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Fluxional molecule
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<h2 id="spectroscopic-studies">Spectroscopic studies</h2> <p>Many <a href="/facts/Organometallic_compound/bhqFz2P0">organometallic compounds</a> exhibit fluxionality.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> Fluxionality is, however, pervasive. </p> <h3>NMR spectroscopy</h3> <p>Temperature dependent changes in the NMR spectra result from dynamics associated with the fluxional molecules when those dynamics proceed at rates comparable to the frequency differences observed by NMR. The experiment is called DNMR and typically involves recording spectra at various temperatures. In the ideal case, low temperature spectra can be assigned to the "slow exchange limit", whereas spectra recorded at higher temperatures correspond to molecules at "fast exchange limit". Typically, high temperature spectra are simpler than those recorded at low temperatures, since at high temperatures, equivalent sites are averaged out. Prior to the advent of DNMR, kinetics of reactions were measured on non-equilibrium mixtures, monitoring the approach to equilibrium. </p><p>Many molecular processes exhibit fluxionality that can be probed on the NMR time scale.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> Beyond the examples highlighted below, other classic examples include the <a href="/facts/Cope_rearrangement/x0NWVnKW">Cope rearrangement</a> in <a href="/facts/Bullvalene/gwJ1jnvU">bullvalene</a> and the <a href="/facts/Cyclohexane_conformation/1wI7q3kW">chair inversion</a> in <a href="/facts/Cyclohexane/FDAW5j8v">cyclohexane</a>. </p><p>For processes that are too slow for traditional DNMR analysis, the technique spin saturation transfer (SST, also called EXSY for exchange spectroscopy) is applicable. This magnetization transfer technique gives rate information, provided that the rates exceed <a href="/facts/Relaxation_(NMR)/IT2ruCcy">1/<i>T</i>1</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p> <h3>IR spectroscopy</h3> <p>Although less common, some dynamics are also observable on the time-scale of <a href="/facts/Infrared_spectroscopy/u1Hzx617">IR spectroscopy</a>. One example is <a href="/facts/Electron_transfer/BIdASS9R">electron transfer</a> in a mixed-valence dimer of <a href="/facts/Metal_cluster/EsuLgxJU">metal clusters</a>. Application of the equation for coalescence of two signals separated by 10 cm−1 gives the following result:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p> k ∼ Δ ν 0 ∼ 2 ( 10 cm − 1 ) ( 300 ⋅ 10 8 cm/s ) ∼ 6 × 10 11 s − 1 . {\displaystyle k\sim \Delta \nu _{0}\sim 2(10~{\text{cm}}^{-1})(300\cdot 10^{8}~{\text{cm/s}})\sim 6\times 10^{11}~{\text{s}}^{-1}.} <p>Clearly, processes that induce line-broadening on the IR time-scale must be much more rapid than the cases that exchange on the NMR time scale. </p> <h2 id="examples">Examples</h2> <h3>Cyclohexane and related rings</h3> <p>The interconversion of equivalent chair conformers of <a href="/facts/Cyclohexane/FDAW5j8v">cyclohexane</a> (and many other cyclic compounds) is called <a href="/facts/Ring_flip/1G0rpzsx">ring flipping</a>. Carbon–hydrogen bonds that are axial in one configuration become equatorial in the other, and vice versa. At room temperature the two chair conformations rapidly <a href="/facts/Chemical_equilibrium/y8ToYXHp">equilibrate</a>. The <a href="/facts/Proton_NMR/g9AGxvSP">proton-</a> and carbon-13 NMR spectra of cyclohexane show each only singlets near room temperature. At low temperatures, the singlet in the 1H NMR spectrum decoalesces but the 13C NMR spectrum remains unchanged.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p> <h3>Berry pseudorotation of pentacoordinate compounds</h3> <p>A prototypical fluxional molecule is <a href="/facts/Phosphorus_pentafluoride/VbqstNnq">phosphorus pentafluoride</a>. Its <a href="/facts/Fluorine-19_nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy/uMuD7QbT">19F NMR spectrum</a> consists of a 31P-coupled doublet, indicating that the equatorial and axial fluorine centers interchange rapidly on the NMR timescale. <a href="/facts/Fluorine-19_nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy/uMuD7QbT">Fluorine-19 NMR spectroscopy</a>, even at temperatures as low as −100 °C, fails to distinguish the axial from the equatorial fluorine environments. The apparent equivalency arises from the low barrier for <a href="/facts/Pseudorotation/qEBkqgQP">pseudorotation</a> via the <a href="/facts/Berry_mechanism/Wd7tbwHJ">Berry mechanism</a>, by which the axial and equatorial fluorine atoms rapidly exchange positions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Iron_pentacarbonyl/JzmkHzjX">Iron pentacarbonyl</a> (Fe(CO)5) follows the pattern set for PF5: only one signal is observed in the 13C NMR spectrum near room temperature) whereas at low temperatures, two signals in a 2:3 ratio can be resolved. In <a href="/facts/Sulfur_tetrafluoride/jJYpjeSQ">sulfur tetrafluoride</a> (SF4), a similar pattern is observed even though this compound has only four ligands. </p><p>A well-studied fluxional ion is the <a href="/facts/Methanium/r1yKLvjh">methanium</a> ion, CH+5.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> Even at <a href="/facts/Absolute_zero/U3UyPl2K">absolute zero</a> there is no rigid molecular structure; the H atoms are always in motion. More precisely, the spatial distribution of protons in CH+5 is many times broader than its parent molecule CH4, methane.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p> <h3>Six-coordinate species</h3> <p>While nonrigidity is common for pentacoordinate species, six-coordinate species typically adopt a more rigid <a href="/facts/Octahedral_molecular_geometry/bNXLVvks">octahedral molecular geometry</a>, featuring close-packed array of six ligating atoms surrounding a central atom. Such compounds do rearrange intramolecularly via the <a href="/facts/Ray-Dutt_twist/5t8KGPF5">Ray-Dutt twist</a> and the <a href="/facts/Bailar_twist/MnNEbsWY">Bailar twist</a>, but the barriers for these processes are typically high such that these processes do not lead to line broadening. For some compounds, dynamics occur via dissociation of a ligand, giving a pentacoordinate intermediate, which is subject to the mechanisms discussed above. Yet another mechanism, exhibited by Fe(CO)4(SiMe3)2 and related hydride complexes, is intramolecular scrambling of ligands over the faces of the tetrahedron defined by the four CO ligands.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p> <h3>Dimethylformamide</h3> <p>A classic example of a fluxional molecule is <a href="/facts/Dimethylformamide/wjI8UfB4">dimethylformamide</a> (DMF).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p> <p>At temperatures near 100 °C, the 500 MHz 1H NMR spectrum of DMF shows only one signal for the methyl groups. Near room temperature, however, separate signals are seen for the non-equivalent methyl groups. The rate of exchange can be calculated at the temperature where the two signals are just merged. This "coalescence temperature" depends on the measuring field. The relevant equation is </p> k = π Δ ν 0 2 ∼ 2 Δ ν 0 , {\displaystyle k={\frac {\pi \Delta \nu _{0}}{\sqrt {2}}}\sim 2\Delta \nu _{0},} <p>where Δν0 is the difference between the frequencies (in Hz) of the exchanging sites. These frequencies are obtained from the limiting low-temperature NMR spectrum. At these lower temperatures, the dynamics continue, of course, but the contribution of the dynamics to line broadening is negligible. </p><p>For example, if Δν0 = 1ppm @ 500 MHz, </p> k ∼ 2 ( 500 ) = 1000 s − 1 {\displaystyle k\sim 2(500)=1000~{\text{s}}^{-1}} (~0.5 millisecond <a href="/facts/Half-life/kGVH8BAB">half-life</a>). <h3>"Ring whizzing"</h3> <p>The compound Fe(η5-C5H5)(η1-C5H5)(CO)2 exhibits the phenomenon of "ring whizzing". </p> <p>At 30 °C, the 1H NMR spectrum shows only two peaks, one typical (δ5.6) of the η5-C5H5 and the other assigned η1-C5H5. The singlet assigned to the η1-C5H5 ligand splits at low temperatures owing to the slow hopping of the Fe center from carbon to carbon in the η1-C5H5 ligand.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> Two mechanisms have been proposed, with the consensus favoring the 1,2 shift pathway.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Pyramidal_inversion/L8c6nk9m">Pyramidal inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Bullvalene/gwJ1jnvU">Bullvalene</a>, a fluxional molecule</li> <li><a href="/facts/Hapticity/7MDtzehL">Hapticity § Hapticity and fluxionality</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Molecular_symmetry/BrDxAkTK">Molecular symmetry § Molecular rotation and molecular nonrigidity</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Pseudorotation/qEBkqgQP">Pseudorotation</a> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Bailar_twist/MnNEbsWY">Bailar twist</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Bartell_mechanism/PLKV7D5e">Bartell mechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Berry_mechanism/Wd7tbwHJ">Berry mechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Ray%25E2%2580%2593Dutt_twist/5t8KGPF5">Ray–Dutt twist</a></li></ul></li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>D. Papoušek and M. R. Aliev, <i>Molecular Vibrational-Rotational Spectra</i> Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1982</li> <li>E. B. Wilson, J. C. Decius, and P. C. Cross, <i>Molecular Vibrations</i>, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1955 (reprinted by Dover 1980)</li> <li>Longuet-Higgins, H.C. (1963). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00268976300100501">"The symmetry groups of non-rigid molecules"</a>. <i>Molecular Physics</i>. 6 (5): 445–460. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1963MolPh...6..445L">1963MolPh...6..445L</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00268976300100501">10.1080/00268976300100501</a>.: The use of permutation-inversion groups for the symmetry classification of the states of fluxional (or non-rigid) molecules.</li> <li>P. R. Bunker and P. Jensen, <i>Fundamentals of Molecular Symmetry</i>, CRC Press, 1998 <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-7503-0941-5<a href="https://www.routledge.com/Fundamentals-of-Molecular-Symmetry/Bunker-Jensen/p/book/9780750309417">[1]</a></li> <li>H. W. Kroto, <i>Molecular Rotation Spectra</i>, Wiley, New York, 1975 (reprinted by Dover 1992), describing the term "semi-rigid molecule".</li> <li>P. R. Bunker and; P. Jensen (2006). <a href="https://volumesdirect.com/products/molecular-symmetry-and-spectroscopy?_pos=1&_sid=ed0cc0319&_ss=r"><i>Molecular Symmetry and Spectroscopy</i></a> (2 ed.). Ottawa: NRC Research Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-660-19628-2.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>"Fluxional". IUPAC Gold Book. 2014. doi:10.1351/goldbook.F02463. <a href="https://goldbook.iupac.org/terms/view/F02463" target="_blank">https://goldbook.iupac.org/terms/view/F02463</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Drago, Russell S. (1977). Physical Methods in Chemistry (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders. ISBN 0-7216-3184-3. <a href="0-7216-3184-3" target="_blank">0-7216-3184-3</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>J. Sandström (1982). Dynamic NMR Spectroscopy. Academic Press. <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>John W. Faller "Stereochemical Nonrigidity of Organometallic Complexes" Encyclopedia of Inorganic and Bioinorganic Chemistry 2011, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/9781119951438.eibc0211 <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Bryant, Robert G. (1983). "The NMR time scale". Journal of Chemical Education. 60 (11): 933. Bibcode:1983JChEd..60..933B. doi:10.1021/ed060p933. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Jarek, R. L.; Flesher, R. J.; Shin, S. K. (1997). "Kinetics of Internal Rotation of N,N-Dimethylacetamide: A Spin-Saturation Transfer Experiment". Journal of Chemical Education. 74 (8): 978. Bibcode:1997JChEd..74..978J. doi:10.1021/ed074p978. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Casey H. Londergan; Clifford P. Kubiak (2003). "Electron Transfer and Dynamic Infrared-Band Coalescence: It Looks Like Dynamic NMR Spectroscopy, but a Billion Times Faster". Chemistry: A European Journal. 9 (24): 5969ff. doi:10.1002/chem.200305028. PMID 14679508. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Gill, G.; Pawar, D. M.; Noe, E. A. (2005). "Conformational Study of cis-1,4-Di-tert-butylcyclohexane by Dynamic NMR Spectroscopy and Computational Methods. Observation of Chair and Twist-Boat Conformations". J. Org. Chem. 70 (26): 10726–10731. doi:10.1021/jo051654z. PMID 16355992. <a href="/wiki/J._Org._Chem." target="_blank">/wiki/J._Org._Chem.</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Gutowsky, H. S.; McCall, D. W.; Slichter, C. P. (1953). "Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Multiplets in Liquids". J. Chem. Phys. 21 (2): 279. Bibcode:1953JChPh..21..279G. doi:10.1063/1.1698874. <a href="/wiki/J._Chem._Phys." target="_blank">/wiki/J._Chem._Phys.</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Asvany, O.; Kumar P, P.; Redlich, B.; Hegemann, I.; Schlemmer, S.; Marx, D. (2005). "Understanding the Infrared Spectrum of Bare CH5+". Science. 309 (5738): 1219–1222. Bibcode:2005Sci...309.1219A. doi:10.1126/science.1113729. PMID 15994376. S2CID 28745636. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1113729" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1113729</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Thompson, KC; Crittenden, DL; Jordan, MJ (2005). "CH5+: Chemistry's chameleon unmasked". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 127 (13): 4954–4958. doi:10.1021/ja0482280. PMID 15796561. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>For an animation of the dynamics of CH5+, see http://www.theochem.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/research/marx/topic4b.en.html Archived 2007-12-24 at the Wayback Machine <a href="http://www.theochem.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/research/marx/topic4b.en.html" target="_blank">http://www.theochem.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/research/marx/topic4b.en.html</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Vancea, L.; Bennett, M. J.; Jones, C. E.; Smith, R. A.; Graham, W. A. G. (1977). "Stereochemically Nonrigid Six-Coordinate Metal Carbonyl Complexes. 1. Polytopal Rearrangement and X-Ray Structure of Tetracarbonylbis(trimethylsilyl)iron". Inorganic Chemistry. 16 (4): 897–902. doi:10.1021/ic50170a035. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>H. S. Gutowsky; C. H. Holm (1956). "Rate Processes and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectra. II. Hindered Internal Rotation of Amides". J. Chem. Phys. 25 (6): 1228–1234. Bibcode:1956JChPh..25.1228G. doi:10.1063/1.1743184. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Bennett, Jr. M. J.; Cotton, F. A.; Davison, A.; Faller, J. W.; Lippard, S. J.; Morehouse, S. M. (1966). "Stereochemically Nonrigid Organometallic Compounds. I. π-Cyclopentadienyliron Dicarbonyl σ-Cyclopentadiene". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1966 (88): 4371. doi:10.1021/ja00971a012. <a href="/wiki/F._Albert_Cotton" target="_blank">/wiki/F._Albert_Cotton</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Robert B. Jordan, Reaction Mechanisms of Inorganic and Organometallic Systems (Topics in Inorganic Chemistry), 2007. ISBN 978-0195301007 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>