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Gephyrocapsa huxleyi
open-in-new
<h2 id="basic-facts">Basic facts</h2> <p><i>Emiliania huxleyi</i> was named after <a href="/facts/Thomas_Huxley/NUNXtNdr">Thomas Huxley</a> and <a href="/facts/Cesare_Emiliani/HvljS2wD">Cesare Emiliani</a>, who were the first to examine sea-bottom sediment and discover the coccoliths within it. It is believed to have evolved approximately 270,000 years ago from the older genus <i><a href="/facts/Gephyrocapsa/QkQ8WUM3">Gephyrocapsa</a></i> Kampter<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> and became dominant in planktonic assemblages, and thus in the fossil record, approximately 70,000 years ago.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> The species is divided into seven morphological forms called <a href="/facts/Morphotype/lf32kgfV">morphotypes</a> based on differences in coccolith structure<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> (See <a href="http://www.mikrotax.org/Nannotax3/index.php?dir=Coccolithophores/Isochrysidales/Noelaerhabdaceae/Emiliania/Emiliania%20huxleyi">Nannotax</a> for more detail on these forms). Its coccoliths are transparent and commonly colourless, but are formed of calcite which refracts light very efficiently in the water column. This, and the high concentrations caused by continual shedding of their coccoliths makes <i>G. huxleyi</i> blooms easily visible from space. <a href="/facts/Earth_observation_satellite/WK2zGRSV">Satellite</a> images show that blooms can cover areas of more than 10,000 km 2 {\textstyle ^{2}} , with complementary shipboard measurements indicating that <i>G. huxleyi</i> is by far the dominant phytoplankton species under these conditions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> This species has been an inspiration for <a href="/facts/James_Lovelock/Bv24daYe">James Lovelock</a>'s <a href="/facts/Gaia_hypothesis/yqLpTgaT">Gaia hypothesis</a> which claims that living organisms collectively self-regulate biogeochemistry and climate at nonrandom metastable states. </p> <h2 id="abundance-and-distribution">Abundance and distribution</h2> <p><i>Emiliania huxleyi</i> is considered a ubiquitous species. It exhibits one of the largest temperature ranges (1–30 °C) of any coccolithophores species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> It has been observed under a range of nutrient levels from <a href="/facts/Trophic_state_index/2r3hRsRc">oligotrophic</a> (subtropical <a href="/facts/Ocean_gyre/2luvr3Cp">gyres</a>) to <a href="/facts/Eutrophic/rqXhQYyt">eutrophic</a> waters (upwelling zones/ Norwegian fjords).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> Its presence in plankton communities from the surface to 200m depth indicates a high tolerance for both fluctuating and low light conditions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> This extremely wide tolerance of environmental conditions is believed to be explained by the existence of a range of environmentally adapted <a href="/facts/Ecotype/eQGDmsjP">ecotypes</a> within the species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> As a result of these tolerances its distribution ranges from the sub-Arctic to the sub-Antarctic and from coastal to oceanic habitats.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> Within this range it is present in nearly all euphotic zone water samples and accounts for 20–50% or more of the total coccolithophore community.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> </p><p>During massive blooms (which can cover over 100,000 square kilometers), <i>G. huxleyi</i> cell concentrations can outnumber those of all other species in the region combined, accounting for 75% or more of the total number of photosynthetic plankton in the area.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> <i>G. huxleyi</i> blooms regionally act as an important source of <a href="/facts/Calcium_carbonate/UQ1wLFna">calcium carbonate</a> and <a href="/facts/Dimethyl_sulfide/mUrg1jol">dimethyl sulfide</a>, the massive production of which can have a significant impact not only on the properties of the surface mixed layer, but also on global climate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> The blooms can be identified through satellite imagery because of the large amount of light back-scattered from the water column, which provides a method to assess their biogeochemical importance on both basin and global scales. These blooms are prevalent in the <a href="/facts/Norway/wlDRKRTR">Norwegian</a> <a href="/facts/Fjord/XbH8IzVE">fjords</a>, causing satellites to pick up "white waters", which describes the reflectance of the blooms picked up by satellites. This is due to the mass of coccoliths reflecting the incoming sunlight back out of the water, allowing the extent of <i>G. huxleyi</i> blooms to be distinguished in fine detail. </p> <p>Extensive <i>G. huxleyi</i> blooms can have a visible impact on sea <a href="/facts/Albedo/TJDRdKEB">albedo</a>. While multiple scattering can increase light path per unit depth, increasing absorption and solar heating of the water column, <i>G. huxleyi</i> has inspired proposals for geomimesis,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> because micron-sized air bubbles are specular reflectors, and so in contrast to <i>G. huxleyi</i>, tend to lower the temperature of the upper water column. As with self-shading within water-whitening coccolithophore plankton blooms, this may reduce photosynthetic productivity by altering the geometry of the euphotic zone. Both experiments and modeling are needed to quantify the potential biological impact of such effects, and the corollary potential of reflective blooms of other organisms to increase or reduce evaporation and methane evolution by altering fresh water temperatures. </p> <h2 id="climate-change">Climate change</h2> <p>Coccolithophores such as <i>G. huxleyi</i> are important to the process of ocean calcification globally; these organisms additionally play a role in long-term carbon fluxes. They fix carbon through photosynthesis, a process known as the biological carbon pump, and release carbon dioxide when coccoliths are formed. These processes therefore influence the biogeochemistry of the surface ocean.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> </p><p>Consequently, the now increasing phenomenon of ocean acidification can affect these organisms and their biological activity. As ocean acidification increases with increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, calcification by coccolithophores such as <i>G. huxleyi</i> can be impacted. Various studies found that increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations may lead to decreased calcification by <i>G. huxleyi</i>. However, there is still uncertainty present regarding the degree to which calcification may be impacted, as some strains appear to be less sensitive to ocean acidification.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p><p>Often considered as a phytoplankton, contributing to <a href="/facts/Primary_production/14RzcF5E">primary production</a>, this organism is actually a mixoplankton, capable of consuming bacteria. <i>G. huxleyi</i> through photosynthesis is a sink of <a href="/facts/Carbon_dioxide/xGzpppEp">carbon dioxide</a>. However, the production of coccoliths through calcification is a source of CO2. This means that coccolithophores, including <i>G. huxleyi</i>, have the potential to act as a net source of CO2 out of the ocean. Whether they are a net source or sink and how they will react to <a href="/facts/Ocean_acidification/GE7MrSPj">ocean acidification</a> is not yet well understood.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> </p><p>Beyond the direct impacts to the organisms themselves, increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and therefore lower ocean pH may affect carbon cycling in the ocean. A study analyzing effects of high carbon dioxide and low pH on <i>G. huxleyi</i> found that PIC (particulate inorganic carbon) to POC (particulate organic carbon) ratios decreases for <i>G. huxleyi</i>. Under more acidic oceanic conditions, this decrease has the potential to affect export of carbon. The reasons for this decrease include a reduced calcite saturation state and disruptions to homeostasis in lower pH conditions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="biogeochemical-impacts">Biogeochemical impacts</h2> <h3>Ocean heat retention</h3> <p>Scattering stimulated by <i>G. huxleyi</i> blooms not only causes more heat and light to be pushed back up into the atmosphere than usual, but also cause more of the remaining heat to be trapped closer to the ocean surface. This is problematic because it is the surface water that exchanges heat with the atmosphere, and <i>G. huxleyi</i> blooms may tend to make the overall temperature of the water column dramatically cooler over longer time periods. However, the importance of this effect, whether positive or negative, is currently being researched and has not yet been established. </p> <h2 id="gallery">Gallery</h2> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/CLAW_hypothesis/s9WKKWAv">CLAW hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Dimethylsulfoniopropionate/5gUXrRQR">Dimethylsulfoniopropionate</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Coccolithovirus/svnHuGt2">Emiliania huxleyi virus 86</a>, a marine virus that infects <i>G. huxleyi</i></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <ul><li>Amouroux, D.; P. S. Liss; E. Tessier; M. Hamren-Larsson; O. F. X. Donard (2001). "Role of oceans as biogenic sources of selenium". <i>Earth and Planetary Science Letters</i>. 189 (3–4): 277–283. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001E&PSL.189..277A">2001E&PSL.189..277A</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0012-821X%2801%2900370-3">10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00370-3</a>.</li> <li>Andreae, M. O.; P. J. Crutzen (16 May 1997). "Atmospheric aerosols: biogeochemical sources and role in atmospheric chemistry". <i>Science</i>. 276 (5315): 1052–1058. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.276.5315.1052">10.1126/science.276.5315.1052</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40669114">40669114</a>.</li> <li>Araie, H.; T. Obata; Y. Shiraiwa (2003). "Metabolism of selenium in a coccolithophorid, <i>Emiliania huxleyi</i>". <i>J Plant Res</i>. 116: 119.</li> <li>Boisson, F.; C. S. Karez; M. Henry; M. Romeo; M. Gnassia-Barelli (1996). "Ultrastructural observations on the marine coccolithophorid <i>Cricosphaera elongata</i> cultured in the presence of selenium or cadmium". <i>Bulletin de l'Institut Océanographique(Monaco)</i>: 239–247.</li> <li>Dacey, J. W. H.; S. Wakeham (19 September 1986). "Oceanic dimethylsulfide: Production during zooplankton grazing on phytoplankton". <i>Science</i>. 233 (4770): 1314–1316. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986Sci...233.1314D">1986Sci...233.1314D</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.233.4770.1314">10.1126/science.233.4770.1314</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17843360">17843360</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10872038">10872038</a>.</li> <li>Dambara, A.; Y. Shiraiwa (1999). "Requirement of selenium for the growth and selection of adequate culture media in a marine coccolithophorid, <i>Emiliania huxleyi</i>". <i>Bulletin of the Society of Sea Water Science, Japan</i>. 53 (6): 476–484.</li> <li>Danbara, A.; Y. Shiraiwa (2007). "The requirement of selenium for the growth of marine coccolithophorids, <i>Emiliania huxleyi</i>, <i>Gephyrocapsa oceanica</i> and <i>Helladosphaera</i> sp. (Prymnesiophyceae)". <i>Plant and Cell Physiology</i>. 40 (7): 762–766. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.pcp.a029603">10.1093/oxfordjournals.pcp.a029603</a>.</li> <li>DeBose, J. L.; S. C. Lema; G. A. 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"Bacterial taxa that limit sulfur flux from the ocean". <i>Science</i>. 314 (5799): 649–652. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Sci...314..649H">2006Sci...314..649H</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1130657">10.1126/science.1130657</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17068264">17068264</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:41199461">41199461</a>.</li> <li>Norici, A.; R. Hell; M. Giordano (2005). "Sulfur and primary production in aquatic environments: An ecological perspective". <i>Photosynthesis Research</i>. 86 (3): 409–417. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PhoRe..86..409N">2005PhoRe..86..409N</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11120-005-3250-0">10.1007/s11120-005-3250-0</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16307310">16307310</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13019942">13019942</a>.</li> <li>Obata, T.; Y. Shiraiwa (2005). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.M501517200">"A novel eukaryotic selenoprotein in the haptophyte alga <i>Emiliania huxleyi</i>"</a>. <i>Journal of Biological Chemistry</i>. 280 (18): 18462–8. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.M501517200">10.1074/jbc.M501517200</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15743763">15743763</a>.</li> <li>Obata, T.; H. Araie; Y. Shiraiwa (2003). "Kinetic studies on bioconcentration mechanism of selenium by a coccolithophorid, <i>Emiliania huxleyi</i>". <i>Plant Cell Physiology</i>. 44: S43.</li> <li>Obata, T.; H. Araie; Y. 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"Physiological regulation of carbon fixation in the photosynthesis and calcification of coccolithophorids". <i>Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology B</i>. 136 (4): 775–783. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1096-4959%2803%2900221-5">10.1016/S1096-4959(03)00221-5</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14662302">14662302</a>.</li> <li>Sorrosa, J. M.; M. Satoh; Y. Shiraiwa (2005). "Low temperature stimulates cell enlargement and intracellular calcification of coccolithophorids". <i>Marine Biotechnology</i>. 7 (2): 128–133. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005MarBt...7..128S">2005MarBt...7..128S</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10126-004-0478-1">10.1007/s10126-004-0478-1</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15782289">15782289</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7531881">7531881</a>.</li> <li>Todd, J. D.; et al. (2 February 2007). "Structural and regulatory genes required to make the gas dimethyl sulfide in bacteria". <i>Science</i>. 315 (5812): 666–669. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Sci...315..666T">2007Sci...315..666T</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1135370">10.1126/science.1135370</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17272727">17272727</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22472634">22472634</a>.</li> <li>Vallina, S. M.; R. Simo (26 January 2007). "Strong relationship between DMS and the solar radiation dose over the global surface ocean". <i>Science</i>. 315 (5811): 506–508. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Sci...315..506V">2007Sci...315..506V</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1133680">10.1126/science.1133680</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17255509">17255509</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37488668">37488668</a>.</li> <li>Vila-Costa, M.; et al. (27 October 2006). "Dimethylsulfoniopropionate uptake by marine phytoplankton". <i>Science</i>. 314 (5799): 652–654. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Sci...314..652V">2006Sci...314..652V</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1131043">10.1126/science.1131043</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17068265">17068265</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27541024">27541024</a>.</li> <li>Volkman, J. K.; S. M. Barrerr; S. I. Blackburn; E. L. Sikes (1995). "Alkenones in <i>Gephyrocapsa oceanica</i>: Implications for studies of paleoclimate". <i>Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta</i>. 59 (3): 513–520. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995GeCoA..59..513V">1995GeCoA..59..513V</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0016-7037%2895%2900325-T">10.1016/0016-7037(95)00325-T</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="https://bioinfo.csusm.edu/">"Cocco Express – Coccolithophorids Expressed Sequence Tags (EST) & Microarray Database"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210512210252/http://bioinfo.csusm.edu/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2021. Retrieved 16 June 2024.</li> <li><a href="https://www.mikrotax.org/Nannotax3/index.php?dir=Coccolithophores/Isochrysidales/Noelaerhabdaceae/Emiliania/Emiliania+huxleyi">"Nannotax3 - ntax_cenozoic - Emiliania huxleyi"</a>. <i>www.mikrotax.org</i>. 3 May 2019. Retrieved 16 June 2024. Nannotax a guide to the biodiversity and taxonomy of coccolithophores: <i>Emiliania huxleyi</i></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Okada, Hisatake (1973). "The distribution of oceanic coccolithophorids in the Pacific". Deep Sea Research and Oceanographic Abstracts. 20 (4): 355–374. 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