Scots-language literature

<h2 id="background">Background</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Scots_language/0qPof8oC">Scots language</a>
In the late Middle Ages, <a href="/facts/Middle_Scots/3BnpBjTJ">Middle Scots</a>, often simply called English, became the dominant language of the country. It was derived largely from <a href="/facts/Old_English/9rsmQG2a">Old English</a>, with the addition of elements from Gaelic and French. Although resembling the language spoken in northern England, it became a distinct dialect from the late fourteenth century onwards.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2">2</a> It began to be adopted by the ruling elite as they gradually abandoned French. By the fifteenth century it was the language of government, with acts of parliament, council records and treasurer's accounts almost all using it from the reign of <a href="/facts/James_I_of_Scotland/CGCs2zFY">James I</a> (1406–37) onwards. As a result, Gaelic, once dominant north of the Tay, began a steady decline.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a>

<h2 id="development">Development</h2>
See also: <a href="/facts/Scottish_literature_in_the_Middle_Ages/spW9jH23">Scottish literature in the Middle Ages</a>

The first surviving major text in Scots literature is <a href="/facts/John_Barbour_(poet)/FdIevQHy">John Barbour</a>'s <a href="/facts/The_Brus/ULbBI92Y">Brus</a> (1375), composed under the patronage of <a href="/facts/Robert_II_of_Scotland/1YTQj3l3">Robert II</a> and telling the story in epic poetry of <a href="/facts/Robert_the_Bruce/D3SKgRNY">Robert I</a>'s actions before the English invasion until the end of the <a href="/facts/First_Scottish_War_of_Independence/tb1bQnx4">first war of independence</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a> The work was extremely popular among the Scots-speaking aristocracy and Barbour is referred to as the father of Scots poetry, holding a similar place to his contemporary <a href="/facts/Chaucer/HR7rHQng">Chaucer</a> in England.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a> Some Scots <a href="/facts/Ballad/fy4mVSDS">ballads</a> may date back to the late medieval era and deal with events and people that can be traced back as far as the thirteenth century, including "<a href="/facts/Sir_Patrick_Spens/4pbnhQHX">Sir Patrick Spens</a>" and "<a href="/facts/Thomas_the_Rhymer/JjTfEbts">Thomas the Rhymer</a>", but which are not known to have existed until they were collected and recorded in the eighteenth century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a> They were probably composed and transmitted orally and only began to be written down and printed, often as <a href="/facts/Broadside_ballad/XKBqxeMV">broadsides</a> and as part of <a href="/facts/Chapbooks/MDAcNdC6">chapbooks</a>, later being recorded and noted in books by collectors including <a href="/facts/Robert_Burns/IyBzAAPj">Robert Burns</a> and <a href="/facts/Walter_Scott/cgDlc0aR">Walter Scott</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> In the early fifteenth century Scots historical works included <a href="/facts/Andrew_of_Wyntoun/rcqH45DR">Andrew of Wyntoun</a>'s verse Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland and <a href="/facts/Blind_Harry/fqdjoJds">Blind Harry</a>'s <a href="/facts/The_Actes_and_Deidis_of_the_Illustre_and_Vallyeant_Campioun_Schir_William_Wallace/sdvMjThD">The Wallace</a>, which blended <a href="/facts/Romance_(heroic_literature)/NjG0kEat">historical romance</a> with the <a href="/facts/Chronicle/LdsQuNGY">verse chronicle</a>. They were probably influenced by Scots versions of popular French romances that were also produced in the period, including <a href="/facts/The_Buik_of_Alexander/zPsWeaSR">The Buik of Alexander</a>, <a href="/facts/Lancelot/Tdh1AyKC">Launcelot o the Laik</a>, The Porteous of Noblenes by <a href="/facts/Gilbert_Hay_(poet)/CBW2XVD2">Gilbert Hay</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a>
Much Middle Scots literature was produced by <a href="/facts/Makars/UCqj0K3s">makars</a>, poets with links to the royal court, which included <a href="/facts/James_I_of_Scotland/CGCs2zFY">James I</a>, who wrote the extended poem <a href="/facts/The_Kingis_Quair/5EuCpnE9">The Kingis Quair</a>. Many of the makars had university education and so were also connected with the <a href="/facts/Mother_Church/PNUpJW77">Kirk</a>. However, <a href="/facts/William_Dunbar/GJp3FK2V">William Dunbar</a>'s (1460–1513) <a href="/facts/Lament_for_the_Makaris/8qkB8fID">Lament for the Makaris</a> (c. 1505) provides evidence of a wider tradition of secular writing outside of Court and Kirk now largely lost.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> Writers such as Dunbar, <a href="/facts/Robert_Henryson/AhBp0Utx">Robert Henryson</a>, <a href="/facts/Walter_Kennedy_(poet)/wlDq0dxe">Walter Kennedy</a> and <a href="/facts/Gavin_Douglas/uKLRUFgz">Gavin Douglas</a> have been seen as creating a golden age in Scottish poetry.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> Major works include <a href="/facts/Richard_Holland/IzuAo2Fq">Richard Holland</a>'s satire the <a href="/facts/Buke_of_the_Howlat/InyUwWIE">Buke of the Howlat</a> (c. 1448).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> Dunbar produced satires, lyrics, invectives and dream visions that established the vernacular as a flexible medium for poetry of any kind. <a href="/facts/Robert_Henryson/AhBp0Utx">Robert Henryson</a> (c. 1450-c. 1505), re-worked Medieval and Classical sources, such as <a href="/facts/Chaucer/HR7rHQng">Chaucer</a> and <a href="/facts/Aesop/MvJ59WxA">Aesop</a> in works such as his Testament of Cresseid and The Morall Fabillis. <a href="/facts/Gavin_Douglas/uKLRUFgz">Gavin Douglas</a> (1475–1522), who became <a href="/facts/Bishop_of_Dunkeld/LXapwgBg">Bishop of Dunkeld</a>, injected <a href="/facts/Humanism/lM8R0wLs">Humanist</a> concerns and classical sources into his poetry.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> Much of their work survives in a single collection. The <a href="/facts/Bannatyne_Manuscript/SlP2BT0f">Bannatyne Manuscript</a> was collated by <a href="/facts/George_Bannatyne/AVuFuIru">George Bannatyne</a> (1545–1608) around 1560 and contains the work of many Scots poets who would otherwise be unknown.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a>
In the late fifteenth century, Scots prose also began to develop as a genre. Although there are earlier fragments of original Scots prose, such as the Auchinleck Chronicle,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> the first complete surviving work is John Ireland's The Meroure of Wyssdome (1490).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> There were also prose translations of French books of chivalry that survive from the 1450s, including The Book of the Law of Armys and the Order of Knychthode and the treatise <a href="/facts/Secretum_Secretorum/0VnlzSRs">Secreta Secetorum</a>, an Arabic work believed to be Aristotle's advice to <a href="/facts/Alexander_the_Great/8N3gLElj">Alexander the Great</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> The landmark work in the reign of <a href="/facts/James_IV_of_Scotland/gvoSV65m">James IV</a> was <a href="/facts/Gavin_Douglas/uKLRUFgz">Gavin Douglas</a>'s version of <a href="/facts/Virgil/K9zjwwHS">Virgil</a>'s <a href="/facts/Aeneid/s75oF7LS">Aeneid</a>, the <a href="/facts/Eneados/jD2nb17o">Eneados</a>, which was the first complete translation of a major classical text in an <a href="/facts/Anglic_languages/hN398Vyo">Anglic</a> language, finished in 1513, but overshadowed by the disaster at Flodden in the same year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a>

<h2 id="golden-age">Golden age</h2>
See also: <a href="/facts/Literature_in_early_modern_Scotland/aotgBNv2">Literature in early modern Scotland</a>

As a patron of poets and authors <a href="/facts/James_V_of_Scotland/mHrcPX76">James V</a> (r. 1513–42) supported William Stewart and <a href="/facts/John_Bellenden/Xg1hhGKu">John Bellenden</a>, who translated the Latin History of Scotland compiled in 1527 by <a href="/facts/Hector_Boece/W83okt8y">Hector Boece</a>, into verse and prose.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a> <a href="/facts/David_Lyndsay/TNkTmxwK">David Lyndsay</a> (c. 1486 – 1555), diplomat and the head of the <a href="/facts/Lyon_Court/ybImSsby">Lyon Court</a>, was a prolific poet. He wrote elegiac narratives, romances and satires.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a> From the 1550s, in the reign of <a href="/facts/Mary,_Queen_of_Scots/QxuRFDb5">Mary, Queen of Scots</a> (r. 1542–67) and the minority of her son <a href="/facts/James_VI_of_Scotland/mcmPE59x">James VI</a> (r. 1567–1625), cultural pursuits were limited by the lack of a royal court and by political turmoil. The Kirk, heavily influenced by <a href="/facts/Calvinism/l95AzJtn">Calvinism</a>, also discouraged poetry that was not devotional in nature. Nevertheless, poets from this period included <a href="/facts/Richard_Maitland/Gxs2qYn4">Richard Maitland</a> of Lethington (1496–1586), who produced meditative and satirical verses in the style of Dunbar; <a href="/facts/John_Rolland/rPXWxH4S">John Rolland</a> (fl. 1530–75), who wrote allegorical satires in the tradition of Douglas and courtier and minister <a href="/facts/Alexander_Hume/brPvo24V">Alexander Hume</a> (c. 1556–1609), whose corpus of work includes nature poetry and <a href="/facts/Epistolary_poem/VeF0uEmM">epistolary verse</a>. <a href="/facts/Alexander_Scott_(16th-century_poet)/C8177jE0">Alexander Scott</a>'s (?1520–82/3) use of short verse designed to be sung to music, opened the way for the Castilan poets of James VI's adult reign.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a>
From the mid sixteenth century, written Scots was increasingly influenced by the developing <a href="/facts/Standard_English/2eceddMM">Standard English</a> of Southern England due to developments in royal and political interactions with England.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> The English supplied books and distributing Bibles and Protestant literature in the <a href="/facts/Scottish_lowlands/HK60gGaD">Lowlands</a> when they invaded in 1547.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a> With the increasing influence and availability of books printed in England, most writing in Scotland came to be done in the English fashion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> Leading figure of the Scottish Reformation <a href="/facts/John_Knox/7KXrfy6p">John Knox</a> was accused of being hostile to Scots because he wrote in a Scots-inflected English developed while in exile at the English court.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a>
In the 1580s and 1590s James VI strongly promoted the literature of the country of his birth in Scots. His treatise, <a href="/facts/Reulis_and_Cautelis/XFRdzdJg">Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody</a>, published in 1584 when he was aged 18, was both a poetic manual and a description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue, to which he applied Renaissance principles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> He became patron and member of a loose circle of Scottish <a href="/facts/Jacobean_era/uqqsjNN8">Jacobean</a> court poets and musicians, later called the <a href="/facts/Castalian_Band/Ysbnnh4v">Castalian Band</a>, which included <a href="/facts/William_Fowler_(makar)/V6udShrj">William Fowler</a> (c. 1560 – 1612), <a href="/facts/John_Stewart_of_Baldynneis/IwrNHP1c">John Stewart of Baldynneis</a> (c. 1545 – c. 1605), and <a href="/facts/Alexander_Montgomerie/XCUJ8JSY">Alexander Montgomerie</a> (c. 1550 – 1598).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a> They translated key Renaissance texts and produced poems using French forms, including <a href="/facts/Sonnet/TSzGeCp3">sonnets</a> and short sonnets, for narrative, nature description, satire and meditations on love. Later poets that followed in this vein included <a href="/facts/William_Alexander,_1st_Earl_of_Stirling/HCpa9Qay">William Alexander</a> (c. 1567 – 1640), Alexander Craig (c. 1567 – 1627) and <a href="/facts/Robert_Aytoun/XNn7FALy">Robert Ayton</a> (1570–1627).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> By the late 1590s the king's championing of his native Scottish tradition was to some extent diffused by the prospect of inheriting of the English throne.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a>
In drama Lyndsay produced an interlude at <a href="/facts/Linlithgow_Palace/9C856Rh9">Linlithgow Palace</a> for the king and queen thought to be a version of his play <a href="/facts/A_Satire_of_the_Three_Estates/pp4adLsS">The Thrie Estaitis</a> in 1540, which satirised the corruption of church and state, and which is the only complete play to survive from before the Reformation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a> The anonymous The Maner of the Cyring of ane Play (before 1568)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a> and Philotus (published in London in 1603), are isolated examples of surviving plays. The latter is a vernacular Scots comedy of errors, probably designed for court performance for <a href="/facts/Mary,_Queen_of_Scots/QxuRFDb5">Mary, Queen of Scots</a> or James VI.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a>

<h2 id="decline">Decline</h2>

Having extolled the virtues of Scots "poesie", after his accession to the English throne, James VI increasingly favoured the language of southern England. In 1611 the Kirk adopted the English <a href="/facts/Authorised_King_James_Version/FdS5n0lX">Authorised King James Version</a> of the Bible. In 1617 interpreters were declared no longer necessary in the port of London because Scots and Englishmen were now "not so far different bot ane understandeth ane uther". Jenny Wormald, describes James as creating a "three-tier system, with Gaelic at the bottom and English at the top".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> The loss of the court as a centre of patronage in 1603 was a major blow to Scottish literature. A number of Scottish poets, including William Alexander, John Murray and Robert Aytoun accompanied the king to London, where they continued to write,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a> but they soon began to <a href="/facts/Anglicise/0xS2Rc6w">anglicise</a> their written language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> James's characteristic role as active literary participant and patron in the English court made him a defining figure for English Renaissance poetry and drama, which would reach a pinnacle of achievement in his reign,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> but his patronage for the <a href="/facts/Stylistics_(linguistics)/wS8C91Ly">high style</a> in his own Scottish tradition largely became sidelined.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a> The only significant court poet to continue to work in Scotland after the king's departure was <a href="/facts/William_Drummond_of_Hawthornden/xX3wW1KF">William Drummond of Hawthornden</a> (1585–1649),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a> and he largely abandoned Scots for a form of court English.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a> The most influential Scottish literary figure of the mid-seventeenth century, <a href="/facts/Thomas_Urquhart/UwDnWHlK">Thomas Urquhart</a> of Cromarty (1611 – c. 1660), who translated The Works of Rabelais, worked largely in English, only using occasional Scots for effect.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a> In the late seventeenth century it looked as if Scots might disappear as a literary language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a>

<h2 id="revival">Revival</h2>
See also: <a href="/facts/Scottish_literature_in_the_eighteenth_century/dbGuv4Mu">Scottish literature in the eighteenth century</a>
After the <a href="/facts/Acts_of_Union_1707/6JDrg6sj">Union in 1707</a> and the shift of political power to England, the use of Scots was discouraged by many in authority and education.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a> Intellectuals of the <a href="/facts/Scottish_Enlightenment/E0F2WjlG">Scottish Enlightenment</a> like <a href="/facts/David_Hume/aTwlJ80V">David Hume</a> and <a href="/facts/Adam_Smith/sj2Tt18r">Adam Smith</a>, went to great lengths to get rid of every Scotticism from their writings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> Following such examples, many well-off Scots took to learning English through the activities of those such as <a href="/facts/Thomas_Sheridan_(actor)/TLmb7499">Thomas Sheridan</a>, who in 1761 gave a series of lectures on English <a href="/facts/Elocution/DN2VNE6f">elocution</a>. Charging a <a href="/facts/Guinea_(British_coin)/4h8hIU2R">guinea</a> at a time (about £200 in today's money,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a>) they were attended by over 300 men, and he was made a freeman of the City of <a href="/facts/Edinburgh/PcsoaK9h">Edinburgh</a>. Following this, some of the city's intellectuals formed the Select Society for Promoting the Reading and Speaking of the English Language in Scotland. From such eighteenth-century activities grew <a href="/facts/Scottish_English/VT54VbX9">Scottish Standard English</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a> Scots remained the vernacular of many rural communities and the growing number of urban working class Scots.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a>

<a href="/facts/Allan_Ramsay_(poet)/ej9CWRUP">Allan Ramsay</a> (1686–1758) was the most important literary figure of the era, often described as leading a "vernacular revival". He laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, publishing The Ever Green (1724), a collection that included many major poetic works of the Stewart period.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a> He led the trend for <a href="/facts/Pastoral/NkyqJNCe">pastoral</a> poetry, helping to develop the <a href="/facts/Habbie_stanza/VLWNnqAo">Habbie stanza</a>, which would be later be used by Robert Burns as a <a href="/facts/Poetic_form/ylGarm6p">poetic form</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a> His Tea-Table Miscellany (1724–37) contained poems old Scots folk material, his own poems in the folk style and "gentilizings" of Scots poems in the English neo-classical style.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a> Ramsay was part of a community of poets working in Scots and English. These included <a href="/facts/William_Hamilton_(comic_poet)/lGWR2fuI">William Hamilton of Gilbertfield</a> (c. 1665 – 1751), Robert Crawford (1695–1733), <a href="/facts/Alexander_Ross_(poet)/Febcfg0X">Alexander Ross</a> (1699–1784), the Jacobite <a href="/facts/William_Hamilton_(Jacobite_poet)/dxpoXIFe">William Hamilton</a> of Bangour (1704–1754), socialite <a href="/facts/Alison_Rutherford/qwFjQTMx">Alison Rutherford Cockburn</a> (1712–1794), and poet and playwright <a href="/facts/James_Thomson_(poet,_born_1700)/s4sUmeQa">James Thomson</a> (1700–1748).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a> Also important was <a href="/facts/Robert_Fergusson/q1cNhEAN">Robert Fergusson</a> (1750–1774), a largely urban poet, recognised in his short lifetime as the unofficial "laureate" of Edinburgh. His most famous work was his unfinished long poem, Auld Reekie (1773), dedicated to the life of the city. His borrowing from a variety of dialects prefigured the creation of <a href="/facts/Synthetic_Scots/SpE3TVj9">Synthetic Scots</a> in the twentieth century<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a> and he would be a major influence on <a href="/facts/Robert_Burns/IyBzAAPj">Robert Burns</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a>
Burns (1759–1796), an Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is widely regarded as the <a href="/facts/National_poet/aGJlGEJ7">national poet</a> of Scotland and a major figure in the Romantic movement. As well as making original compositions, Burns also collected <a href="/facts/Folk_music/yFHpeE7k">folk songs</a> from across Scotland, often revising or <a href="/facts/Literary_adaptation/NnlIuqoE">adapting</a> them. His poem (and song) "<a href="/facts/Auld_Lang_Syne/6XdKUMfN">Auld Lang Syne</a>" is often sung at <a href="/facts/Hogmanay/UpQWvgGB">Hogmanay</a> (the last day of the year), and "<a href="/facts/Scots_Wha_Hae/l22kLSBM">Scots Wha Hae</a>" served for a long time as an unofficial <a href="/facts/National_anthem/H2L6cPAT">national anthem</a> of the country.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a> Burns's poetry drew upon a substantial familiarity with and knowledge of <a href="/facts/Classics/CXF1ltbH">Classical</a>, <a href="/facts/Bible/SqkRTKCh">Biblical</a>, and <a href="/facts/English_literature/7YWg6vJf">English literature</a>, as well as the Scottish <a href="/facts/Makar/UCqj0K3s">Makar</a> tradition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> Burns was skilled in writing not only in the <a href="/facts/Scots_language/0qPof8oC">Scots language</a> but also in the <a href="/facts/Scottish_English/VT54VbX9">Scottish English</a> <a href="/facts/Dialect/gJ7uQQoj">dialect</a> of the <a href="/facts/English_language/tpkxGt7b">English language</a>. Some of his works, such as "Love and Liberty" (also known as "The Jolly Beggars"), are written in both Scots and English for various effects.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a> His themes included <a href="/facts/Republicanism/gUetSmCx">republicanism</a>, <a href="/facts/Radicalism_(historical)/aMoWMR8Q">radicalism</a>, <a href="/facts/Scottish_patriotism/HqA3DvP0">Scottish patriotism</a>, <a href="/facts/Anti-clericalism/b8Vf1NB0">anticlericalism</a>, <a href="/facts/Social_class/gJbHDVNc">class</a> inequalities, <a href="/facts/Gender_roles/pt2sQYD2">gender roles</a>, commentary on the Scottish Kirk of his time, <a href="/facts/Scottish_cultural_identity/HqA3DvP0">Scottish cultural identity</a>, <a href="/facts/Poverty/hNLtrNmK">poverty</a>, <a href="/facts/Human_sexuality/fjnqcFxP">sexuality</a>, and the beneficial aspects of popular socialising.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a>

<h2 id="marginalisation">Marginalisation</h2>
See also: <a href="/facts/Scottish_literature_in_the_eighteenth_century/dbGuv4Mu">Scottish literature in the eighteenth century</a>
Scottish poetry is often seen as entering a period of decline in the nineteenth century, with Scots-language poetry criticised for its use of parochial dialect.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a> Conservative and anti-radical <a href="/facts/Burns_club/IyBzAAPj">Burns clubs</a> sprang up around Scotland, filled with members that praised a sanitised version of <a href="/facts/Robert_Burns/IyBzAAPj">Robert Burns</a>' life and work and poets who fixated on the "Burns stanza" as a form.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a> Scottish poetry has been seen as descending into infantalism as exemplified by the highly popular <a href="/facts/Whistle_Binkie/PFRVKvPA">Whistle Binkie</a> anthologies, which appeared 1830–90 and which notoriously included in one volume "<a href="/facts/Wee_Willie_Winkie/sQ04IDgf">Wee Willie Winkie</a>" by <a href="/facts/William_Miller_(poet)/yKeXsIdf">William Miler</a> (1810–1872).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a> This tendency has been seen as leading late-nineteenth-century Scottish poetry into the sentimental parochialism of the <a href="/facts/Kailyard_school/LGVdNVbf">Kailyard school</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> Poets from the lower social orders who used Scots included the weaver-poet <a href="/facts/William_Thom_(poet)/KU8gVdz8">William Thom</a> (1799–1848), whose his "A chieftain unknown to the Queen" (1843) combined simple Scots language with a social critique of <a href="/facts/Queen_Victoria/CgxSlQ4g">Queen Victoria</a>'s visit to Scotland.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a>
<a href="/facts/Walter_Scott/cgDlc0aR">Walter Scott</a> (1771–1832), the leading literary figure of the era began his career as a ballad collector and became the most popular poet in Britain and then its most successful novelist.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a> His works were largely written in English and Scots was largely confined to dialogue or interpolated narrative, in a model that would be followed by other novelists such as <a href="/facts/John_Galt_(novelist)/JkVSPp9A">John Galt</a> (1779–1839) and later <a href="/facts/Robert_Louis_Stevenson/dpqRUyc0">Robert Louis Stevenson</a> (1850–1894).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a> <a href="/facts/James_Hogg/7Ll5AJHq">James Hogg</a> (1770–1835) worked largely in Scots, providing a counterpart to Scott's work in English. Popular Scottish newspapers regularly included articles and commentary in the vernacular.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a>
There was an interest in translations into Scots from other Germanic languages, such as Danish, Swedish and German. These included <a href="/facts/Robert_Jamieson_(antiquary)/um36W21L">Robert Jamieson</a>'s (c. 1780–1844) Popular Ballads And Songs From Tradition, Manuscripts And Scarce Editions With Translations Of Similar Pieces From The Ancient Danish Language and <a href="/facts/Illustrations_of_Northern_Antiquities/lfoQLNP2">Illustrations of Northern Antiquities</a> (1814) and
<a href="/facts/Robert_Williams_Buchanan/9XBIJ3uF">Robert Williams Buchanan</a>'s (1841–1901) Ballad Stories of the Affections (1866).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a>

<h2 id="twentieth-century-renaissance">Twentieth-century renaissance</h2>
See also: <a href="/facts/Literature_in_modern_Scotland/2hmsUu52">Literature in modern Scotland</a> and <a href="/facts/Scottish_Renaissance/fY6LnyuK">Scottish Renaissance</a>

In the early twentieth century there was a new surge of activity in Scottish literature, influenced by <a href="/facts/Modernism/AfPDL45X">modernism</a> and resurgent nationalism, known as the Scottish Renaissance.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a> The leading figure in the movement was <a href="/facts/Hugh_MacDiarmid/WyRG2Dwc">Hugh MacDiarmid</a> (the pseudonym of Christopher Murray Grieve, 1892–1978). MacDiarmid attempted to revive the Scots language as a medium for serious literature in poetic works including "<a href="/facts/A_Drunk_Man_Looks_at_the_Thistle/yxTuQhNy">A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle</a>" (1936), developing a form of Synthetic Scots that combined different regional dialects and archaic terms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a> Other writers that emerged in this period, and are often treated as part of the movement, include the poets <a href="/facts/Edwin_Muir/saccflpo">Edwin Muir</a> (1887–1959) and <a href="/facts/William_Soutar/wLPe9C92">William Soutar</a> (1898–1943), who pursued an exploration of identity, rejecting nostalgia and parochialism and engaging with social and political issues.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a> Some writers that emerged after the Second World War followed MacDiarmid by writing in Scots, including <a href="/facts/Robert_Garioch/1ryhXdcb">Robert Garioch</a> (1909–1981) and <a href="/facts/Sydney_Goodsir_Smith/o2EPRWLI">Sydney Goodsir Smith</a> (1915–1975). The Glaswegian poet <a href="/facts/Edwin_Morgan_(poet)/Ik7Nsx5Y">Edwin Morgan</a> (1920–2010) became known for translations of works from a wide range of European languages. He was also the first <a href="/facts/Scots_Makar/UCqj0K3s">Scots Makar</a> (the official <a href="/facts/National_poet/aGJlGEJ7">national poet</a>), appointed by the inaugural Scottish government in 2004.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> <a href="/facts/Alexander_Gray_(poet)/jlHU4yk4">Alexander Gray</a> was an academic and poet, but is chiefly remembered for this translations into Scots from the German and Danish ballad traditions into Scots, including Arrows. A Book of German Ballads and Folksongs Attempted in Scots (1932) and Four-and-Forty. A Selection of Danish Ballads Presented in Scots (1954).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a>
The generation of poets that grew up in the postwar period included <a href="/facts/Douglas_Dunn/t9oQSwo0">Douglas Dunn</a> (born 1942), whose work has often seen a coming to terms with class and national identity within the formal structures of poetry and commenting on contemporary events, as in Barbarians (1979) and Northlight (1988). His most personal work is contained in the collection of Elegies (1985), which deal with the death of his first wife from cancer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a> <a href="/facts/Tom_Leonard_(poet)/CnlLnHTg">Tom Leonard</a> (born 1944), works in the <a href="/facts/Glasgow_patter/eMfyCpfY">Glaswegian dialect</a>, pioneering the working class voice in Scottish poetry.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a> <a href="/facts/Liz_Lochhead/JGN6THkK">Liz Lochhead</a> (born 1947) also explored the lives of working-class people of Glasgow, but added an appreciation of female voices within a sometimes male dominated society.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a> She also adapted classic texts into Scots, with versions of <a href="/facts/Moli%C3%A8re/9p9dcpw7">Molière</a>'s <a href="/facts/Tartuffe/mraRLnMd">Tartuffe</a> (1985) and <a href="/facts/The_Misanthrope/STT9qwP0">The Misanthrope</a> (1973–2005), while Edwin Morgan translated <a href="/facts/Cyrano_de_Bergerac/v6Nj8NH3">Cyrano de Bergerac</a> (1992).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a>
The Scottish Renaissance increasingly concentrated on the novel, particularly after the 1930s when Hugh MacDiarmid was living in isolation in Shetland and many of these were written in English and not Scots. However, George Blake pioneered the exploration of the experiences of the working class in his major works such as The Shipbuilders (1935). Lewis Grassic Gibbon, the pseudonym of James Leslie Mitchell, produced one of the most important realisations of the ideas of the Scottish Renaissance in his trilogy <a href="/facts/A_Scots_Quair/hwPWmTQD">A Scots Quair</a> (<a href="/facts/Sunset_Song/GjwywNT8">Sunset Song</a>, 1932, Cloud Howe, 1933 and Grey Granite, 1934), which mixed different Scots dialects with the narrative voice.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a> Other works that investigated the working class included James Barke's (1905–1958), Major Operation (1936) and The Land of the Leal (1939) and <a href="/facts/J._F._Hendry/b0MKdsqj">J. F. Hendry</a>'s (1912–1986) Fernie Brae (1947).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a>
From the 1980s Scottish literature enjoyed another major revival, particularly associated with a group of Glasgow writers focused around meetings in the house of critic, poet and teacher <a href="/facts/Philip_Hobsbaum/EAzVXCrD">Philip Hobsbaum</a> (1932–2005). Also important in the movement was <a href="/facts/Peter_Kravitz/uhEqH1CL">Peter Kravitz</a>, editor of <a href="/facts/Birlinn_(publisher)/UW0Mp1NJ">Polygon Books</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a> These included <a href="/facts/Alasdair_Gray/wDLuVhFd">Alasdair Gray</a> (born 1934), whose epic <a href="/facts/Lanark:_A_Life_in_Four_Books/e9U7M5CG">Lanark</a> (1981) built on the <a href="/facts/Proletarian_literature/aDbjjG4G">working class novel</a> to explore realistic and fantastic narratives. <a href="/facts/James_Kelman/oqzUoRHd">James Kelman</a>’s (born 1946) The Busconductor Hines (1984) and <a href="/facts/A_Disaffection/5PJP0HUR">A Disaffection</a> (1989) were among the first novels to fully utilise a working class Scots voice as the main narrator.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a> In the 1990s major, prize winning, Scottish novels that emerged from this movement included Gray's <a href="/facts/Poor_Things/0YKgQM07">Poor Things</a> (1992), which investigated the capitalist and imperial origins of Scotland in an inverted version of the <a href="/facts/Frankenstein/15QDt2dI">Frankenstein</a> myth,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a> <a href="/facts/Irvine_Welsh/aloc1B9Y">Irvine Welsh</a>'s (born 1958), <a href="/facts/Trainspotting_(novel)/vnwF4Rod">Trainspotting</a> (1993), which dealt with the drug addiction in contemporary Edinburgh, <a href="/facts/Alan_Warner_(novelist)/9HszRAIC">Alan Warner</a>’s (born 1964) <a href="/facts/Morvern_Callar/VMn9tNRz">Morvern Callar</a> (1995), dealing with death and authorship and Kelman's <a href="/facts/How_Late_It_Was,_How_Late/r5ek7zH5">How Late It Was, How Late</a> (1994), a <a href="/facts/Stream_of_consciousness_(narrative_mode)/wjWFwBp6">stream of consciousness</a> novel dealing with a life of petty crime.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a> These works were linked by a reaction to <a href="/facts/Thatcherism/h7DEUoH6">Thatcherism</a> that was sometimes overtly political, and explored marginal areas of experience using vivid vernacular language (including expletives and Scots dialect).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a> <a href="/facts/But%27n%27Ben_A-Go-Go/RGNhn3ql">But'n'Ben A-Go-Go</a> (2000) by <a href="/facts/Matthew_Fitt/KMje3GTH">Matthew Fitt</a> is the first <a href="/facts/Cyberpunk/3MIjfHNL">cyberpunk</a> novel written entirely in Scots.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a> One major outlet for literature in <a href="/facts/Lallans/SpE3TVj9">Lallans</a> (Lowland Scots) is Lallans, the magazine of the Scots Language Society.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a>

<h2 id="notes">Notes</h2>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">G. Carruthers, Scottish Literature (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009), ISBN 074863309X, p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">J. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0748602763, pp. 60–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">J. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0748602763, pp. 60–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">A. A. M. Duncan, ed., The Brus (Canongate, 1997), ISBN 0-86241-681-7, p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">N. Jayapalan, History of English Literature (Atlantic, 2001), ISBN 81-269-0041-5, p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">E. Lyle, Scottish Ballads (Edinburgh: Canongate Books, 2001), ISBN 0-86241-477-6, pp. 9–10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">R. Crawford, Scotland's Books: a History of Scottish Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), ISBN 0-19-538623-X, pp. 216–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">J. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0748602763, pp. 60–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">A. Grant, Independence and Nationhood, Scotland 1306–1469 (Baltimore: Edward Arnold, 1984), pp. 102–3. <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">J. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0748602763, pp. 60–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">M. Lynch, "Culture: 3 Medieval", in M. Lynch, ed., The Oxford Companion to Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), ISBN 0-19-211696-7, pp. 117–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">T. van Heijnsbergen, "Culture: 9 Renaissance and Reformation: poetry to 1603", in M. Lynch, ed., The Oxford Companion to Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), ISBN 0-19-211696-7, pp. 129–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">M. Lynch, "Culture: 3 Medieval", in M. Lynch, ed., The Oxford Companion to Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), ISBN 0-19-211696-7, pp. 117–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Thomas Thomson ed., Auchinleck Chronicle (Edinburgh, 1819). <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Thomson_(advocate)" target="_blank">/wiki/Thomas_Thomson_(advocate)</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">J. Martin, Kingship and Love in Scottish poetry, 1424–1540 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008), ISBN 0-7546-6273-X, p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">J. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0748602763, pp. 60–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">J. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0748602763, pp. 60–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">I. Brown, T. Owen Clancy, M. Pittock, S. Manning, eds, The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature: From Columba to the Union, until 1707 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN 0-7486-1615-2, pp. 256–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">T. van Heijnsbergen, "Culture: 9 Renaissance and Reformation: poetry to 1603", in M. Lynch, ed., The Oxford Companion to Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), ISBN 0-19-211696-7, pp. 129–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">T. van Heijnsbergen, "Culture: 9 Renaissance and Reformation: poetry to 1603", in M. Lynch, ed., The Oxford Companion to Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), ISBN 0-19-211696-7, pp. 129–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, "A Brief History of Scots" in J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, eds, The Edinburgh Companion to Scots (Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 2003), ISBN 0-7486-1596-2, p. 10ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">J. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-7486-0276-3, pp. 102–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, "A Brief History of Scots" in J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, eds, The Edinburgh Companion to Scots (Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 2003), ISBN 0-7486-1596-2, p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">G. Carruthers, Scottish Literature (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009), ISBN 074863309X, p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">R. D. S. Jack, "Poetry under King James VI", in C. Cairns, ed., The History of Scottish Literature (Aberdeen University Press, 1988), vol. 1, ISBN 0-08-037728-9, pp. 126–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">R. D. S. Jack, Alexander Montgomerie (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1985), ISBN 0-7073-0367-2, pp. 1–2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">T. van Heijnsbergen, "Culture: 9 Renaissance and Reformation: poetry to 1603", in M. Lynch, ed., The Oxford Companion to Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), ISBN 0-19-211696-7, pp. 129–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">R. D. S. Jack, "Poetry under King James VI", in C. Cairns, ed., The History of Scottish Literature (Aberdeen University Press, 1988), vol. 1, ISBN 0-08-037728-9, p. 137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">I. Brown, T. Owen Clancy, M. Pittock, S. Manning, eds, The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature: From Columba to the Union, until 1707 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN 0-7486-1615-2, pp. 256–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">T. van Heijnsbergen, "Culture: 7 Renaissance and Reformation (1460–1660): literature", in M. Lynch, ed., The Oxford Companion to Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), ISBN 0-19-211696-7, pp. 127–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">S. Carpenter, "Scottish drama until 1650", in I. Brown, ed., The Edinburgh Companion to Scottish Drama (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2011), ISBN 0748641076, p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">J. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0748602763, pp. 192–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">K. M. Brown, "Scottish identity", in B. Bradshaw and P. Roberts, eds, British Consciousness and Identity: The Making of Britain, 1533–1707 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), ISBN 0521893615, pp. 253–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">M. Spiller, "Poetry after the Union 1603–1660" in C. Cairns, ed., The History of Scottish Literature (Aberdeen University Press, 1988), vol. 1, ISBN 0-08-037728-9, pp. 141–52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">N. Rhodes, "Wrapped in the Strong Arm of the Union: Shakespeare and King James" in W. Maley and A. Murphy, eds, Shakespeare and Scotland (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004), ISBN 0-7190-6636-0, pp. 38–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">R. D. S. Jack, "Poetry under King James VI", in C. Cairns, ed., The History of Scottish Literature (Aberdeen University Press, 1988), vol. 1, ISBN 0-08-037728-9, pp. 137–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">T. van Heijnsbergen, "Culture: 7 Renaissance and Reformation (1460–1660): literature", in M. Lynch, ed., The Oxford Companion to Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), ISBN 0-19-211696-7, pp. 127–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">J. Corbett, Written in the Language of the Scottish Nation: A History of Literary Translation Into Scots (Multilingual Matters, 1999), ISBN 1853594318, p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">J. Corbett, Written in the Language of the Scottish Nation: A History of Literary Translation Into Scots (Multilingual Matters, 1999), ISBN 1853594318, p. 89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">J. Corbett, Written in the Language of the Scottish Nation: A History of Literary Translation Into Scots (Multilingual Matters, 1999), ISBN 1853594318, p. 94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">C. Jones, A Language Suppressed: The Pronunciation of the Scots Language in the 18th Century (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1993), p. vii. <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">Ian Simpson Ross, The Life of Adam Smith (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2nd edn., 2010), ISBN 0191613940. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J38Ll9DUsUAC&dq=David+Hume+and+Adam+Smith+Scotticism&pg=PT174" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=J38Ll9DUsUAC&dq=David+Hume+and+Adam+Smith+Scotticism&pg=PT174</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark, Gregory (2017). "The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved May 7, 2024. <a href="/wiki/Retail_Price_Index" target="_blank">/wiki/Retail_Price_Index</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, "A Brief History of Scots" in J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, eds, The Edinburgh Companion to Scots (Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 2003), ISBN 0-7486-1596-2, p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, "A Brief History of Scots" in J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, eds, The Edinburgh Companion to Scots (Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 2003), ISBN 0-7486-1596-2, p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">R. M. Hogg, The Cambridge History of the English Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), ISBN 0521264782, p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:47">J. Buchan (2003), Crowded with Genius, Harper Collins, p. 311, ISBN 0-06-055888-1 <a href="0-06-055888-1" target="_blank">0-06-055888-1</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:48">"Poetry in Scots: Brus to Burns" in C. R. Woodring and J. S. Shapiro, eds, The Columbia History of British Poetry (Columbia University Press, 1994), ISBN 0585041555, p. 100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:49">C. Maclachlan, Before Burns (Canongate Books, 2010), ISBN 1847674666, pp. ix–xviii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:50">J. Corbett, Written in the Language of the Scottish Nation: A History of Literary Translation Into Scots (Multilingual Matters, 1999), ISBN 1853594318, p. 106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:51">R. Crawford, Scotland's Books: a History of Scottish Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), ISBN 0-19-538623-X, p. 335. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:52">L. McIlvanney (Spring 2005), "Hugh Blair, Robert Burns, and the Invention of Scottish Literature", Eighteenth-Century Life, 29 (2): 25–46, doi:10.1215/00982601-29-2-25 <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:53">Robert Burns: "Literary Style Archived 2013-10-16 at the Wayback Machine", retrieved 24 September 2010. <a href="http://www.blurbwire.com/topics/Robert_Burns::sub::Literary_Style" target="_blank">http://www.blurbwire.com/topics/Robert_Burns::sub::Literary_Style</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:54">Robert Burns: "hae meat", retrieved 24 September 2010. <a href="http://poetrydispatch.wordpress.com/2009/01/24/robert-burns-some-hae-meat/some" target="_blank">http://poetrydispatch.wordpress.com/2009/01/24/robert-burns-some-hae-meat/some</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:55">Red Star Cafe: "to the Kibble." Retrieved 24 September 2010. <a href="http://redstarcafe.wordpress.com/2008/01/25/address-to-the-kibble/Address" target="_blank">http://redstarcafe.wordpress.com/2008/01/25/address-to-the-kibble/Address</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:56">L. Mandell, "Nineteenth-century Scottish poetry", in I. Brown, ed., The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature: Enlightenment, Britain and empire (1707–1918) (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN 0748624813, pp. 301–07. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:57">G. Carruthers, Scottish Literature (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009), ISBN 074863309X, pp. 58–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:58">G. Carruthers, Scottish Literature (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009), ISBN 074863309X, pp. 58–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:59">M. Lindsay and L. Duncan, The Edinburgh Book of Twentieth-Century Scottish Poetry (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2005), ISBN 074862015X, pp. xxxiv–xxxv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:60">L. Mandell, "Nineteenth-century Scottish poetry", in I. Brown, ed., The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature: Enlightenment, Britain and empire (1707–1918) (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN 0748624813, pp. 301–07. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">A. Calder, Byron and Scotland: Radical Or Dandy? (Rowman & Littlefield, 1989), ISBN 0389208736, p. 112. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">G. Carruthers, Scottish Literature (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009), ISBN 074863309X, pp. 58–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">William Donaldson, The Language of the People: Scots Prose from the Victorian Revival, Aberdeen University Press 1989. <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:64">J. Corbett, Written in the Language of the Scottish Nation: A History of Literary Translation Into Scots (Multilingual Matters, 1999), ISBN 1853594318, pp. 116. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:65">"The Scottish 'Renaissance' and beyond", Visiting Arts: Scotland: Cultural Profile, archived from the original on 30 September 2011 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110930034437/http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5403.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20110930034437/http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5403.html</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:66">"The Scottish 'Renaissance' and beyond", Visiting Arts: Scotland: Cultural Profile, archived from the original on 30 September 2011 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110930034437/http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5403.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20110930034437/http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5403.html</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:67">"The Scottish 'Renaissance' and beyond", Visiting Arts: Scotland: Cultural Profile, archived from the original on 30 September 2011 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110930034437/http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5403.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20110930034437/http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5403.html</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:68">The Scots Makar, The Scottish Government, 16 February 2004, archived from the original on 4 February 2012, retrieved 2007-10-28 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120204042020/http://www.scotland.gov.uk/News/Releases/2004/02/5075" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120204042020/http://www.scotland.gov.uk/News/Releases/2004/02/5075</a> <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:69">J. Corbett, Written in the Language of the Scottish Nation: A History of Literary Translation Into Scots (Multilingual Matters, 1999), ISBN 1853594318, pp. 161–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:70">"Scottish poetry" in S. Cushman, C. Cavanagh, J. Ramazani and P. Rouzer, eds, The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics: Fourth Edition (Princeton University Press, 2012), ISBN 1400841429, pp. 1276–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:71">G. Carruthers, Scottish Literature (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009), ISBN 074863309X, pp. 67–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:72">"Scottish poetry" in S. Cushman, C. Cavanagh, J. Ramazani and P. Rouzer, eds, The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics: Fourth Edition (Princeton University Press, 2012), ISBN 1400841429, pp. 1276–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:73">J. MacDonald, "Theatre in Scotland" in B. Kershaw and P. Thomson, The Cambridge History of British Theatre: Volume 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), ISBN 0521651328, p. 223. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:74">C. Craig, "Culture: modern times (1914–): the novel", in M. Lynch, ed., The Oxford Companion to Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), ISBN 0-19-211696-7, pp. 157–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:75">C. Craig, "Culture: modern times (1914–): the novel", in M. Lynch, ed., The Oxford Companion to Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), ISBN 0-19-211696-7, pp. 157–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:76">"The Scottish 'Renaissance' and beyond", Visiting Arts: Scotland: Cultural Profile, archived from the original on 30 September 2011 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110930034437/http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5403.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20110930034437/http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5403.html</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:77">C. Craig, "Culture: modern times (1914–): the novel", in M. Lynch, ed., The Oxford Companion to Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), ISBN 0-19-211696-7, pp. 157–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:78">C. Craig, "Culture: modern times (1914–): the novel", in M. Lynch, ed., The Oxford Companion to Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), ISBN 0-19-211696-7, pp. 157–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:79">"The Scottish 'Renaissance' and beyond", Visiting Arts: Scotland: Cultural Profile, archived from the original on 30 September 2011 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110930034437/http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5403.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20110930034437/http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5403.html</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:80">"The Scottish 'Renaissance' and beyond", Visiting Arts: Scotland: Cultural Profile, archived from the original on 30 September 2011 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110930034437/http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5403.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20110930034437/http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5403.html</a> <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:81">J. Corbett, "Past and future language: Matthew Fitt and Iain M. Banks" in C. McCracken-Flesher, ed., Scotland as Science Fiction A later work, Harry Josephine Giles' Deep Wheel Orcadia, includes English translation. (Rowman & Littlefield, 2012), ISBN 1611483743, p. 121. <a href="/wiki/Harry_Josephine_Giles" target="_blank">/wiki/Harry_Josephine_Giles</a> <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:82">J. Corbett, Language and Scottish Literature (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997), ISBN 0748608265, p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Scots-language literature open-in-new

Scots-language literature