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Larus
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<h2 id="taxonomy">Taxonomy</h2> <p>The <a href="/facts/Genus/m8EFjSms">genus</a> <i>Larus</i> was introduced in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist <a href="/facts/Carl_Linnaeus/gy5HWkHS">Carl Linnaeus</a> in the <a href="/facts/10th_edition_of_Systema_Naturae/8H6KJrLJ">tenth edition</a> of his <i><a href="/facts/Systema_Naturae/8o4rU1DD">Systema Naturae</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> The genus name is from <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greek/LIK7NlUh">Ancient Greek</a> <i>laros</i> (λάῥος) or <a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Latin</a> <i>larus</i>, which appears to have referred to a gull or other large seabird.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Type_species/kL03T6V4">type species</a> is the <a href="/facts/Great_black-backed_gull/dkco0GI4">great black-backed gull</a> (<i>Larus marinus</i>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> The Latin name <i>Larus marinus</i> translates as "sea gull", and the gulls in this genus generally are the species most often known colloquially as "seagulls". </p> <h3>Species</h3> <p>The genus contains 25 extant species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p> Genus <i>Larus </i> – <a href="/facts/Carl_Linnaeus/gy5HWkHS">Linnaeus</a>, <a href="/facts/10th_edition_of_Systema_Naturae/8H6KJrLJ">1758</a> – twenty five species<table><tbody><tr><th scope="col">Common name</th><th scope="col">Scientific name and subspecies</th><th scope="col">Range</th><th scope="col">Size and ecology</th><th scope="col">IUCN status and estimated population</th></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Pacific_gull/ezCKEJKC">Pacific gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_pacificus/ezCKEJKC">Larus pacificus</a></i> <a href="/facts/John_Latham_(ornithologist)/uNFxFeF2">Latham</a>, 1801Two subspecies<ul><li><i>L. p. pacificus</i> Latham, 1801</li><li><i>L. p. georgis</i> King, 1826</li></ul></td><td>Australia.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Belcher%2527s_gull/hgJmJmym">Belcher's gull</a> or band-tailed gull</th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_belcheri/hgJmJmym">Larus belcheri</a></i> Vigors, 1829</td><td>the Pacific coast of South America.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Black-tailed_gull/Be2JxDlg">Black-tailed gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_crassirostris/Be2JxDlg">Larus crassirostris</a></i> Vieillot, 1818</td><td>coasts of the East China Sea, Japan, Manchuria and the Kuril Islands, to western Alaska in North America.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Olrog%2527s_gull/jHLHjKE3">Olrog's gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_atlanticus/jHLHjKE3">Larus atlanticus</a></i> Olrog, 1958</td><td>Atlantic coast of southern Brazil, Uruguay, and northern Argentina.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Near-threatened_species/PCH5WN3L"> NT </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Heermann%2527s_gull/uUH6MfUp">Heermann's gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_heermanni/uUH6MfUp">Larus heermanni</a></i> Cassin, 1852</td><td>Pacific coast of the United States, Mexico and extreme southwestern British Columbia.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Near-threatened_species/PCH5WN3L"> NT </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Common_gull/Pom8hIc0">Common gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_canus/Pom8hIc0">Larus canus</a></i> Linnaeus, 1758Three subspecies<ul><li> <i>L. c. canus</i> – <a href="/facts/Carl_Linnaeus/gy5HWkHS">Linnaeus</a>, <a href="/facts/10th_edition_of_Systema_Naturae/8H6KJrLJ">1758</a></li><li> <i>L. c. heinei</i> – <a href="/facts/Eugen_Ferdinand_von_Homeyer/kspRWUfX">Homeyer</a>, 1853 </li><li> <i>L. c. kamtschatschensis</i> – <a href="/facts/Charles_Lucien_Bonaparte/PunLn0Xz">Bonaparte</a>, 1857</li></ul></td><td>northern Palearctic (northern Europe, northern Asia), wintering south to the Mediterranean and China.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Short-billed_gull/Pom8hIc0">Short-billed gull</a> or mew gull</th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_brachyrhynchus/Pom8hIc0">Larus brachyrhynchus</a></i> Richardson, 1831</td><td>northwestern North America.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Ring-billed_gull/IGdQKp7D">Ring-billed gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_delawarensis/IGdQKp7D">Larus delawarensis</a></i> Ord, 1815</td><td>Canada and the northern United States, wintering south to the Caribbean.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Yellow-footed_gull/J9stnPCf">Yellow-footed gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_livens/J9stnPCf">Larus livens</a></i> Dwight, 1919</td><td>Gulf of California in Mexico.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Western_gull/2NsxcGha">Western gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_occidentalis/2NsxcGha">Larus occidentalis</a></i> Audubon, 1839</td><td>from British Columbia, Canada to Baja California, Mexico.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Caspian_gull/dnLjXNjX">Caspian gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_cachinnans/dnLjXNjX">Larus cachinnans</a></i> Pallas, 1811</td><td>Black and Caspian Seas and adjacent river basins, extending east into Central Asia; wintering west into Europe and south to the coasts of Arabia.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Kelp_gull/JulkbX7o">Kelp gull</a> (called southern black-backed gull or <i>karoro</i> in New Zealand)</th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_dominicanus/JulkbX7o">Larus dominicanus</a></i> Lichtenstein, MHC, 1823Five subspecies<ul><li><i>L. d. dominicanus</i>, <a href="/facts/Martin_Lichtenstein/xFfcoVXb">Lichtenstein</a>, 1823</li><li><i>L. d. vetula</i>, (<a href="/facts/Carl_Friedrich_Bruch/34IMFMXY">Bruch</a>, 1853)</li><li><i>L. d. judithae</i>, (Jiguet, 2002)</li><li><i>L. d. melisandae</i>, (Jiguet, 2002)</li><li><i>L. d. austrinus</i>, (Fleming, 1924)</li></ul></td><td>Antarctic Peninsula, southern South America, southern Africa, Southern Ocean Islands, southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/European_herring_gull/tkafM0a9">European herring gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_argentatus/tkafM0a9">Larus argentatus</a></i> Pontoppidan, 1763Two subspecies<ul><li> <i>L. a. argentatus</i> – <a href="/facts/Erik_Pontoppidan/JVsqYCoN">Pontoppidan</a>, 1763</li><li> <i>L. a. argenteus</i> – <a href="/facts/Christian_Ludwig_Brehm/a2GmWMaq">Brehm</a> & Schilling, 1822</li></ul></td><td>northern and northwestern Europe.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Vega_gull/fNgbN5FP">Vega gull</a> (or East Siberian gull)</th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_vegae/fNgbN5FP">Larus vegae</a></i> Palmén, 1887</td><td>northeastern Siberia, wintering in Japan, Korea, southern and eastern China, and Taiwan.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Mongolian_gull/fNgbN5FP">Mongolian gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_mongolicus/fNgbN5FP">Larus mongolicus</a></i> Sushkin, 1925</td><td>Mongolia and southeastern Russia, wintering in Japan, Korea, southern and eastern China, and Taiwan.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Yellow-legged_gull/K4WqXJhM">Yellow-legged gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_michahellis/K4WqXJhM">Larus michahellis</a></i> Naumann, 1840Two subspecies<ul><li> <i>L. m. michahellis</i> <a href="/facts/Johann_Friedrich_Naumann/A4ztcVD3">Naumann</a>, 1840</li><li> <i>L. m. atlantis</i> (Dwight, 1922), syn. <i>Larus fuscus atlantis</i>, Dwight, 1922</li></ul></td><td>Mediterranean Sea and Macaronesia, dispersing north as far as the British Isles after breeding.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Armenian_gull/oRDPtsLs">Armenian gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_armenicus/oRDPtsLs">Larus armenicus</a></i> Buturlin, 1934</td><td>interior Turkey, the Caucasus and the Middle East, wintering in the eastern Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Great_black-backed_gull/dkco0GI4">Great black-backed gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_marinus/dkco0GI4">Larus marinus</a></i> Linnaeus, 1758</td><td>northwest European coasts, northeast North American coasts, and islands of the North Atlantic.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Glaucous_gull/DK7dwj6F">Glaucous gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_hyperboreus/DK7dwj6F">Larus hyperboreus</a></i> Gunnerus, 1767Four subspecies<ul><li> <i>L. h. hyperboreus</i>, <a href="/facts/Johann_Ernst_Gunnerus/YSR7FRCb">Gunnerus</a>, 1767</li><li> <i>L. h. pallidissimus</i>, Portenko, 1939</li><li> <i>L. h. barrovianus</i>, <a href="/facts/Robert_Ridgway/d0sDs6Sp">Ridgway</a>, 1886</li><li> <i>L. h. leuceretes</i>, <a href="/facts/Bernhard_Christian_Schleep/jx4P8UT3">Schleep</a>, 1819</li></ul></td><td>Arctic Ocean coasts, wintering in the North Atlantic and North Pacific as far south as the British Isles and northernmost states of the United States, also on the Great Lakes.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Lesser_black-backed_gull/SIlpeWK0">Lesser black-backed gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_fuscus/SIlpeWK0">Larus fuscus</a></i> Linnaeus, 1758Five subspecies<ul><li><i>L. f. graellsii</i> <a href="/facts/Alfred_Brehm/8VDwrSDz">Brehm</a>, 1857</li><li><i>L. f. intermedius</i> <a href="/facts/Eiler_Lehn_Schi%25C3%25B8ler/TdPNj2lu">Schiøler</a>, 1922</li><li><i>L. f. fuscus</i> <a href="/facts/Carl_Linnaeus/gy5HWkHS">Linnaeus</a>, 1758</li><li><i><a href="/facts/Heuglin%2527s_gull/aLWbuDwC">L. f. heuglini</a></i> <a href="/facts/Charles_Robert_Bree/GCR48bnp">Bree</a>, 1876</li><li><i>L. f. barabensis</i> <a href="/facts/Hans_Johansen/UaQTvNTm">Johansen</a>, 1960</li></ul></td><td>Atlantic coasts of Europe and northwest Asia, wintering south to central Africa and India.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/California_gull/pgHKFh7J">California gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_californicus/pgHKFh7J">Larus californicus</a></i> Lawrence, 1854Two subspecies<ul><li> <i>L. c. californicus</i> <a href="/facts/George_Newbold_Lawrence/PLg9HSqw">Lawrence</a>, 1854</li><li> <i>L. c. albertaensis</i> Jehl, 1987</li></ul></td><td>western interior North America from the Northwest Territories, Canada south to eastern California and Colorado, wintering south to western Mexico.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/American_herring_gull/CfSvCRWA">American herring gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_smithsonianus/CfSvCRWA">Larus smithsonianus</a></i> Coues, 1862</td><td>North America from central and southern Alaska to the Great Lakes and northeast coast of the United States from Maine south to North Carolina, wintering south to the Caribbean.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Glaucous-winged_gull/za3Mbqjg">Glaucous-winged gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_glaucescens/za3Mbqjg">Larus glaucescens</a></i> Naumann, 1840</td><td>Pacific Ocean coasts of Russia and Alaska to the coast of Washington, wintering south to Japan and northwest Mexico.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Slaty-backed_gull/4hBKv6Mk">Slaty-backed gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_schistisagus/4hBKv6Mk">Larus schistisagus</a></i> Stejneger, 1884</td><td>northeastern coasts of Asia, wintering south to eastern China.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Iceland_gull/8KfQYo9H">Iceland gull</a></th><td><i><a href="/facts/Larus_glaucoides/8KfQYo9H">Larus glaucoides</a></i> Meyer, B, 1822Three subspecies<ul><li><i>L. g. glaucoides</i> Meyer, 1822</li><li><i><a href="/facts/Kumlien%2527s_gull/N05cI3oh">L. g. kumlieni</a></i> Brewster, 1883</li><li><i><a href="/facts/Thayer%2527s_gull/XcsbxJcc">L. g. thayeri</a></i> Brooks, WS, 1915</li></ul></td><td>Arctic Ocean coasts of Canada and Greenland, wintering from Iceland south to the British Isles and the far northeast USA, with subspecies <i>thayeri</i> wintering on the Pacific coast of North America.</td><td><i>Size</i>: <i>Habitat</i>: <i>Diet</i>:</td><td><a href="/facts/Least-concern_species/8u7koV5r"> LC </a></td></tr></tbody></table> <h4>Fossils</h4> <p><a href="/facts/Fossil/by7NzIA1">Fossils</a> of <i>Larus</i> gulls are known from the <a href="/facts/Middle_Miocene/kJPUC4QK">Middle Miocene</a>, about 20-15 million years ago; allocation of earlier fossils to this genus is generally rejected. <a href="/facts/Biogeography/0FV2wM36">Biogeography</a> of the fossil record suggests that the genus evolved in the northern <a href="/facts/Atlantic/EI4uChIb">Atlantic</a> and spread globally during the <a href="/facts/Pliocene/MjcIVQ86">Pliocene</a>, when species diversity seems to have been highest, as with most seabirds. </p> <ul><li><i>Larus</i> sp. (Middle Miocene of Grund, Austria)</li> <li><i>Larus</i> sp. (Middle Miocene of Romania)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a></li> <li><i>Larus</i> sp. (Late? Miocene/Early Pliocene of Lee Creek Mine, U.S.) - several species<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Larus_elmorei/kfwHu8W3">Larus elmorei</a></i> (Middle Pliocene of <a href="/facts/Bone_Valley/f1QyScmW">Bone Valley</a>, southeastern U.S.)</li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Larus_lacus/uEEP8IoP">Larus lacus</a></i> (Late Pliocene of Pinecrest, southeastern U.S.)</li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Larus_perpetuus/RGXodbVM">Larus perpetuus</a></i> (Pliocene of southeastern U.S.)</li> <li><i>Larus</i> sp. (San Diego Late Pliocene of the southwestern U.S.)</li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Larus_oregonus/gyxgu17e">Larus oregonus</a></i> (Late Pliocene - Late Pleistocene of the west-central U.S.)</li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Larus_robustus/Anus6BP7">Larus robustus</a></i> (Late Pliocene - Late Pleistocene of the west-central U.S.)</li> <li><i>Larus</i> sp. (Late Pleistocene of <a href="/facts/Lake_Manix/eIv3VmdE">Lake Manix</a> western U.S.)</li></ul> <p><i>"Larus" raemdonckii</i> (Early Oligocene of Belgium) is now at least tentatively believed to belong in the <a href="/facts/Procellariiformes/XNwpA93h">procellariiform</a> genus <i><a href="/facts/Puffinus/DCV3Xwn4">Puffinus</a></i>. <i>"L." elegans</i> (Late Oligocene?/Early Miocene of St-Gérand-le-Puy, France) and <i>"L." totanoides</i> (Late Oligocene?/Early Miocene of southeastern France) are now in <i><a href="/facts/Laricola/ktyJhDHo">Laricola</a></i>, while <i>"L." dolnicensis</i> (Early Miocene of the Czech Republic) was actually a <a href="/facts/Pratincole/ELgmVJKA">pratincole</a>; it is now placed in <i><a href="/facts/Mioglareola/G2P9xBvB">Mioglareola</a></i>. </p><p>The Early Miocene <i>"Larus" desnoyersii</i> (southeastern France) and <i>"L." pristinus</i> (John Day Formation, Willow Creek, U.S.) probably do not belong in this genus; the former may be a <a href="/facts/Skua/1dtYSvU5">skua</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="ring-species">Ring species</h2> <p>The circumpolar group of <i>Larus</i> gull species has often been cited as a classic example of the <a href="/facts/Ring_species/fDAfgocV">ring species</a>. The range of these gulls forms a ring around the <a href="/facts/North_Pole/gjfItQJH">North Pole</a>. The <a href="/facts/European_herring_gull/tkafM0a9">European herring gull</a>, which lives primarily in <a href="/facts/Great_Britain/TNgGQRPj">Great Britain</a> and <a href="/facts/Northern_Europe/u77t0yJI">Northern Europe</a>, can <a href="/facts/Hybrid_(biology)/pzVJ54xU">hybridize</a> with the <a href="/facts/American_herring_gull/CfSvCRWA">American herring gull</a> (living in North America), which can also interbreed with the <a href="/facts/Vega_gull/fNgbN5FP">Vega</a> or East Siberian gull, the western subspecies of which, Birula's gull, can hybridize with <a href="/facts/Heuglin%2527s_gull/aLWbuDwC">Heuglin's gull</a> which, in turn, can interbreed with the Siberian lesser black-backed gull (all four of these live across the north of <a href="/facts/Siberia/oaCoPEjF">Siberia</a>). The last is the eastern representative of the <a href="/facts/Lesser_black-backed_gull/SIlpeWK0">lesser black-backed gulls</a> back in northwestern Europe, including Great Britain. However, the lesser black-backed gulls and herring gull are sufficiently different that they rarely interbreed; thus, the group of gulls forms a continuum except in Europe, where the two lineages meet. However, a recent genetic study has shown that this example is far more complicated than presented here, and probably does not constitute a true ring species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Hybridisation_in_gulls/xn8q8vWl">Hybridisation in gulls</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Gull_eggs/cg4QU12F">Gull eggs</a></li></ul> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Larus. <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Olsen, Klaus Malling; Larsen, Hans (2003). Gulls of Europe, Asia and North America. London: Helm. ISBN 978-0-7136-7087-5. <a href="978-0-7136-7087-5" target="_blank">978-0-7136-7087-5</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. p. 136. <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" target="_blank">/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Jobling, James A (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4. <a href="978-1-4081-2501-4" target="_blank">978-1-4081-2501-4</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Selby, Prideaux John (1840). A Catalogue of the Generic and Sub-Generic Types of the Class Aves, Birds, Arranged According to the Natural System. Newcastle: T. and J. Hodgson. pp. 48–49. <a href="/wiki/Prideaux_John_Selby" target="_blank">/wiki/Prideaux_John_Selby</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Peters, James Lee, ed. (1934). Check-List of Birds of the World. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 313. <a href="/wiki/James_L._Peters" target="_blank">/wiki/James_L._Peters</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (August 2024). "Noddies, gulls, terns, skimmers, skuas, auks". IOC World Bird List Version 14.2. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 3 September 2024. <a href="/wiki/Frank_Gill_(ornithologist)" target="_blank">/wiki/Frank_Gill_(ornithologist)</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Olson, Storrs L. (1985): Section X.D.2.j. Laridae. In: Farner, D.S.; King, J.R. & Parkes, Kenneth C. (eds.): Avian Biology 8: 181-182. Academic Press, New York. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Olson, Storrs L. (1985): Section X.D.2.j. Laridae. In: Farner, D.S.; King, J.R. & Parkes, Kenneth C. (eds.): Avian Biology 8: 181-182. Academic Press, New York. <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>(Olson, 1985). <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Liebers, Dorit; de Knijff, Peter & Helbig, Andreas J. (2004). "The herring gull complex is not a ring species". Proc. R. Soc. B. 271 (#1542): 893–901. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2679. PMC 1691675. PMID 15255043.Supplemental material: Electronic appendices <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1691675" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1691675</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>