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Willow processor
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<h2 id="overview">Overview</h2> <p>On December 9, 2024, Google Quantum AI announced Willow in a <i><a href="/facts/Nature_(journal)/XmlJXkFx">Nature</a></i> paper<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> and company blogpost,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> and claiming two accomplishments: First, that Willow can reduce errors exponentially as the number of qubits is scaled, achieving below threshold quantum error correction.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> Second, that Willow completed a <a href="/facts/Quantum_random_circuits/TKv2vcQg"> Random Circuit Sampling</a> (RCS) benchmark task in 5 minutes that would take today's fastest <a href="/facts/Supercomputer/HT9NwGAN">supercomputers</a> 10 septillion (1025) years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p><p>Willow is constructed with a square grid of superconducting <a href="/facts/Transmon/qXvVskQh">transmon</a> physical qubits.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> Improvements over past work were attributed to improved fabrication techniques, participation ratio engineering, and circuit parameter optimization.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p><p>Willow prompted optimism in accelerating applications in pharmaceuticals, material science, logistics, drug discovery, and energy grid allocation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> Popular media responses discussed its risk in <a href="/facts/Shor%2527s_algorithm/9JwEtznC">breaking cryptographic systems</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> but a Google spokesman said that they were still at least 10 years out from breaking <a href="/facts/RSA_(cryptosystem)/XTzyfHuq">RSA</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> Hartmut Neven, founder and lead of Google Quantum AI, told the <a href="/facts/BBC/qFateIz8">BBC</a> that Willow would be used in practical applications,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> and in the announcement blogpost expressed the belief that advanced AI will benefit from quantum computing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> </p><p>Willow follows the release of Foxtail in 2017, Bristlecone in 2018, and <a href="/facts/Sycamore_processor/m7t5EPGb">Sycamore</a> in 2019. Willow has twice as many qubits as Sycamore<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> and improves upon T1 coherence time from Sycamore's 20 microseconds to 100 microseconds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> Willow's 105 qubits have an average connectivity of 3.47.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Hartmut_Neven/5uCrdP8e">Hartmut Neven</a>, founder of Google Quantum AI, prompted controversy<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> by claiming that the success of Willow "lends credence to the notion that quantum computation occurs in many parallel universes, in line with the idea that we live in a <a href="/facts/Multiverse/GUCDxvPg">multiverse</a>, a prediction first made by <a href="/facts/David_Deutsch/eI2zNusR">David Deutsch</a>."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="criticism">Criticism</h2> <p>Per Google company's claim, Willow is the first chip to achieve <a href="/facts/Threshold_theorem/wbKbkTcJ">below threshold quantum error correction</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p><p>However, a number of critics have pointed out several limitations: </p> <ul><li>The logical error rates reported (around 0.14% per cycle) remain orders of magnitude above the 10−6 levels believed necessary for running meaningful, large-scale quantum algorithms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a></li> <li>To date, demonstrations have been limited to quantum memory and the preservation of logical qubits—without yet showing below‑threshold performance of logical gate operations required for universal fault‑tolerant computation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a></li> <li>Media coverage has been accused of overstating Willow’s practical significance; although error suppression scales exponentially with qubit count, no large‑scale quantum algorithms or commercial applications have yet been demonstrated on Willow.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a></li> <li>Observers caution that achieving below‑threshold error correction is only one milestone on the path to practical quantum computing—further hardware improvements (lower physical error rates) and vastly larger qubit arrays will be required before industrially relevant problem‑solving is possible.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a></li> <li>Some experts note that Willow remains a research prototype within the <a href="/facts/Noisy_intermediate-scale_quantum_era/ar2qYNYc">Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era</a>, still far from delivering the practical, fault‑tolerant performance required for real‑world applications.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Neven, Hartmut (2024-12-09). "Meet Willow, our state-of-the-art quantum chip". Google. Retrieved 2025-01-12. <a href="/wiki/Hartmut_Neven" target="_blank">/wiki/Hartmut_Neven</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Acharya, Rajeev; Abanin, Dmitry A.; Aghababaie-Beni, Laleh; Aleiner, Igor; Andersen, Trond I.; Ansmann, Markus; Arute, Frank; Arya, Kunal; Asfaw, Abraham; Astrakhantsev, Nikita; Atalaya, Juan; Babbush, Ryan; Bacon, Dave; Ballard, Brian; Bardin, Joseph C. (2024-12-09). "Quantum error correction below the surface code threshold". Nature: 1–3. arXiv:2408.13687. doi:10.1038/s41586-024-08449-y. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 39653125. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08449-y" target="_blank">https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08449-y</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Neven, Hartmut (2024-12-09). "Meet Willow, our state-of-the-art quantum chip". Google. Retrieved 2025-01-12. <a href="/wiki/Hartmut_Neven" target="_blank">/wiki/Hartmut_Neven</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Neven, Hartmut (2024-12-09). "Meet Willow, our state-of-the-art quantum chip". Google. Retrieved 2025-01-12. <a href="/wiki/Hartmut_Neven" target="_blank">/wiki/Hartmut_Neven</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Acharya, Rajeev; Abanin, Dmitry A.; Aghababaie-Beni, Laleh; Aleiner, Igor; Andersen, Trond I.; Ansmann, Markus; Arute, Frank; Arya, Kunal; Asfaw, Abraham; Astrakhantsev, Nikita; Atalaya, Juan; Babbush, Ryan; Bacon, Dave; Ballard, Brian; Bardin, Joseph C. (2024-12-09). "Quantum error correction below the surface code threshold". Nature: 1–3. arXiv:2408.13687. doi:10.1038/s41586-024-08449-y. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 39653125. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08449-y" target="_blank">https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08449-y</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Riani, Abdo. "What Does Google's Willow Chip Mean For Startups In 2025". Forbes. Retrieved 2025-01-12. <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/abdoriani/2024/12/25/what-does-googles-willow-chip-mean-for-startups-in-2025/" target="_blank">https://www.forbes.com/sites/abdoriani/2024/12/25/what-does-googles-willow-chip-mean-for-startups-in-2025/</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>"Google unveils 'mind-boggling' quantum computing chip". www.bbc.com. Retrieved 2025-01-12. <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c791ng0zvl3o" target="_blank">https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c791ng0zvl3o</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Acharya, Rajeev; Abanin, Dmitry A.; Aghababaie-Beni, Laleh; Aleiner, Igor; Andersen, Trond I.; Ansmann, Markus; Arute, Frank; Arya, Kunal; Asfaw, Abraham; Astrakhantsev, Nikita; Atalaya, Juan; Babbush, Ryan; Bacon, Dave; Ballard, Brian; Bardin, Joseph C. (2024-12-09). "Quantum error correction below the surface code threshold". Nature: 1–3. arXiv:2408.13687. doi:10.1038/s41586-024-08449-y. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 39653125. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08449-y" target="_blank">https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08449-y</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Acharya, Rajeev; Abanin, Dmitry A.; Aghababaie-Beni, Laleh; Aleiner, Igor; Andersen, Trond I.; Ansmann, Markus; Arute, Frank; Arya, Kunal; Asfaw, Abraham; Astrakhantsev, Nikita; Atalaya, Juan; Babbush, Ryan; Bacon, Dave; Ballard, Brian; Bardin, Joseph C. (2024-12-09). "Quantum error correction below the surface code threshold". Nature: 1–3. arXiv:2408.13687. doi:10.1038/s41586-024-08449-y. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 39653125. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08449-y" target="_blank">https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08449-y</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Riani, Abdo. "What Does Google's Willow Chip Mean For Startups In 2025". Forbes. Retrieved 2025-01-12. <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/abdoriani/2024/12/25/what-does-googles-willow-chip-mean-for-startups-in-2025/" target="_blank">https://www.forbes.com/sites/abdoriani/2024/12/25/what-does-googles-willow-chip-mean-for-startups-in-2025/</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Riani, Abdo. "What Does Google's Willow Chip Mean For Startups In 2025". Forbes. Retrieved 2025-01-12. <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/abdoriani/2024/12/25/what-does-googles-willow-chip-mean-for-startups-in-2025/" target="_blank">https://www.forbes.com/sites/abdoriani/2024/12/25/what-does-googles-willow-chip-mean-for-startups-in-2025/</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Williams, Kevin (2024-12-22). "What Google's quantum computing breakthrough Willow means for the future of bitcoin and other cryptos". CNBC. Retrieved 2025-01-12. <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2024/12/22/what-google-quantum-chip-breakthrough-means-for-bitcoins-future.html" target="_blank">https://www.cnbc.com/2024/12/22/what-google-quantum-chip-breakthrough-means-for-bitcoins-future.html</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Hollister, Sean (2024-12-12). "Google says its breakthrough quantum chip can't break modern cryptography". The Verge. Retrieved 2025-01-12. <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2024/12/12/24319879/google-willow-cant-break-rsa-cryptography" target="_blank">https://www.theverge.com/2024/12/12/24319879/google-willow-cant-break-rsa-cryptography</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>"Google unveils 'mind-boggling' quantum computing chip". www.bbc.com. Retrieved 2025-01-12. <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c791ng0zvl3o" target="_blank">https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c791ng0zvl3o</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Neven, Hartmut (2024-12-09). "Meet Willow, our state-of-the-art quantum chip". Google. Retrieved 2025-01-12. <a href="/wiki/Hartmut_Neven" target="_blank">/wiki/Hartmut_Neven</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Riani, Abdo. "What Does Google's Willow Chip Mean For Startups In 2025". Forbes. Retrieved 2025-01-12. <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/abdoriani/2024/12/25/what-does-googles-willow-chip-mean-for-startups-in-2025/" target="_blank">https://www.forbes.com/sites/abdoriani/2024/12/25/what-does-googles-willow-chip-mean-for-startups-in-2025/</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Neven, Hartmut (2024-12-09). "Meet Willow, our state-of-the-art quantum chip". Google. Retrieved 2025-01-12. <a href="/wiki/Hartmut_Neven" target="_blank">/wiki/Hartmut_Neven</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Neven, Hartmut (2024-12-09). "Meet Willow, our state-of-the-art quantum chip". Google. Retrieved 2025-01-12. <a href="/wiki/Hartmut_Neven" target="_blank">/wiki/Hartmut_Neven</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Swayne, Matt (2024-12-16). "Google's Quantum Chip Sparks Debate on Multiverse Theory". The Quantum Insider. Retrieved 2025-01-12. <a href="https://thequantuminsider.com/2024/12/16/googles-quantum-chip-sparks-debate-on-multiverse-theory/" target="_blank">https://thequantuminsider.com/2024/12/16/googles-quantum-chip-sparks-debate-on-multiverse-theory/</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Cost, Ben (2024-12-15). "Google scientist believes quantum chip could prove multiverse's existence". New York Post. Retrieved 2025-01-12. <a href="https://nypost.com/2024/12/15/science/google-scientist-believes-quantum-chip-could-prove-multiverses-existence/" target="_blank">https://nypost.com/2024/12/15/science/google-scientist-believes-quantum-chip-could-prove-multiverses-existence/</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Neven, Hartmut (2024-12-09). "Meet Willow, our state-of-the-art quantum chip". Google. Retrieved 2025-01-12. <a href="/wiki/Hartmut_Neven" target="_blank">/wiki/Hartmut_Neven</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Neven, Hartmut (2024-12-09). "Meet Willow, our state-of-the-art quantum chip". Google. Retrieved 2025-01-12. <a href="/wiki/Hartmut_Neven" target="_blank">/wiki/Hartmut_Neven</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Acharya, Rajeev; Abanin, Dmitry A.; Aghababaie-Beni, Laleh; Aleiner, Igor; Andersen, Trond I.; Ansmann, Markus; Arute, Frank; Arya, Kunal; Asfaw, Abraham; Astrakhantsev, Nikita; Atalaya, Juan; Babbush, Ryan; Bacon, Dave; Ballard, Brian; Bardin, Joseph C. (2024-12-09). "Quantum error correction below the surface code threshold". Nature: 1–3. arXiv:2408.13687. doi:10.1038/s41586-024-08449-y. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 39653125. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08449-y" target="_blank">https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08449-y</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>van Velzen, Julian (2024-12-24). "Why Google's Willow Isn't Enough for Practical Applications". Sogeti Labs. Retrieved 2025-05-31. <a href="https://labs.sogeti.com/beyond-the-hype-why-googles-willow-alone-does-not-bring-you-closer-to-practical-applications/" target="_blank">https://labs.sogeti.com/beyond-the-hype-why-googles-willow-alone-does-not-bring-you-closer-to-practical-applications/</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Rini, Matteo; Schirber, Michael (2024-12-09). "Cracking the Challenge of Quantum Error Correction". Physics. 17: 176. doi:10.1103/Physics.18.s65. <a href="https://physics.aps.org/articles/v17/176" target="_blank">https://physics.aps.org/articles/v17/176</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Tangalakis-Lippert, Katherine. "Big Tech is starry-eyed over quantum computers, but scientists say major breakthroughs are years away". Business Insider. Retrieved 2025-05-31. <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/scientists-say-major-quantum-computing-breakthroughs-are-years-away-2025-2" target="_blank">https://www.businessinsider.com/scientists-say-major-quantum-computing-breakthroughs-are-years-away-2025-2</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Hollister, Sean (2024-12-12). "Google says its breakthrough quantum chip can't break modern cryptography". The Verge. Retrieved 2025-05-31. <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2024/12/12/24319879/google-willow-cant-break-rsa-cryptography" target="_blank">https://www.theverge.com/2024/12/12/24319879/google-willow-cant-break-rsa-cryptography</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>"Willow, el nuevo chip cuántico de Google con una potencia de cálculo 'extraordinaria'" [Willow, Google's new quantum chip with "extraordinary" computing power]. ElHuffPost (in Spanish). 2024-12-09. Retrieved 2025-05-31. <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.es/tecnologia/willow-nuevo-chip-cuantico-google-potencia-calculo-extraordinaria.html" target="_blank">https://www.huffingtonpost.es/tecnologia/willow-nuevo-chip-cuantico-google-potencia-calculo-extraordinaria.html</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>