium/XyIhd2FG">magnesium</a> (<a href="/facts/Magnesium_oxide/0GfLn47t">magnesium oxide</a>), or iron (<a href="/facts/Iron(II)_sulfate/zyc7Fukb">ferrous sulfate</a>, iron bis-glycinate). </p><p>The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the <a href="/facts/Chemical_reaction/GpqWlKrz">biochemical reactions</a> of <a href="/facts/Metabolism/WxDrm8k5">metabolism</a> with the required elemental components.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> Appropriate intake levels of certain chemical elements have been demonstrated to be required to maintain optimal health. Diet can meet all the body's chemical element requirements, although supplements can be used when some recommendations are not adequately met by the diet. An example would be a diet low in dairy products, and hence not meeting the recommendation for calcium. </p> <h2 id="plants">Plants</h2> <p>The list of minerals required for plants is similar to that for animals. Both use very similar enzymes, although differences exist. For example, legumes host molybdenum-containing <a href="/facts/Nitrogenase/gIhxgCaL">nitrogenase</a>, but animals do not. Many animals rely on hemoglobin (Fe) for oxygen transport, but plants do not. Fertilizers are often tailored to address mineral deficiencies in particular soils. Examples include <a href="/facts/Molybdenum_deficiency/dapqXLN6">molybdenum deficiency</a>, <a href="/facts/Manganese_deficiency_(plant)/89mhbSv7">manganese deficiency</a>, <a href="/facts/Zinc_deficiency/bfrcrw24">zinc deficiency</a>, and so on. </p> <h3>Safety</h3> <p>The gap between recommended daily intake and what are considered safe <a href="/facts/Dietary_reference_intake/FWaI93Dm">upper limits</a> (ULs) can be small. For example, for calcium the <a href="/facts/Food_and_Drug_Administration/rCEnh9WB">U.S. Food and Drug Administration</a> set the recommended intake for adults over 70 years at 1,200 mg/day and the UL at 2,000 mg/day.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> The European Union also sets recommended amounts and upper limits, which are not always in accord with the U.S.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> Likewise, Japan, which sets the UL for iodine at 3000 μg versus 1100 for the U.S. and 600 for the EU.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> In the table above, magnesium appears to be an anomaly as the recommended intake for adult men is 420 mg/day (women 350 mg/day) while the UL is lower than the recommended, at 350 mg. The reason is that the UL is specific to consuming more than 350 mg of magnesium all at once, in the form of a dietary supplement, as this may cause diarrhea. Magnesium-rich foods do not cause this problem.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="elements-considered-possibly-essential-for-humans-but-not-confirmed">Elements considered possibly essential for humans but not confirmed</h2> <p>Many <a href="/facts/Ultratrace_element/Lw5lygpJ">ultratrace elements</a> have been suggested as essential, but such claims have usually not been confirmed. Definitive evidence for efficacy comes from the characterization of a biomolecule containing the element with an identifiable and testable function.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> One problem with identifying efficacy is that some elements are innocuous at low concentrations and are pervasive (examples: <a href="/facts/Silicon/cgWx0hdr">silicon</a> and <a href="/facts/Nickel/KwMCHYRP">nickel</a> in solid and dust), so proof of efficacy is lacking because deficiencies are difficult to reproduce.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> Some elements were once thought to have a role with unknown biochemical nature, but the evidence has not always been strong.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> For example, it was once thought that <a href="/facts/Arsenic/k1c4f44D">arsenic</a> was probably essential in mammals,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> but it seems to be only used by microbes;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> and while <a href="/facts/Chromium/6sVk6Uu7">chromium</a> was long thought to be an essential trace element based on rodent models, and was proposed to be involved in <a href="/facts/Glucose/oUSkoLCD">glucose</a> and <a href="/facts/Lipid/TdQR87HX">lipid</a> metabolism,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> more recent studies have conclusively ruled this possibility out. It may still have a role in insulin signalling, but the evidence is not clear, and it only seems to occur at doses not found in normal diets.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Boron/Pmwgd7Mf">Boron</a> is essential to plants,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> but not animals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> </p><p>Non-essential elements can sometimes appear in the body when they are chemically similar to essential elements (e.g. Rb+ and Cs+ replacing Na+), so that essentiality is not the same thing as uptake by a biological system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Element</th><th>Description</th><th>Excess</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Nickel/KwMCHYRP">Nickel</a></td><td>Nickel is an essential component of several <a href="/facts/Enzymes/DSI1Fh7y">enzymes</a>, including <a href="/facts/Urease/qh6XKw4w">urease</a> and <a href="/facts/Hydrogenase/seztU9x0">hydrogenase</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> Although not required by humans, some are thought to be required by gut bacteria, such as urease required by some varieties of <a href="/facts/Bifidobacterium/ov3Sghxb">Bifidobacterium</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> In humans, nickel may be a cofactor or structural component of certain <a href="/facts/Metalloenzymes/c0cXhyG4">metalloenzymes</a> involved in <a href="/facts/Hydrolysis/JTvwIHPs">hydrolysis</a>, <a href="/facts/Redox/Pyd5RVcj">redox</a> reactions and <a href="/facts/Gene_expression/alCPohLR">gene expression</a>. Nickel deficiency depressed growth in goats, pigs, and sheep, and diminished circulating <a href="/facts/Thyroid_hormone/9k4xJtCq">thyroid hormone</a> concentration in rats.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Nickel/KwMCHYRP">Nickel toxicity</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Fluorine/YUV0Fb8m">Fluorine</a></td><td>There is no evidence that fluorine is essential, but it is beneficial.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> Research indicates that the primary dental benefit from <a href="/facts/Fluoride/LpqNMzwa">fluoride</a> occurs at the surface from topical exposure.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> Of the minerals in this table, fluoride is the only one for which the U.S. Institute of Medicine has established an <a href="/facts/Adequate_Intake/FWaI93Dm">Adequate Intake</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Fluoride_poisoning/gVfNmgaC">Fluoride poisoning</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Lithium/7vXX6BWA">Lithium</a></td><td>Based on plasma lithium concentrations, biological activity and epidemiological observations, there is evidence, not conclusive, that lithium is an essential nutrient.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Lithium_(medication)/G6Gy0nJU">Lithium toxicity</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Silicon/cgWx0hdr">Silicon</a></td><td>Silicon is beneficial to most plants, but usually not essential. It seems to have beneficial effects in humans, strengthening bones and connective tissue, but these effects are still being studied. In any case deficiency symptoms do not arise because silicon occurs significantly in food made from plants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Vanadium/UvKkKTSm">Vanadium</a></td><td>Has an established, albeit specialized, biochemical role in other organisms (algae, lichens, fungi, bacteria), and there is significant circumstantial evidence for its essentiality in humans. It is rather toxic for a trace element and the requirement, if essential, is probably small.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Other</td><td>There are several elements that are not used by mammals, but seem to be beneficial in other organisms: <a href="/facts/Boron/Pmwgd7Mf">boron</a>, <a href="/facts/Aluminium/7wmR8jYE">aluminium</a>, <a href="/facts/Titanium/53ArnDoy">titanium</a>, <a href="/facts/Arsenic/k1c4f44D">arsenic</a>, <a href="/facts/Rubidium/KDHSe2HM">rubidium</a>, <a href="/facts/Strontium/ABaA5qQK">strontium</a>, <a href="/facts/Cadmium/wXkV2eIX">cadmium</a>, <a href="/facts/Antimony/YsA7lVgT">antimony</a>, <a href="/facts/Tellurium/v7QvfIvS">tellurium</a>, <a href="/facts/Barium/IkL09XHQ">barium</a>, the early <a href="/facts/Lanthanide/rt3XIRCl">lanthanides</a> (from <a href="/facts/Lanthanum/Uhmmy1sB">lanthanum</a> to <a href="/facts/Gadolinium/eLYUeScu">gadolinium</a>), <a href="/facts/Tungsten/WYwbNDYX">tungsten</a>, and <a href="/facts/Uranium/n2sGWBzU">uranium</a>. (In the cases of Al and Rb the mechanism is not well understood.) In particular, B, Ti, Sr, Cd, and Ba are used by eukaryotes, and Al and Rb might be as well.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="mineral-ecology">Mineral ecology</h2> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Biomineralization/m5mGPaTM">Biomineralization</a></p> <p>Diverse ions are used by animals and <a href="/facts/Microorganisms/pysJYcE2">microorganisms</a> for the process of mineralizing structures, called <a href="/facts/Biomineralization/m5mGPaTM">biomineralization</a>, used to construct <a href="/facts/Bone/pCU37jBe">bones</a>, <a href="/facts/Seashells/5AyVlBwo">seashells</a>, <a href="/facts/Eggshell/eWg3KsVh">eggshells</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Exoskeleton/Wlmru4GW">exoskeletons</a> and <a href="/facts/Mollusc_shell/v7rRM9nw">mollusc shells</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a> </p><p>Minerals can be <a href="/facts/Biological_engineering/N8WPz0P7">bioengineered</a> by bacteria which act on metals to <a href="/facts/Catalysis/LPBS7TQC">catalyze</a> mineral <a href="/facts/Solubility/kLE9h3Jb">dissolution</a> and <a href="/facts/Precipitation_(chemistry)/s3BgsLLY">precipitation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a> Mineral nutrients are <a href="/facts/Recycling_(ecological)/S57nuGbQ">recycled</a> by bacteria distributed throughout soils, oceans, <a href="/facts/Freshwater/xMP2TxwI">freshwater</a>, <a href="/facts/Groundwater/JYM2IDS2">groundwater</a>, and <a href="/facts/Glacier/8GrKVUSS">glacier</a> <a href="/facts/Meltwater/SYU7KHgg">meltwater</a> systems worldwide.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a> Bacteria absorb dissolved organic matter containing minerals as they scavenge <a href="/facts/Phytoplankton/tK5MUIkA">phytoplankton</a> <a href="/facts/Algal_bloom/TTP5g2Ah">blooms</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> Mineral nutrients cycle through this marine <a href="/facts/Food_chain/mvDKQTGu">food chain</a>, from bacteria and phytoplankton to <a href="/facts/Flagellate/0XWJTXX6">flagellates</a> and <a href="/facts/Zooplankton/9omoIP2d">zooplankton</a>, which are then eaten by other <a href="/facts/Marine_life/TF5MGzFb">marine life</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> In <a href="/facts/Terrestrial_ecosystems/CsE4XjgP">terrestrial ecosystems</a>, fungi have similar roles as bacteria, mobilizing minerals from matter inaccessible by other organisms, then transporting the acquired nutrients to local <a href="/facts/Ecosystem/kVE8mSmR">ecosystems</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul> <li>Food portal</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Food_composition/j7euf6tN">Food composition</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Human_nutrition/GntDW6oo">Human nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Micronutrient/nwzKuSMQ">Micronutrient</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Mineral_deficiency/MHxGBs1o">Mineral deficiency</a></li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Humphrey Bowen (1979) <i>Environmental Chemistry of the Elements</i>. Academic Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-12-120450-2.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Humphry_Bowen/3d0qV5kb">Humphry Bowen</a> (1966) <i>Trace Elements in Biochemistry</i>. <a href="/facts/Academic_Press/qxoKjzFy">Academic Press</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dietary minerals. <ul><li><a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vitamins-and-minerals/">"Vitamins and minerals"</a>. <i>nhs.uk</i>. 23 October 2017.</li> <li><a href="http://www.ajcn.org/content/82/4/721.full.pdf">Concept of a nutritious food: toward a nutrient density score</a></li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040812052326/http://www.portfolio.mvm.ed.ac.uk/studentwebs/session2/group29/intronut.htm">Metals in Nutrition</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Zoroddu, Maria Antonietta; Aaseth, Jan; Crisponi, Guido; Medici, Serenella; Peana, Massimiliano; Nurchi, Valeria Marina (2019). "The essential metals for humans: a brief overview". Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry. 195: 120–129. doi:10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2019.03.013. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Berdanier, Carolyn D.; Dwyer, Johanna T.; Heber, David (2013). Handbook of Nutrition and Food (3rd ed.). CRC Press. p. 199. ISBN 978-1-4665-0572-8. Retrieved 3 July 2016. <a href="978-1-4665-0572-8" target="_blank">978-1-4665-0572-8</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>"Minerals". MedlinePlus, National Library of Medicine, US National Institutes of Health. 22 December 2016. Retrieved 24 December 2016. <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/minerals.html" target="_blank">https://medlineplus.gov/minerals.html</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>"Vitamin and mineral supplement fact sheets". 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