Autoimmune hypophysitis

<h2 id="signs-and-symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2>
Autoimmune hypophysitis can lead to deficiencies in one or more pituitary hormones, causing central diabetes insipidus if the posterior pituitary gland is affected as well as central adrenal insufficiency and central hypothyroidism if the anterior pituitary gland is affected.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1">1</a> The symptoms depend on what part of the pituitary is affected. Lymphocytic adenohypophysitis (LAH) occurs when the <a href="/facts/Anterior_pituitary/uUj4jzRq">anterior pituitary</a> cells are affected by <a href="/facts/Autoimmune/5cASmcfI">autoimmune</a> <a href="/facts/Inflammation/Ura86MIy">inflammation</a> resulting in either no symptoms, <a href="/facts/Adrenal_insufficiency/7oxdJtF4">adrenal insufficiency</a> (if the <a href="/facts/ACTH/o5UBWfGD">ACTH</a> producing cells are affected), <a href="/facts/Hypothyroidism/oqtQDu2F">hypothyroidism</a> (if the <a href="/facts/Thyroid-stimulating_hormone/w8ettSpY">TSH</a> producing cells are damaged), or <a href="/facts/Hypogonadism/mqu59lNo">hypogonadism</a> (if the <a href="/facts/Luteinizing_hormone/a6znte2S">LH</a> and/or <a href="/facts/Follicle-stimulating_hormone/n6CwdebD">FSH</a> producing cells are involved). In some cases, the presence of inflammation within the pituitary gland leads to interruption of <a href="/facts/Dopamine/5gNy8Xkd">dopamine</a> flow from the <a href="/facts/Hypothalamus/lCkNt1bM">hypothalamus</a> into the pituitary causing high levels of the hormone <a href="/facts/Prolactin/NcdqrzFU">prolactin</a> and, often as a consequence, milk production from the breasts (in older girls and women). Lymphocytic Infundibuloneurohypophysitis (LINH) occurs when the <a href="/facts/Posterior_pituitary/CEXxb9Bp">posterior pituitary</a> is affected resulting in <a href="/facts/Diabetes_insipidus/mtAXABCU">diabetes insipidus</a>. Both LAH and LINH may also lead to symptoms of an intracranial mass such as headache or disturbance of vision, i.e. <a href="/facts/Bitemporal_hemianopia/lC8qlTw4">bitemporal hemianopia</a>. The <a href="/facts/Pituitary/gdrQyldF">pituitary</a> produces multiple <a href="/facts/Hormones/WFnBnINJ">hormones</a> relating to various <a href="/facts/Metabolism/WxDrm8k5">metabolic functions</a>. Sufficiently low production of certain <a href="/facts/Pituitary_hormones/Vp4UqXPh">pituitary hormones</a> can be fatal resulting in the failure of the <a href="/facts/Thyroid/bjovTJVu">thyroid</a> or <a href="/facts/Adrenal_glands/3f8jV5aJ">adrenal glands</a>.
Common symptoms include nausea, vomiting, fatigue, loss of libido, amenorrhea, and dizziness.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2">2</a> It is estimated that, typically, it takes from 12 to 40 years for autoimmune destruction to present symptoms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a> However, there have been cases of isolated attacks as a result of drug reactions (i.e., use of <a href="/facts/Blocking_antibody/TxrkotlJ">blocking antibody</a> <a href="/facts/Ipilimumab/GYtHkMxF">ipilimumab</a>)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a> or idiopathic events that have presented symptoms which may disappear after relatively short term treatment (i.e., 1 year on corticoids or other immune suppressants).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a> However, more rapid development of the disorder is the rule when it occurs during, or shortly after, pregnancy (even after miscarriage or abortion). Indeed, autoimmune hypophysitis occurs more commonly during and shortly after pregnancy than at any other time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a>

<h3>Antibodies</h3>
80% of patients with pituitary antibodies also have antibodies to thyroid gland or its hormones.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a> Likewise, 20% of autoimmune thyroid patients also have pituitary antibodies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> It follows that a subset of thyroid patients may have a disease related to autoimmune hypophysitis. Recent research has focused on a defect at the <a href="/facts/CTLA-4/7nhf4Nq6">CTLA-4</a> gene which, coupled with other factors, may result in autoimmunity primarily focusing on certain <a href="/facts/Endocrine_gland/J6w67lns">endocrine glands</a> including the pituitary and thyroid.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a>

<h2 id="cause">Cause</h2>

Most cases are autoimmune, some related to thyroid autoimmunity.

<h2 id="diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2>
Lymphocytic hypophysitis continues to be a diagnosis of exclusion, and histopathology with tissue biopsy is needed for a definitive diagnosis.[3] However, clinical, laboratory data, and imaging can all help with the diagnosis.[8] First and foremost, patients present with symptoms of hypopituitarism and must undergo pituitary hormone function evaluation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> Biopsy is the only means of accurate <a href="/facts/Diagnosis/VcsPwshd">diagnosis</a> as no <a href="/facts/Autoantigen/5cASmcfI">autoantigen</a> has been discovered.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> Biopsy of the pituitary gland is not easily performed with safety as it sits under the brain, however, a <a href="/facts/Chemical_test/6J3u77Ic">test</a> does exist to detect antibodies to the pituitary without biopsy: autoantibodies to M(r) 49,000 pituitary cytosolic protein may represent markers for an immunological process affecting the pituitary gland.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> Tests for normal pituitary gland hormone production tend to be expensive and in some cases difficult to administer. In addition, certain hormone levels vary largely throughout the day and in response to metabolic factors, making abnormal levels difficult to calibrate—further hampering diagnosis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> Assessment for other autoimmune and inflammatory diseases should also be performed by obtaining complete blood count, complete metabolic panel, c-reactive protein, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, antinuclear antibody, and lupus antibodies at the very least. Gadolinium-enhanced MRI of the pituitary is the imaging of choice as well, and it is important to distinguish lymphocytic hypophysitis from a pituitary adenoma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a>

<h2 id="treatment">Treatment</h2>
Inflammation resolves usually after several months of glucocorticoid treatment For those that show no improvement with corticosteroids or have relapsed after treatment with corticosteroids, immunosuppressive medications such as methotrexate, azathioprine, and cyclosporine can be used as well. In particular, azathioprine plus glucocorticoids has been discovered to successfully treat recurrent hypophysitis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a> There have also been some cases where dopamine agonists such as cabergoline/bromocriptine have also been successfully used in those with hyperprolactinemia due to pituitary inflammation. Surgery is only an option for those suffering from visual problems/<a href="/facts/Ophthalmoparesis/rTWMRye4">ophthalmoplegia</a>, have a mass like an effect from compression of nearby structures, or for those that require histology for diagnosis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a>

<h2 id="epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2>
A large scale study on <a href="/facts/Cadavers/g3SzbFxy">cadavers</a> done in <a href="/facts/Sweden/u3qC7lyj">Sweden</a>, performed biopsies on hundreds of pituitary glands. The study indicated that perhaps as much as 5% of the population experiences some amount of autoimmune pituitary destruction. It is further hypothesized that perhaps half that many show, or may experience, clinical manifestations. The prevalence of all the types of hypophysitis is low, with an incidence of approximately 1 in 9 million. However, it is thought that this may be an underestimate, especially due to the recent use of immune checkpoint inhibitors for cancer treatments, which have endocrine side effects affecting the pituitary gland.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> Although cases have been reported in children and the elderly, the mean age of diagnosis for men is 44.7 years, and the mean age of diagnosis for women is 34 years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a>

<h2 id="history">History</h2>
<a href="/facts/Autoimmune_disease/sojBeQ7t">Autoimmune attack</a> of the pituitary gland resulting in reduced hormone production was first discovered as a result of an <a href="/facts/Autopsy/GzSXuCH2">autopsy</a> in 1962. The autopsy described destruction of the pituitary and thyroid consistent with autoimmune attack and included <a href="/facts/Atrophy/QNxSoxDV">atrophy</a> of the adrenal glands.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a> As magnetic resonance imaging became more available diagnosis increased dramatically.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> At this time it is believed that the disease is far more prevalent than is diagnosed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a> Nevertheless, autoimmune hypophysitis is frequently referred to as a <a href="/facts/Rare_disease/Nu1G7rEw">rare disease</a> and the most recent estimates as to its <a href="/facts/Prevalence/6UTuTGTH">prevalence</a> give it a value of around 5 per million.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Hypophysitis/7JlPUdAt">Hypophysitis</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Hypopituitarism/BavBhRkA">Hypopituitarism</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Pituitary_disease/kUMPJNqE">Pituitary disease</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Naran, Jaya; Can, Ahmet S. (2023-08-08). "Lymphocytic Hypophysitis". StatPearls Publishing. PMID 32965926. Retrieved 2024-06-29. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562255/" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562255/</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Naran, Jaya; Can, Ahmet S. (2023-08-08). "Lymphocytic Hypophysitis". StatPearls Publishing. PMID 32965926. Retrieved 2024-06-29. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562255/" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562255/</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Strömberg S, Crock P, Lernmark A, Hulting AL (1998). "Pituitary autoantibodies in patients with hypopituitarism and their relatives". J. Endocrinol. 157 (3): 475–80. doi:10.1677/joe.0.1570475. PMID 9691980. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1677%2Fjoe.0.1570475" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1677%2Fjoe.0.1570475</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Phan GQ, Yang JC, Sherry RM, Hwu P, Topalian SL, Schwartzentruber DJ, Restifo NP, Haworth LR, Seipp CA, Freezer LJ, Morton KE, Mavroukakis SA, Duray PH, Steinberg SM, Allison JP, Davis TA, Rosenberg SA (2003). "Cancer regression and autoimmunity induced by cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 blockade in patients with metastatic melanoma". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 100 (14): 8372–7. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.8372P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1533209100. PMC 166236. PMID 12826605. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC166236" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC166236</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Hepatitis Weekly, Autoimmune Diseases, "Cytotoxic Antigen Induces Hypophysitis in Cancer Patients," 2006-1-9;
see also, Weston SN, Weston CF (January 2000). "The mysterious case of the lost pituitary: amiodarone-induced hypothyroidism". Hosp Med. 61 (1): 64–5. doi:10.12968/hosp.2000.61.1.1869. PMID 10735160. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Minakshi B, Alok S, Hillol KP (2005). "Lymphocytic hypophysitis presenting as pituitary apoplexy in a male". Neurol India. 53 (3): 363–4. doi:10.4103/0028-3886.16948. PMID 16230817. <a href="https://doi.org/10.4103%2F0028-3886.16948" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.4103%2F0028-3886.16948</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Foyouzi, N (February 2011). "Lymphocytic adenohypophysitis". Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey. 66 (2): 109–13. doi:10.1097/ogx.0b013e31821d4047. PMID 21592417. S2CID 30199333. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Strömberg S, Crock P, Lernmark A, Hulting AL (1998). "Pituitary autoantibodies in patients with hypopituitarism and their relatives". J. Endocrinol. 157 (3): 475–80. doi:10.1677/joe.0.1570475. PMID 9691980. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1677%2Fjoe.0.1570475" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1677%2Fjoe.0.1570475</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Caturegli, P (2007). "Autoimmune hypophysitis: an underestimated disease in search of its autoantigen(s)". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 92 (6): 2038–40. doi:10.1210/jc.2007-0808. PMID 17554056. <a href="http://jcem.endojournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17554056" target="_blank">http://jcem.endojournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17554056</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Strömberg S, Crock P, Lernmark A, Hulting AL (1998). "Pituitary autoantibodies in patients with hypopituitarism and their relatives". J. Endocrinol. 157 (3): 475–80. doi:10.1677/joe.0.1570475. PMID 9691980. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1677%2Fjoe.0.1570475" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1677%2Fjoe.0.1570475</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Naran, Jaya; Can, Ahmet S. (2023-08-08). "Lymphocytic Hypophysitis". StatPearls Publishing. PMID 32965926. Retrieved 2024-06-29. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562255/" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562255/</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Caturegli, P (2007). "Autoimmune hypophysitis: an underestimated disease in search of its autoantigen(s)". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 92 (6): 2038–40. doi:10.1210/jc.2007-0808. PMID 17554056. <a href="http://jcem.endojournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17554056" target="_blank">http://jcem.endojournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17554056</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Crock, Patricia A., et al., Pituitary autoantibodies, Neuroendocrinology, Current Opinion in Endocrinology & Diabetes, 13(4):344-350, August 2006. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Strömberg S, Crock P, Lernmark A, Hulting AL (1998). "Pituitary autoantibodies in patients with hypopituitarism and their relatives". J. Endocrinol. 157 (3): 475–80. doi:10.1677/joe.0.1570475. PMID 9691980. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1677%2Fjoe.0.1570475" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1677%2Fjoe.0.1570475</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Soule SG, Fahie-Wilson M, Tomlinson S (February 1996). "Failure of the short ACTH test to unequivocally diagnose long-standing symptomatic secondary hypoadrenalism". Clin. Endocrinol. 44 (2): 137–40. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2265.1996.540363.x. PMID 8849565. S2CID 37708979. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Maghnie M, Uga E, Temporini F, Di Iorgi N, Secco A, Tinelli C, Papalia A, Casini MR, Loche S (May 2005). "Evaluation of adrenal function in patients with growth hormone deficiency and hypothalamic-pituitary disorders: comparison between insulin-induced hypoglycemia, low-dose ACTH, standard ACTH and CRH stimulation tests". Eur. J. Endocrinol. 152 (5): 735–41. doi:10.1530/eje.1.01911. PMID 15879359. <a href="http://eje-online.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15879359" target="_blank">http://eje-online.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15879359</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Clayton, Richard. "EVALUATION OF PATIENTS WITH PITUITARY/ HYPOTHALAMIC SPACE OCCUPYING LESIONS". endotext.org. Archived from the original on 25 February 2013. Retrieved 2 January 2013. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130225040342/http://www.endotext.org/neuroendo/neuroendo11b/index.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20130225040342/http://www.endotext.org/neuroendo/neuroendo11b/index.html</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Maghnie M, Aimaretti G, Bellone S, Bona G, Bellone J, Baldelli R, de Sanctis C, Gargantini L, Gastaldi R, Ghizzoni L, Secco A, Tinelli C, Ghigo E (April 2005). "Diagnosis of GH deficiency in the transition period: accuracy of insulin tolerance test and insulin-like growth factor-I measurement". Eur. J. Endocrinol. 152 (4): 589–96. doi:10.1530/eje.1.01873. PMID 15817915. <a href="http://eje-online.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15817915" target="_blank">http://eje-online.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15817915</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Biller BM, Samuels MH, Zagar A, Cook DM, Arafah BM, Bonert V, Stavrou S, Kleinberg DL, Chipman JJ, Hartman ML (May 2002). "Sensitivity and specificity of six tests for the diagnosis of adult GH deficiency". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 87 (5): 2067–79. doi:10.1210/jcem.87.5.8509. PMID 11994342. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1210%2Fjcem.87.5.8509" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1210%2Fjcem.87.5.8509</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">"Health Alert: Adrenal Crisis Causes Death in Some People Who Were Treated With hGH". National Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Information Service. Archived from the original on 27 January 2013. Retrieved 2 January 2013. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130127132216/http://endocrine.niddk.nih.gov/pubs/creutz/alert.aspx" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20130127132216/http://endocrine.niddk.nih.gov/pubs/creutz/alert.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Naran, Jaya; Can, Ahmet S. (2023-08-08). "Lymphocytic Hypophysitis". StatPearls Publishing. PMID 32965926. Retrieved 2024-06-29. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562255/" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562255/</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">"Recurrent autoimmune hypophysitis successfully treated with glucocorticoids plus azathioprine: a report of three cases Guo-Qing Yang 1 , Zhao-Hui Lu, Wei-Jun Gu, Jin Du, Qing-Hua Guo, Xian-Ling Wang, Jian-Ming Ba, Jing-Tao Dou, Yi-Ming Mu, Ju-Ming Lu". <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21666339/" target="_blank">https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21666339/</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Naran, Jaya; Can, Ahmet S. (2023-08-08). "Lymphocytic Hypophysitis". StatPearls Publishing. PMID 32965926. Retrieved 2024-06-29. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562255/" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562255/</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Naran, Jaya; Can, Ahmet S. (2023-08-08). "Lymphocytic Hypophysitis". StatPearls Publishing. PMID 32965926. Retrieved 2024-06-29. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562255/" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562255/</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Naran, Jaya; Can, Ahmet S. (2023-08-08). "Lymphocytic Hypophysitis". StatPearls Publishing. PMID 32965926. Retrieved 2024-06-29. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562255/" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562255/</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Caturegli, Patrizio, and Tzou, Shey-Cherng, Hypophysitis, in Rose, Noel R., and Mack, Ian R., The Autoimmune diseases, chap. 40, at pg. 548. <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Caturegli, Patrizio, and Tzou, Shey-Cherng, Hypophysitis, in Rose, Noel R., and Mack, Ian R., The Autoimmune diseases, chap. 40, at pg. 548. <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Caturegli, P (2007). "Autoimmune hypophysitis: an underestimated disease in search of its autoantigen(s)". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 92 (6): 2038–40. doi:10.1210/jc.2007-0808. PMID 17554056. <a href="http://jcem.endojournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17554056" target="_blank">http://jcem.endojournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17554056</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Howlett T.A.; Levy M.J.; Robertson I.J. (2010). "How reliably can autoimmune hypophysitis be diagnosed without pituitary biopsy". Clinical Endocrinology. 73 (1): 18–21. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2265.2009.03765.x. PMID 20039888. S2CID 12311424. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2265.2009.03765.x" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2265.2009.03765.x</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Autoimmune hypophysitis open-in-new

Autoimmune hypophysitis