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Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology
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<h2 id="before-the-common-era-bce">Before the Common Era (BCE)</h2> <h3>1900s BCE</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Taosi/2eyTaVkt">Taosi</a> Astronomical Observatory, <a href="/facts/Xiangfen/YPWmRcQX">Xiangfen</a> County, <a href="/facts/Linfen/tM2qCqqk">Linfen</a> City, <a href="/facts/Shanxi/wUw3swDE">Shanxi</a> Province, China</li></ul> <h3>1500s BCE</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Shadow_clock/RWM823m2">Shadow clocks</a> invented in <a href="/facts/Ancient_Egypt/BDsEGK4g">ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="/facts/Mesopotamia/f0mmbhTK">Mesopotamia</a></li></ul> <h3>600s BCE</h3> <ul><li>11th–7th century BCE, <a href="/facts/Zhou_dynasty/70beuGpa">Zhou dynasty</a> astronomical observatory (灵台) in <a href="/facts/Fenghao/9bojdCkf">Fenghao</a> (today's <a href="/facts/Xi%2527an/yaIdymtu">Xi'an</a>), China</li></ul> <h3>200s BCE</h3> <ul><li>Thirteen Towers solar observatory, <a href="/facts/Chankillo/as9PIS5d">Chankillo</a>, <a href="/facts/Peru/dBt7XrYD">Peru</a></li> <li>Antikythera Mechanism, a geared astronomical computer that calculates lunar and solar eclipses, the position of the Sun and the Moon the lunar phase (age of the moon), has several lunisolar calendars, including the Olympic Games calendar. It is at the National Archaeological Museum, Athens, Greece.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a></li></ul> <h3>100s BCE</h3> <ul><li>220-206 BCE, <a href="/facts/Han_dynasty/hanfxS9D">Han dynasty</a> astronomical observatory (灵台) in <a href="/facts/Chang%2527an/5RAs5MTI">Chang'an</a> and <a href="/facts/Luoyang/wJC8mfXn">Luoyang</a>. During <a href="/facts/Han_dynasty/hanfxS9D">East Han dynasty</a>, astronomical observatory (灵台) built in <a href="/facts/Yanshi/9TXHNca8">Yanshi</a>, <a href="/facts/Henan/jCKtYLXv">Henan</a> Province, China</li> <li>220-150 BCE, <a href="/facts/Astrolabe/BctVIEm4">Astrolabe</a> invented by <a href="/facts/Apollonius_of_Perga/DgpSjkcW">Apollonius of Perga</a></li></ul> <h2 id="common-era-ce">Common Era (CE)</h2> <h3>400s</h3> <ul><li>5th century – Observatory at <a href="/facts/Ujjain/IABwWPMX">Ujjain</a>, <a href="/facts/India/QW4TV4sy">India</a></li></ul> <h3>600s</h3> <ul><li>632–647 – <a href="/facts/Cheomseongdae/mBEJyFDq">Cheomseongdae</a> observatory is built in the reign of <a href="/facts/Queen_Seondeok/1USQdI9X">Queen Seondeok</a> at <a href="/facts/Gyeongju/Cchm9pBk">Gyeongju</a>, then the capital of <a href="/facts/Silla/mCPc58jC">Silla</a> (present day <a href="/facts/South_Korea/pCobAaVw">South Korea</a>)</li> <li>618–1279 – <a href="/facts/Tang_dynasty/FFhmVfwM">Tang dynasty</a>-<a href="/facts/Song_dynasty/FxV5bXS5">Song dynasty</a>, observatories built in <a href="/facts/Chang%2527an/5RAs5MTI">Chang'an</a>, <a href="/facts/Kaifeng/PR335kbE">Kaifeng</a>, <a href="/facts/Hangzhou/wXb5auh7">Hangzhou</a>, China</li></ul> <h3>700s</h3> <ul><li>700–96 – Brass <a href="/facts/Astrolabe/BctVIEm4">astrolabe</a> constructed by <a href="/facts/Muhammad_al-Fazari/JB7ddwCx">Muhammad al-Fazari</a> based on <a href="/facts/Hellenistic_civilization/q6BgQsaF">Hellenistic</a> sources</li></ul> <h3>800s</h3> <ul><li>9th century – <a href="/facts/Quadrant_(instrument)/NE598Atq">quadrant</a> invented by <a href="/facts/Muhammad_ibn_M%25C5%25ABs%25C4%2581_al-Khw%25C4%2581rizm%25C4%25AB/24KdxyEQ">Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī</a> in 9th century <a href="/facts/Baghdad/RbtLzzHe">Baghdad</a> and is used for astronomical calculations<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a></li> <li>800–33 – The first modern <a href="/facts/Observatory/y0FVg7vS">observatory</a> research institute built in <a href="/facts/Baghdad/RbtLzzHe">Baghdad</a>, <a href="/facts/Iraq/pqYSFJw8">Iraq</a>, by <a href="/facts/Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam/hw8HxDHz">Arabic astronomers</a> during time of <a href="/facts/Al-Mamun/aaHmoQ9g">Al-Mamun</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a></li> <li>825–35 – <a href="/facts/Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam/hw8HxDHz">Al-Shammisiyyah observatory</a> by <a href="/facts/Habash_al-Hasib_al-Marwazi/Hu157YEm">Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi</a> in Baghdad, Iraq<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a></li></ul> <h3>900s</h3> <ul><li>10th century – Large <a href="/facts/Astrolabe/BctVIEm4">astrolabe</a> of diameter 1.4 meters constructed by <a href="/facts/Ibn_Yunus/et5L3YHW">Ibn Yunus</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a></li> <li>994 – First <a href="/facts/Sextant_(astronomical)/AsKxPGm9">sextant</a> constructed in <a href="/facts/Ray%2c_Iran/PMXMXfFs">Ray, Iran</a>, by <a href="/facts/Abu-Mahmud_al-Khujandi/Jv2sIskb">Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi</a>. It was a very large <a href="/facts/Mural_instrument/93JcYaJe">mural</a> sextant that achieved a high level of accuracy for astronomical measurements.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a></li></ul> <h3>1000s</h3> <ul><li>1000 – <a href="/facts/Mokattam/rC7YbE2D">Mokattam</a> observatory in <a href="/facts/Egypt/8Ttg0JwB">Egypt</a> for <a href="/facts/Al-Hakim_bi-Amr_Allah/BaxWFnYc">Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah</a></li> <li>11th century – <a href="/facts/Planisphere/VYg1Qyju">Planisphere</a> invented by Biruni<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a></li> <li>11th century – Universal latitude-independent <a href="/facts/Astrolabe/BctVIEm4">astrolabe</a> invented by <a href="/facts/Ab%25C5%25AB_Ish%25C4%2581q_Ibr%25C4%2581h%25C4%25ABm_al-Zarq%25C4%2581l%25C4%25AB/SYBl1p2m">Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī</a> (Arzachel)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a></li> <li>1023 – <a href="/facts/Hamedan/oKCzyFga">Hamedan</a> observatory in <a href="/facts/Iran/24yukge8">Persia</a></li> <li>c. 1030 – <i><a href="/facts/Book_of_Optics/SmYrlPcg">Treasury of Optics</a></i> by <a href="/facts/Ibn_al-Haytham/Q5H9hm4J">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (Alhazen) of Iraq and Egypt</li> <li>1074–92 – <a href="/facts/Malikshah_Observatory/th71LJyR">Malikshah Observatory</a> at <a href="/facts/Isfahan/BLw4k2fm">Isfahan</a> used by <a href="/facts/Omar_Khayy%25C3%25A1m/M9ARtmAe">Omar Khayyám</a></li></ul> <h3>1100s</h3> <ul><li>1100–50 – <a href="/facts/Jabir_ibn_Aflah/ooFLepQg">Jabir ibn Aflah</a> develops instruments resembling and perhaps inspiring the <a href="/facts/Torquetum/z9P1DvbP">torquetum</a>, an observational instrument and mechanical <a href="/facts/Analog_computer/3NhYoCML">analog computer</a> device<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a></li> <li>1119–25 – <a href="/facts/Cairo/dXjj60ar">Cairo</a> al-Bataihi observatory for <a href="/facts/Al-Afdal_Shahanshah/oE4spxzT">Al-Afdal Shahanshah</a></li></ul> <h3>1200s</h3> <ul><li>1259 – <a href="/facts/Maragheh_observatory/PVujNHan">Maragheh observatory</a> and library of <a href="/facts/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi/BFScoqbf">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a> built in Persia under <a href="/facts/Hulagu_Khan/AFGAPPnc">Hulagu Khan</a></li> <li>c. 1270 – Terrace for Managing Heaven 26 observatory network of <a href="/facts/Guo_Shoujing/gsvVrQAE">Guo Shoujing</a> under <a href="/facts/Khubilai_Khan/jkAtyU4h">Khubilai Khan</a></li> <li>1276 – <a href="/facts/Gaocheng_Astronomical_Observatory/KtXMhIpJ">Dengfeng Star Observatory Platform</a>, Gaocheng, <a href="/facts/Dengfeng/KUBUmSlW">Dengfeng</a> City, <a href="/facts/Henan/jCKtYLXv">Henan</a> Province, China</li></ul> <h3>1300s</h3> <ul><li>1371 – The idea of using hours of equal time length throughout the year in a <a href="/facts/Sundial/eebjkDI5">sundial</a> was the innovation of <a href="/facts/Ibn_al-Shatir/AaQkf0Dq">Ibn al-Shatir</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a></li></ul> <h3>1400s</h3> <ul><li>1420 – <a href="/facts/Ulugh_Beg_Observatory/BHpfrquw">Samarkand observatory</a> of <a href="/facts/Ulugh_Beg/daFnvQn4">Ulugh Beg</a></li> <li>1437 - <a href="/facts/Zij-i_Sultani/mEvge9Eg">Zij-i Sultani</a> is published, the first star catalog since the <a href="/facts/Almagest/30qaBRAq">Almagest</a></li> <li>1442 – <a href="/facts/Beijing_Ancient_Observatory/3o8jYVry">Beijing Ancient Observatory</a> in China</li> <li>1467–71 – Observatory at Nagyvarad <a href="/facts/Oradea/0xprYhuB">Oradea</a>, Kingdom of Hungary for <a href="/facts/Matthias_Corvinus/mQ4pNCCo">Matthias Corvinus</a>. Tabula Varadensis.</li> <li>1472 – The <a href="/facts/Nuremberg/Bht6TsP4">Nuremberg</a> observatory of <a href="/facts/Regiomontanus/CrMSdtQU">Regiomontanus</a> and <a href="/facts/Bernhard_Walther/mn1jLxGW">Bernhard Walther</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a></li></ul> <h3>1500s</h3> <ul><li>1560 – <a href="/facts/Kassel/uw1m2263">Kassel</a> observatory under Landgrave <a href="/facts/William_IV_of_Hesse/hhn43nfC">Wilhelm IV of Hesse</a></li> <li>1575–80 – <a href="/facts/Constantinople_Observatory_of_Taqi_ad-Din/NQRMpQWz">Constantinople Observatory</a> of <a href="/facts/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma%2527ruf/vWX12nc0">Taqi ad-Din</a> under Sultan <a href="/facts/Murad_III/t8KPB7xt">Murad III</a></li> <li>1576 – Royal Danish Astronomical Observatory <a href="/facts/Uraniborg/spcTAV5o">Uraniborg</a> at <a href="/facts/Hven/lv2zwzhh">Hven</a> by <a href="/facts/Tycho_Brahe/HroPxnCq">Tycho Brahe</a></li> <li>1577–80 – Taqi al-Din invents a mechanical <a href="/facts/Astronomical_clock/8yaTPexw">astronomical clock</a> that measures time in seconds, one of the most important innovations in 16th-century practical astronomy, as previous clocks were not accurate enough to be used for astronomical purposes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a></li> <li>1577–80 – Taqi al-Din invents <a href="/facts/Sextant_(astronomical)/AsKxPGm9">framed sextant</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a></li> <li>1581 – Royal Danish Astronomical Observatory <a href="/facts/Stjerneborg/4217VNjh">Stjerneborg</a> at <a href="/facts/Hven/lv2zwzhh">Hven</a> by <a href="/facts/Tycho_Brahe/HroPxnCq">Tycho Brahe</a></li></ul> <h3>1600s</h3> <ul><li>1600 – Prague observatory in <a href="/facts/Ben%25C3%25A1tky_nad_Jizerou/MJnxgyXo">Benátky nad Jizerou</a> by <a href="/facts/Tycho_Brahe/HroPxnCq">Tycho Brahe</a></li> <li>1603 – <a href="/facts/Johann_Bayer/EIQFIELY">Johann Bayer</a>'s <i><a href="/facts/Uranometria/uM3GxyWN">Uranometria</a></i> is published</li> <li>1608 – <a href="/facts/Hans_Lippershey/L9E7c5c2">Hans Lippershey</a> tries to patent an optical <a href="/facts/Refracting_telescope/JtCz5CvW">refracting telescope</a>, the first recorded functional <a href="/facts/Telescope/BDwYahhR">telescope</a></li> <li>1609 – <a href="/facts/Galileo_Galilei/98VT2z3v">Galileo Galilei</a> builds his first optical refracting telescope</li> <li>1616 – <a href="/facts/Niccol%25C3%25B2_Zucchi/1H4t6xQ9">Niccolò Zucchi</a> experiments with a <a href="/facts/Reflecting_telescope/5Y4aXFvF">reflecting telescope</a></li> <li>1633 – Construction of <a href="/facts/Leiden_Observatory/qTuxS9cf">Leiden University Observatory</a></li> <li>1641 – <a href="/facts/William_Gascoigne_(scientist)/kjwhoEFL">William Gascoigne</a> invents telescope cross hairs</li> <li>1641 – Danzig/Gdansk observatory of <a href="/facts/Johannes_Hevelius/JJSooIep">Jan Hevelius</a></li> <li>1642 – <a href="/facts/Rundet%25C3%25A5rn/SIWbYgoy">Copenhagen University Royal observatory</a></li> <li>1661 – <a href="/facts/James_Gregory_(astronomer_and_mathematician)/W0aza1VS">James Gregory</a> proposes an optical reflecting telescope with <a href="/facts/Parabolic_reflector/uTkv4pJF">parabolic</a> mirrors</li> <li>1667 – <a href="/facts/Paris_Observatory/Q4MUg7EW">Paris Observatory</a></li> <li>1668 – <a href="/facts/Isaac_Newton/4L7gTncN">Isaac Newton</a> constructs the first "practical" reflecting telescope, the <a href="/facts/Newtonian_telescope/E4rvUDLR">Newtonian telescope</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a></li> <li>1672 – <a href="/facts/Laurent_Cassegrain/4R7PLdzS">Laurent Cassegrain</a> designs the Cassegrain telescope</li> <li>1675 – <a href="/facts/Royal_Greenwich_Observatory/gDxv9o65">Royal Greenwich Observatory</a> of England</li> <li>1684 – <a href="/facts/Christiaan_Huygens/GtBqoBVm">Christiaan Huygens</a> publishes "Astroscopia Compendiaria" in which he described the design of very long <a href="/facts/Aerial_telescope/uxsdxKYX">aerial telescopes</a></li></ul> <h3>1700s</h3> <ul><li>1704 – First observatory at <a href="/facts/University_of_Cambridge/0la7aX9o">Cambridge University</a> (based at <a href="/facts/Trinity_College%2c_Cambridge/uI0I61Sb">Trinity College</a>)</li> <li>1724 – Indian observatory of <a href="/facts/Jai_Singh_II/6h58amPY">Sawai Jai Singh</a> at <a href="/facts/Delhi/Xa6CKgnf">Delhi</a></li> <li>1725 – St. Petersburg observatory at Royal Academy</li> <li>1732 – Indian observatories of Sawai Jai Singh at <a href="/facts/Varanasi/w0ELEKrB">Varanasi</a>, <a href="/facts/Ujjain/IABwWPMX">Ujjain</a>, <a href="/facts/Mathura/ShS7I2c5">Mathura</a>, <a href="/facts/Madras/8ngv75bW">Madras</a></li> <li>1733 – <a href="/facts/Chester_Moore_Hall/TubLhwFk">Chester Moore Hall</a> invents the <a href="/facts/Achromatic_lens/6R4A63JY">achromatic lens</a> refracting telescope</li> <li>1734 – Indian observatory of Sawai Jai Singh at <a href="/facts/Jaipur/WDLq2DmH">Jaipur</a></li> <li>1753 – Real Observatorio de Cádiz (Spain)</li> <li>1753 – <a href="/facts/Vilnius_Observatory/VA2QSscQ">Vilnius Observatory</a> at <a href="/facts/Vilnius_University/NH277aul">Vilnius University</a>, <a href="/facts/Lithuania/dApVjLWW">Lithuania</a></li> <li>1758 – <a href="/facts/John_Dollond/3PRc7kXJ">John Dollond</a> reinvents the achromatic lens</li> <li>1761 – <a href="/facts/Joseph-Nicolas_Delisle/udTBqVvh">Joseph-Nicolas Delisle</a> 62 observing station network for observing the <a href="/facts/Transit_of_Venus/Ygk5w0WC">transit of Venus</a></li> <li>1769 – <a href="/facts/James_Short_(mathematician)/SabXdVL0">Short</a> reflectors used at 63 station network for <a href="/facts/Transit_of_Venus/Ygk5w0WC">transit of Venus</a></li> <li>1774 – <a href="/facts/Vatican_Observatory/TazC5hKe">Vatican Observatory <i>(Specola Vaticana)</i></a>, originally established as <i>the Observatory of the Roman College</i>.</li> <li>1780 – <a href="/facts/Florence/Mx0uhNma">Florence</a> <a href="/facts/La_Specola/Y7IUfsa6">Specola</a> observatory</li> <li>1789 – <a href="/facts/William_Herschel/SsruaBvq">William Herschel</a> finishes a 49-inch (1.2 m) optical reflecting telescope, located in <a href="/facts/Slough/EXWvvDHN">Slough</a>, England</li> <li>1798 – Real Observatorio de la Isla de Léon (actualmente Real Instituto y Observatorio de la Armada) (Spain)</li></ul> <h3>1800s</h3> <ul><li>1803 National Astronomical Observatory (Colombia), the first observatory in the <a href="/facts/Americas/hEuUTL4K">Americas</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a></li> <li>1836 Swathithirunal opened Trivandrum observatory</li> <li>1839 <a href="/facts/Louis_Jacques_Mand%25C3%25A9_Daguerre/xlnHu14v">Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre</a> (inventor of the <a href="/facts/Daguerreotype/22CYYBJq">daguerreotype</a> photographic process) attempts to photograph the <a href="/facts/Moon/zKHqEMPb">moon</a>. Tracking errors in guiding the telescope during the long exposure made the photograph came out as an indistinct fuzzy spot</li> <li>1840 – <a href="/facts/John_William_Draper/HgDtKwP3">John William Draper</a> takes make a successful photographic image of the <a href="/facts/Moon/zKHqEMPb">Moon</a>, the first <a href="/facts/Astrophotography/NeWNUJEn">astronomical photograph</a></li> <li>1845 – <a href="/facts/William_Parsons%2c_3rd_Earl_of_Rosse/bPQ37rMF">Lord Rosse</a> finishes the Birr Castle <a href="/facts/Leviathan_of_Parsonstown/xHIaIHHX">72-inch (1.8 m) optical reflecting telescope</a>, located in <a href="/facts/Birr%2c_County_Offaly/BfCSKKBp">Parsonstown, Ireland</a></li> <li>1849 – Santiago observatory set up by USA, later becomes Chilean National Observatory (now part of the <a href="/facts/University_of_Chile/UDHDH249">University of Chile</a>)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a></li> <li>1859 – <a href="/facts/Gustav_Kirchhoff/Ygfzlywy">Kirchhoff</a> and <a href="/facts/Robert_Bunsen/HYqSh9tH">Bunsen</a> develop <a href="/facts/Spectroscopy/mj71FuNK">spectroscopy</a></li> <li>1864 – <a href="/facts/Alexander_Stewart_Herschel/J7HCKLbf">Herschel</a>'s so-called GC (General Catalogue) of nebulae and star clusters published</li> <li>1868 – <a href="/facts/Pierre_Jules_C%25C3%25A9sar_Janssen/nqYWwsIa">Janssen</a> and <a href="/facts/Joseph_Norman_Lockyer/Uh3no29f">Lockyer</a> discover <a href="/facts/Helium/yRul93TG">Helium</a> observing spectra of <a href="/facts/Sun/CadPCVHh">the Sun</a></li> <li>1871 – <a href="/facts/Astronomische_Gesellschaft/HtxvTMTQ">German Astronomical Association</a> organized network of 13 (later 16) observatories for stellar proper motion studies</li> <li>1863 – <a href="/facts/William_Allen_Miller/zS9zKc6u">William Allen Miller</a> and Sir <a href="/facts/William_Huggins/UVPpNGvt">William Huggins</a> use the photographic <a href="/facts/Wet_plate/7nexn45a">wet collodion plate</a> process to obtain the first ever photographic <a href="/facts/Spectrogram/Jt8zHI0H">spectrogram</a> of a star, <a href="/facts/Sirius/PgBc1f6E">Sirius</a> and <a href="/facts/Capella_(star)/bNQTaAjQ">Capella</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a></li> <li>1872 – <a href="/facts/Henry_Draper/Mpv7G57M">Henry Draper</a> photographs a <a href="/facts/Optical_spectrum/frPBh8o5">spectrum</a> of <a href="/facts/Vega/G3wJwhhl">Vega</a> that shows <a href="/facts/Absorption_lines/HuI4Bj5f">absorption lines</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a></li> <li>1878 – <a href="/facts/John_Louis_Emil_Dreyer/tvEsIAgf">Dreyer</a> published a supplement to the GC of about 1000 new objects, the <a href="/facts/New_General_Catalogue/qxfhfKAc">New General Catalogue</a></li> <li>1883 – <a href="/facts/Andrew_Ainslie_Common/dlM1xYxK">Andrew Ainslie Common</a> uses the photographic <a href="/facts/Dry_plate/2HNwgKoz">dry plate</a> process and a 36-inch (91 cm) reflecting telescope in his backyard to record 60 minute exposures of the <a href="/facts/Orion_nebula/6VWbcqzL">Orion nebula</a> that for the first time showed stars too faint to be seen by the human eye.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a></li> <li>1887 – Paris conference institutes <i><a href="/facts/Carte_du_Ciel/xUH6cIx1">Carte du Ciel</a></i> project to map entire sky to 14th magnitude photographically</li> <li>1888 – First light of <a href="/facts/James_Lick_telescope/pEjS6rY8">91cm refracting telescope</a> at <a href="/facts/Lick_Observatory/GjdK0880">Lick Observatory</a>, on <a href="/facts/Mount_Hamilton_(California)/ndPvvI8y">Mount Hamilton</a> near <a href="/facts/San_Jose%2c_California/PCaTmTDq">San Jose, California</a></li> <li>1889 – <a href="/facts/Astronomical_Society_of_the_Pacific/1hWIYXTL">Astronomical Society of the Pacific</a> founded</li> <li>1890 – <a href="/facts/Albert_A._Michelson/LHIAKkRN">Albert A. Michelson</a> proposes the stellar <a href="/facts/Interferometer/X3E1SsQT">interferometer</a></li> <li>1892 – <a href="/facts/George_Ellery_Hale/WWnVuHra">George Ellery Hale</a> finishes a <a href="/facts/Spectroheliograph/aghfzYmj">spectroheliograph</a>, which allows the <a href="/facts/Sun/CadPCVHh">Sun</a> to be photographed in the light of one element only</li> <li>1897 – <a href="/facts/Alvan_Clark/ykWGaIC9">Alvan Clark</a> finishes the <a href="/facts/Yerkes_telescope/kEpCtkwL">Yerkes 40-inch (1.0 m) optical refracting telescope</a>, located in <a href="/facts/Williams_Bay%2c_Wisconsin/qlcCdXya">Williams Bay, Wisconsin</a></li></ul> <h3>1900s</h3> <ul><li>1902 – <a href="/facts/Dominion_Observatory/EIPogfuq">Dominion Observatory</a>, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada established</li> <li>1904 – Observatories of the <a href="/facts/Carnegie_Institution/zS5MqNUP">Carnegie Institution</a> of Washington founded</li> <li>1907 – F.C. Brown and <a href="/facts/Joel_Stebbins/9fET6IwG">Joel Stebbins</a> develop a selenium cell photometer at the <a href="/facts/University_of_Illinois_Observatory/2oclKauV">University of Illinois Observatory</a>.</li></ul> <h4>1910s</h4> <ul><li>1912 – <a href="/facts/Joel_Stebbins/9fET6IwG">Joel Stebbins</a> and Jakob Kunz begin to use a photometer using a photoelectric cell at the <a href="/facts/University_of_Illinois_Observatory/2oclKauV">University of Illinois Observatory</a>.</li> <li>1917 – Mount Wilson 100-inch (2.5 m) optical reflecting telescope begins operation, located in <a href="/facts/Mount_Wilson_Observatory/pYrLP2uH">Mount Wilson, California</a></li> <li>1918 – 1.8m Plaskett Telescope begins operation at the <a href="/facts/Dominion_Astrophysical_Observatory/qsqdtMTT">Dominion Astrophysical Observatory</a>, <a href="/facts/Victoria%2c_British_Columbia/5bKrLfN2">Victoria</a>, <a href="/facts/British_Columbia/Ty3e3g1Q">British Columbia</a>, Canada</li> <li>1919 – <a href="/facts/International_Astronomical_Union/GMFPImXo">International Astronomical Union</a> (IAU) founded</li></ul> <h4>1930s</h4> <ul><li>1930 – <a href="/facts/Bernard-Ferdinand_Lyot/dC5vD3dH">Bernard-Ferdinand Lyot</a> invents the <a href="/facts/Coronagraph/ggUUrlYY">coronagraph</a></li> <li>1930 – <a href="/facts/Karl_Jansky/E72Me0F6">Karl Jansky</a> builds a 30-meter long rotating aerial <a href="/facts/Radio_telescope/SxIXUowL">radio telescope</a> This was the first radio telescope.</li> <li>1933 – <a href="/facts/Bernard-Ferdinand_Lyot/dC5vD3dH">Bernard-Ferdinand Lyot</a> invents the <a href="/facts/Lyot_filter/WdyuzPmz">Lyot filter</a></li> <li>1934 – <a href="/facts/Bernhard_Schmidt/QFErKsdX">Bernhard Schmidt</a> finishes the first 14-inch (360 mm) <a href="/facts/Schmidt_camera/qpNBUu25">Schmidt optical reflecting telescope</a></li> <li>1936 – Palomar 18-inch (460 mm) Schmidt optical reflecting telescope begins operation, located in <a href="/facts/Mount_Palomar_observatory/vRLjmDfr">Palomar, California</a></li> <li>1937 – <a href="/facts/Grote_Reber/c7vQTuSR">Grote Reber</a> builds a 31-foot (9.4 m) radio telescope</li></ul> <h4>1940s</h4> <ul><li>1941 – <a href="/facts/Dmitri_Dmitrievich_Maksutov/VgIjmAqc">Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov</a> invents the <a href="/facts/Maksutov_telescope/305dJR33">Maksutov telescope</a> which is adopted by major observatories in the <a href="/facts/Soviet_Union/m7wWsPto">Soviet Union</a> and internationally. It is now also a popular design with <a href="/facts/Amateur_astronomy/lBgH19WH">amateur astronomers</a></li> <li>1946 – <a href="/facts/Martin_Ryle/bjgMtM4k">Martin Ryle</a> and his group perform the first astronomical observations with a radio interferometer</li> <li>1947 – <a href="/facts/Bernard_Lovell/soR3qf1X">Bernard Lovell</a> and his group complete the <a href="/facts/Jodrell_Bank/gfKbHgwr">Jodrell Bank</a> 218-foot (66 m) non-steerable radio telescope</li> <li>1949 – <a href="/facts/Samuel_Oschin_telescope/D8VkGsHW">Palomar 48-inch (1.2 m) Schmidt</a> optical reflecting telescope begins operation, located in Palomar, California</li> <li>1949 – Palomar 200-inch (5.1 m) optical reflecting telescope (<a href="/facts/Hale_Telescope/NNgtWTV9">Hale Telescope</a>) begins regular operation, located in Palomar, California</li></ul> <h4>1950s</h4> <ul><li>1953 – Luoxue Mountain Cosmic Rays Research Center, <a href="/facts/Yunnan/Q924cyfE">Yunnan</a> Province, in China founded</li> <li>1954 – Earth rotation <a href="/facts/Aperture_synthesis/4gPMdmE1">aperture synthesis</a> suggested (see e.g. Christiansen and Warburton (1955))</li> <li>1956 – <a href="/facts/Dwingeloo_Radio_Observatory/Ahj3qmmf">Dwingeloo Radio Observatory</a> 25 m telescope completed, <a href="/facts/Dwingeloo/3ITqKWsB">Dwingeloo</a>, <a href="/facts/Netherlands/y8xn5stT">Netherlands</a></li> <li>1957 – <a href="/facts/Bernard_Lovell/soR3qf1X">Bernard Lovell</a> and his group complete the <a href="/facts/Jodrell_Bank/gfKbHgwr">Jodrell Bank</a> 250-foot (75 m) steerable radio telescope (the <a href="/facts/Lovell_Telescope/GyaYapLe">Lovell Telescope</a>)</li> <li>1957 – <a href="/facts/Peter_Scheuer/RkVrzWcM">Peter Scheuer</a> publishes his P(D) method for obtaining <a href="/facts/Source_counts/e8saouuc">source counts</a> of spatially unresolved sources</li> <li>1959 – Radio Observatory of the <a href="/facts/University_of_Chile/UDHDH249">University of Chile</a>, located at <a href="/facts/Maip%25C3%25BA%2c_Chile/clRManYT">Maipú, Chile</a> founded</li> <li>1959 – The <a href="/facts/Third_Cambridge_Catalogue_of_Radio_Sources/T5zYFDIz">3C</a> catalogue of radio sources is published (revised in 1962)</li> <li>1959 – The <a href="/facts/C._Donald_Shane_telescope/cBoddQu7">Shane 120-inch (3.0 m) Telescope</a> Opened at <a href="/facts/Lick_Observatory/GjdK0880">Lick Observatory</a></li></ul> <h4>1960s</h4> <ul><li>1960 – <a href="/facts/Owens_Valley_Radio_Observatory/Dkp2NKE6">Owens Valley</a> 27-meter radio telescopes begin operation, located in <a href="/facts/Big_Pine%2c_California/XhsSyy1K">Big Pine, California</a></li> <li>1961 – <a href="/facts/Parkes_Observatory/K6RWokxV">Parkes 64-metre radio telescope</a> begins operation, located near <a href="/facts/Parkes%2c_New_South_Wales/53H00TUM">Parkes</a>, Australia</li> <li>1962 – <a href="/facts/European_Southern_Observatory/mJtjDbwx">European Southern Observatory</a> (ESO) founded</li> <li>1962 – <a href="/facts/McMath-Pierce_Solar_Telescope/TesF6KFF">Kitt Peak solar observatory</a> founded</li> <li>1962 – <a href="/facts/Green_Bank%2c_West_Virginia/3oWI3cTI">Green Bank, West Virginia</a> 90m radio telescope</li> <li>1962 – <a href="/facts/Orbiting_Solar_Observatory/WEmJHVSK">Orbiting Solar Observatory</a> 1 satellite launched</li> <li>1963 – <a href="/facts/Arecibo_radio_telescope/gkK6QE9G">Arecibo 300-meter radio telescope</a> begins operation, located in <a href="/facts/Arecibo%2c_Puerto_Rico/jnrm6h8c">Arecibo, Puerto Rico</a></li> <li>1964 – <a href="/facts/Martin_Ryle/bjgMtM4k">Martin Ryle</a>'s 1-mile (1.6 km) radio <a href="/facts/Interferometer/X3E1SsQT">interferometer</a> begins operation, located in <a href="/facts/Cambridge%2c_England/gNRdbmwK">Cambridge, England</a></li> <li>1965 – Owens Valley 40-meter radio telescope begins operation, located in <a href="/facts/Big_Pine%2c_California/XhsSyy1K">Big Pine, California</a></li> <li>1967 – First <a href="/facts/VLBI/2XDaPPMw">VLBI</a> images, with 183 km <a href="/facts/Astronomical_interferometer/rn1J8Kew">baseline</a></li> <li>1969 – Observations start at <a href="/facts/Big_Bear_Solar_Observatory/9PfaQ0ag">Big Bear Solar Observatory</a>, located in <a href="/facts/Big_Bear_Lake/Ygvmn3oK">Big Bear, California</a></li> <li>1969 – <a href="/facts/Las_Campanas_Observatory/6F9vgR2t">Las Campanas Observatory</a></li></ul> <h4>1970s</h4> <ul><li>1970 – <a href="/facts/Cerro_Tololo_telescope/LaweAISv">Cerro Tololo 158-inch (4.0 m) optical reflecting telescope</a> begins operation, located in <a href="/facts/Cerro_Tololo/LaweAISv">Cerro Tololo</a>, <a href="/facts/Chile/uEyTfEcx">Chile</a></li> <li>1970 – <a href="/facts/Kitt_Peak_National_Observatory/FBuoAAkz">Kitt Peak National Observatory</a> 158-inch (4.0 m) optical reflecting telescope begins operation, located near <a href="/facts/Tucson%2c_Arizona/26QPvEaG">Tucson, Arizona</a></li> <li>1970 – <a href="/facts/Uhuru_(satellite)/TfDFYNUR">Uhuru</a> x-ray telescope satellite</li> <li>1970 – <a href="/facts/Antoine_%25C3%2589mile_Henry_Labeyrie/U3P0Fd39">Antoine Labeyrie</a> performs the first high-resolution optical <a href="/facts/Speckle_imaging/wr4y6aX8">speckle interferometry</a> observations</li> <li>1970 – <a href="/facts/Westerbork_Synthesis_Radio_Telescope/HmqDj5Yg">Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope</a> completed, near <a href="/facts/Westerbork_(village)/yFMQDm1N">Westerbork</a>, <a href="/facts/Netherlands/y8xn5stT">Netherlands</a></li> <li>1972 – 100 m <a href="/facts/Effelsberg/eGwbvvlg">Effelsberg</a> radio telescope inaugurated (<a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a>)</li> <li>1973 – <a href="/facts/UK_Schmidt_Telescope/IVjpFkvW">UK Schmidt Telescope</a> 1.2 metre optical reflecting telescope begins operation, located in <a href="/facts/Anglo-Australian_Observatory/uePqRaeS">Anglo-Australian Observatory</a> near <a href="/facts/Coonabarabran/LhHwb5JP">Coonabarabran</a>, Australia</li> <li>1974 – <a href="/facts/Anglo-Australian_Telescope/RswR9rFL">Anglo-Australian Telescope</a> 153-inch (3.9 m) optical reflecting telescope begins operation, located in <a href="/facts/Anglo-Australian_Observatory/uePqRaeS">Anglo-Australian Observatory</a> near <a href="/facts/Coonabarabran/LhHwb5JP">Coonabarabran</a>, Australia</li> <li>1975 – Gerald Smith, Frederick Landauer, and James Janesick use a <a href="/facts/Charge-coupled_device/l6xffIcz">CCD</a> to observe <a href="/facts/Uranus/x7YwT1ar">Uranus</a>, the first astronomical CCD observation</li> <li>1975 – <a href="/facts/Antoine_%25C3%2589mile_Henry_Labeyrie/U3P0Fd39">Antoine Labeyrie</a> builds the first two-telescope optical <a href="/facts/Interferometer/X3E1SsQT">interferometer</a></li> <li>1976 – The 6-m <a href="/facts/BTA-6/SsCEWNGr">BTA-6</a> (Bolshoi Teleskop Azimutalnyi or “Large Altazimuth Telescope”) goes into operation on Mt. Pashtukhov in the Russian Caucasus</li> <li>1978 – Multiple Mirror 176-inch (4.5 m) equivalent optical/infrared reflecting telescope begins operation, located in <a href="/facts/Amado%2c_Arizona/z3GUApDk">Amado, Arizona</a></li> <li>1978 – <a href="/facts/International_Ultraviolet_Explorer/j4xCXe8s">International Ultraviolet Explorer</a> (IUE) telescope satellite</li> <li>1978 – <a href="/facts/Einstein_Observatory/uNqeLETj">Einstein High Energy Astronomy Observatory</a> x-ray telescope satellite</li> <li>1979 – <a href="/facts/UKIRT/HmyCfEPV">UKIRT</a> 150-inch (3.8 m) infrared reflecting telescope begins operation, located at <a href="/facts/Mauna_Kea_Observatory/UTo3GMuv">Mauna Kea Observatory</a>, Hawaii</li> <li>1979 – <a href="/facts/Canada-France-Hawaii_Telescope/huj8fgn2">Canada-France-Hawaii</a> 140-inch (3.6 m) optical reflecting telescope begins operation, located at <a href="/facts/Mauna_Kea_Observatory/UTo3GMuv">Mauna Kea Observatory</a>, Hawaii</li> <li>1979 – <a href="/facts/NASA_Infrared_Telescope_Facility/J6moYhjV">NASA Infrared Telescope Facility</a><a href="http://irtfweb.ifa.hawaii.edu/">[1]</a> 120-inch (3.0 m) infrared reflecting telescope begins operation, located at Mauna Kea, Hawaii</li></ul> <h4>1980s</h4> <ul><li>1980 – Completion of construction of the <a href="/facts/Very_Large_Array/WqKH7Dq9">VLA</a>, located in <a href="/facts/Socorro%2c_New_Mexico/aVYuLNSr">Socorro, New Mexico</a></li> <li>1983 – <a href="/facts/Infrared_Astronomical_Satellite/MaYMxytq">Infrared Astronomical Satellite</a> (IRAS) telescope</li> <li>1984 – <a href="/facts/IRAM_30-m/T4peEamL">IRAM 30-m</a> telescope at <a href="/facts/Veleta_(Sierra_Nevada)/xcqruBDa">Pico Veleta</a> near <a href="/facts/Granada/S9BNeGR8">Granada</a>, <a href="/facts/Spain/bIyrB8EY">Spain</a> completed</li> <li>1987 – 15-m <a href="/facts/James_Clerk_Maxwell_Telescope/1JuovWeR">James Clerk Maxwell Telescope</a> UK submillimetre telescope installed at <a href="/facts/Mauna_Kea_Observatory/UTo3GMuv">Mauna Kea Observatory</a></li> <li>1987 – 5-m Swedish-ESO Submillimetre Telescope (SEST) installed at the ESO <a href="/facts/La_Silla_Observatory/zFMd09aY">La Silla Observatory</a></li> <li>1988 – <a href="/facts/Australia_Telescope_Compact_Array/gxMP7nKv">Australia Telescope Compact Array</a> aperture synthesis radio telescope begins operation, located near <a href="/facts/Narrabri/SI5Kpq9V">Narrabri</a>, Australia</li> <li>1989 – <a href="/facts/Cosmic_Background_Explorer/U3QfJ3Al">Cosmic Background Explorer</a> (COBE) satellite</li></ul> <h4>1990s</h4> <ul><li>1990 – <a href="/facts/Hubble_Space_Telescope/NQeIf0vw">Hubble</a> 2.4m space Telescope launched, mirror found to be flawed</li> <li>1991 – <a href="/facts/Compton_Gamma_Ray_Observatory/XrhShxVh">Compton Gamma Ray Observatory</a> satellite</li> <li>1993 – <a href="/facts/Keck_telescope/4yhJmNde">Keck 10-meter optical/infrared reflecting telescope</a> begins operation, located at Mauna Kea, Hawaii</li> <li>1993 – <a href="/facts/Very_Long_Baseline_Array/RCgE1NpM">Very Long Baseline Array</a> of 10 dishes</li> <li>1995 – <a href="/facts/Cambridge_Optical_Aperture_Synthesis_Telescope_(COAST)/oxqljX6b">Cambridge Optical Aperture Synthesis Telescope (COAST)</a>—the first very high resolution optical astronomical images (from <a href="/facts/Aperture_synthesis/4gPMdmE1">aperture synthesis</a> observations)</li> <li>1995 – <a href="/facts/Giant_Metrewave_Radio_Telescope/rgnm89rL">Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope</a> of thirty 45 m dishes at Pune</li> <li>1996 – <a href="/facts/Keck_2/4yhJmNde">Keck 2</a> 10-meter optical/infrared reflecting telescope begins operation, located at Mauna Kea, Hawaii</li> <li>1997 – The Japanese <a href="/facts/HALCA/8cCQQxJb">HALCA</a> satellite begins operations, producing first <a href="/facts/VLBI/2XDaPPMw">VLBI</a> observations from space, 25,000 km maximum baseline</li> <li>1998 – First light at <a href="/facts/Very_Large_Telescope/xUQCLysQ">VLT</a>1, the 8.2 m <a href="/facts/European_Southern_Observatory/mJtjDbwx">ESO</a> telescope</li></ul> <h3>2000s</h3> <ul><li>2001 – First light at the <a href="/facts/Keck_Interferometer/4yhJmNde">Keck Interferometer</a>. Single-baseline operations begin in the near-infrared.</li> <li>2001 – First light at <a href="/facts/VLTI/xUQCLysQ">VLTI</a> interferometry array. Operations on the interferometer start with single-baseline near-infrared observations with the 103 m <a href="/facts/Astronomical_interferometer/rn1J8Kew">baseline</a>.</li> <li>2005 – First imaging with the <a href="/facts/VLTI/xUQCLysQ">VLTI</a> using the AMBER optical aperture synthesis instrument and three <a href="/facts/Very_Large_Telescope/xUQCLysQ">VLT</a> telescopes.</li> <li>2005 – First light at <a href="/facts/Southern_African_Large_Telescope/5QJetKKA">SALT</a>, the largest optical telescope in the Southern Hemisphere, with a hexagonal primary mirror of 11.1 by 9.8 meters.</li> <li>2007 – First light at <a href="/facts/Gran_Telescopio_Canarias/Kc8D0DEh">Gran Telescopio de Canarias (GTC)</a>, in Spain, the largest optical telescope in the world with an effective diameter of 10.4 meters.</li> <li>2021 — <a href="/facts/James_Webb_Space_Telescope/w4GAWnWX">James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)</a>, was launched 25 December 2021 on an ESA Ariane 5 rocket from Kourou, French Guiana and will succeed the Hubble Space Telescope as NASA's flagship mission in astrophysics.</li> <li>2023 — <a href="/facts/Euclid_(spacecraft)/DfSUqzJu">Euclid</a>, was launched on 1 July 2023 on a <a href="/facts/Falcon_9_Block_5/0QqsLwWb">Falcon 9 Block 5</a> rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida, to study dark matter and energy.</li> <li>2023 — <a href="/facts/X-Ray_Imaging_and_Spectroscopy_Mission/VhDbljxt">XRISM</a> was launched on 6 September 2023 on a <a href="/facts/H-IIA/W9Q48DHS">H-IIA</a> rocket to study the formation of the universe and the dark matter.</li></ul> <h2 id="under-construction">Under Construction</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Iranian_National_Observatory/NEreNK4G">Iranian National Observatory</a> 3.4 m (first light planned in 2020) <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Extremely_Large_Telescope/PCAY1z8l">Extremely Large Telescope</a> (first light planned in 2027)</li></ul> <h2 id="planned">Planned</h2> <p class="note">Further information: Category:Telescopes under construction</p> <ul><li>Public Telescope (PST), German project of astrofactum. Launch was planned for 2019,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> but the project's website is now defunct and no updates have been provided on the fate of the effort.</li> <li>Mid/late-2021 – Science first light of the <a href="/facts/Vera_C._Rubin_Observatory/n7t9ANEu">Vera C. Rubin Observatory</a> is anticipated for 2021 with full science operations to begin a year later.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Nancy_Grace_Roman_Space_Telescope/LXBWIsMx">Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope</a>, part of NASA's <a href="/facts/Exoplanet_Exploration_Program/DzzwL3Qe">Exoplanet Exploration Program</a>. Launch is tentatively scheduled for 2027.</li></ul> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Timeline_of_telescope_technology/KNaacNqk">Timeline of telescope technology</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/List_of_largest_optical_telescopes_historically/mePPoDo4">List of largest optical telescopes historically</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Extremely_large_telescope/PCAY1z8l">Extremely large telescope</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Michael A. Hoskin (1997). <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of Astronomy</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-41158-5.</li> <li>Edgardo Marcorini (1988). <i>Scienza e tecnica</i>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-87196-475-5.</li> <li>George Ochoa; Melinda Corey (1997). <a href="https://archive.org/details/wilsonchronology00ocho_0"><i>The Wilson Chronology of Science and Technology: A Record of Scientific Discovery and Technological Invention, from the Stone Age to the Information Age</i></a>. New York : H.W. Wilson. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8242-0933-9.</li> <li>Rushdī Rāshid; Régis Morelon (1996). <i>Encyclopedia of History of Arabic Science: Astronomy- theoretical and applied</i>. Psychology Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-12410-2.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Freeth, T.; Bitsakis, Y.; Moussas, X.; Seiradakis, J. H.; Tselikas, A.; Mangou, H.; Zafeiropoulou, M.; Hadland, R.; Bate, D.; Ramsey, A.; Allen, M.; Crawley, A.; Hockley, P.; Malzbender, T.; Gelb, D. (November 2006). "Decoding the ancient Greek astronomical calculator known as the Antikythera Mechanism". Nature. 444 (7119): 587–591. Bibcode:2006Natur.444..587F. doi:10.1038/nature05357. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 17136087. S2CID 4424998. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature05357" target="_blank">https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature05357</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>King, David A. (2002), "A Vetustissimus Arabic Text on the Quadrans Vetus", Journal for the History of Astronomy, 33 (112): 237–255 [237–8], Bibcode:2002JHA....33..237K, doi:10.1177/002182860203300302, S2CID 125329755 <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Kennedy, Edward S. (1962), "Review: The Observatory in Islam and Its Place in the General History of the Observatory by Aydin Sayili", Isis, 53 (2): 237–239, doi:10.1086/349558 <a href="/wiki/Isis_(journal)" target="_blank">/wiki/Isis_(journal)</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Langermann, Y. Tzvi (1985), "The Book of Bodies and Distances of Habash al-Hasib", Centaurus, 28 (2): 108–128 [112], Bibcode:1985Cent...28..108T, doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1985.tb00831.x <a href="/wiki/Centaurus_(journal)" target="_blank">/wiki/Centaurus_(journal)</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Ronan, Colin (1983). The Cambridge illustrated history of the world's science. p. 214. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Al-Khujandi", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" target="_blank">/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Will Durant (1950). The Story of Civilization IV: The Age of Faith, pp. 239–45. <a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" target="_blank">/wiki/Will_Durant</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>John Brian Harley; David Woodward; G. Malcolm Lewis (1992). The History of Cartography: Cartography in the traditional Islamic and South Asian societies. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 28–9. 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