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Alt-tech
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<h2 id="history">History</h2> <p>Alt-tech websites were first described in the 2010s. They became popular leading up to the early 2020s due to <a href="/facts/Deplatforming/DmeMSYMB">deplatforming</a>, banning (including <a href="/facts/Shadow_banning/sY4qtDex">shadow banning</a>), and other restrictions imposed on extremists by <a href="/facts/Big_Tech/n3mdHnMK">Big Tech</a> companies. Some <a href="/facts/Right-wing/CVoubHMm">right-wing</a> groups claim that these companies censor their views.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> After the <a href="/facts/Unite_the_Right_rally/fSufk0F5">Unite the Right rally</a> in August 2017, technology companies such as <a href="/facts/Google/GT9Sugza">Google</a>, <a href="/facts/Facebook/0IhXFR6u">Facebook</a>, and <a href="/facts/Twitter/VWwDNGUm">Twitter</a> were criticized for deplatforming <a href="/facts/White_supremacists/RBQEYS2y">white supremacists</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Hope_not_Hate/JgN8aWeA">Hope not Hate</a> researcher Joe Mulhall identified the deplatforming of <a href="/facts/Britain_First/lbvtFSGx">Britain First</a> in 2018, and <a href="/facts/Tommy_Robinson_(activist)/JQWjCoec">Tommy Robinson</a> in 2019, as two major events that spurred British social media users to join alternative platforms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> Ethan Zuckerman and Chand Rajendra-Nicolucci further referenced the August 2018 deplatforming of conspiracy theorist <a href="/facts/Alex_Jones/Kw10B5MN">Alex Jones</a> as a pivotal moment.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p><p>In October 2018, alt-tech platform <a href="/facts/Gab_(social_network)/Wzyardn0">Gab</a> received extensive public scrutiny following the <a href="/facts/Pittsburgh_synagogue_shooting/d9rp8XFc">Pittsburgh synagogue shooting</a>, after it was found that the sole suspect of the attack, Robert Gregory Bowers, had posted a message on Gab before the shooting, indicating an immediate intent to cause harm.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> Bowers had a history of making extreme, <a href="/facts/Antisemitism/kUpfFkqx">antisemitic</a> postings on the site.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> After the shooting, Gab briefly went offline when it was dropped by its hosting provider and denied service by several payment processors.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> </p><p>The popularity of alt-tech platforms surged in January 2021, when United States president <a href="/facts/Donald_Trump/pqqKY21P">Donald Trump</a>, and many of his prominent followers, were suspended from Twitter and other platforms. <a href="/facts/Parler/Y4eyk9p3">Parler</a>, a website with a large proportion of Trump supporters among its userbase, was taken offline when <a href="/facts/Amazon_Web_Services/UFVN2796">Amazon Web Services</a> suspended its hosting several days after the <a href="/facts/2021_storming_of_the_United_States_Capitol/hcF25Aqf">January 6 storming of the United States Capitol</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> It was restarted with a new host on February 15, 2021.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p><p>In July 2021, an example of alt-tech hardware was announced as the "<a href="/facts/Umidigi_A9/kbXcfFzJ">Freedom Phone</a>" – a <a href="/facts/Smartphone/cSIrBMWG">smartphone</a> that promoted privacy-oriented features and an "uncensorable" app store. It was found that the device was merely a <a href="/facts/White-label_product/JH3yWfqc">white-label</a> version of a Chinese smartphone produced by <a href="/facts/Umidigi/jEQSW0g5">Umidigi</a>, with a modified <a href="/facts/Android_(operating_system)/nNyHb0xz">Android</a> <a href="/facts/List_of_custom_Android_distributions/0zV9QDT7">firmware</a> pre-loaded with apps popular among the target audience, and a rebranded version of an <a href="/facts/Open_source/7X9rCdz4">open source</a> client for <a href="/facts/Google_Play_Store/j3N4wv6g">Google Play Store</a> (rather than the independent app store implied in its promotional materials).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p><p>By 2022, <i><a href="/facts/The_New_York_Times/T9marWVX">The New York Times</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/The_Guardian/H84wwJYM">The Guardian</a></i> described a crowded marketplace of alt-tech platforms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> <i>The Times</i> noted that alt-tech platforms claiming censorship by Twitter – such as <a href="/facts/Gettr/yzWngLtu">Gettr</a>, Parler, and Rumble – have mostly advertised themselves on Twitter.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> </p><p>In February 2022, Trump launched a Twitter alternative, <a href="/facts/Truth_Social/PxhzHqnq">Truth Social</a>, after establishing a messaging platform outside of Twitter,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> such as a now discontinued Trump blog.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> During development, Truth Social did not at first acknowledge using <a href="/facts/Mastodon_(software)/paYlaPlI">Mastodon</a>'s open source code, and was given an ultimatum by Mastodon,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> quietly admitting to the use of Mastodon code later on.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> Truth Social's launch was accompanied by substantial technical difficulties.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> The platform's terms of service include an incongruous clause that users may not "disparage, tarnish, or otherwise harm, in our opinion, us and/or the Site."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> According to a report from consumer rights group <a href="/facts/Public_Citizen/5sHATLrK">Public Citizen</a>, alt tech platforms with a supposed focus on free speech include the censorship of some liberal and conservative viewpoints, as well as the routine <a href="/facts/Moderation_system/AwdjqfIW">content moderation</a> on other platforms, creating an "<a href="/facts/Echo_chamber_(media)/m1zSghlN">echo chamber</a>". Based on the report, Truth Social was found to <a href="/facts/Shadow_banning/sY4qtDex">shadowban</a> users that disagree with the site's narrative as well as a swathe of other content including some conservative content. "Truth Social" has banned content mentioning liberal views on <a href="/facts/Abortion/ro0RjIBT">abortion</a> and the <a href="/facts/Public_hearings_of_the_United_States_House_Select_Committee_on_the_January_6_Attack/UbaJ4o1R">Congressional hearings on the January 6th Capitol attack</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="research">Research</h2> <p>Deen Freelon and colleagues, publishing in <a href="/facts/Science_(journal)/uTyzjkwD"><i>Science</i></a> in September 2020, wrote that some alt-tech websites are specifically dedicated to serving <a href="/facts/Right-wing_politics/CVoubHMm">right-wing</a> communities, naming <a href="/facts/4chan/eSLuYvUN">4chan</a> (founded in 2003), <a href="/facts/8chan/AMWmQ5fc">8chan</a> (2013), <a href="/facts/Gab_(social_network)/Wzyardn0">Gab</a> (2016), <a href="/facts/BitChute/J3uQNMos">BitChute</a> (2017) and <a href="/facts/Parler/Y4eyk9p3">Parler</a> (2018) as examples. They noted that others were more ideologically neutral, such as <a href="/facts/Discord_(software)/1wped7PM">Discord</a> and <a href="/facts/Telegram_(software)/TqaAlHwN">Telegram</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> Discord and Telegram have been used by <a href="/facts/QAnon/7HwXHTDw">QAnon</a> <a href="/facts/Conspiracy_theory/sNr2Kmh8">conspiracy theorists</a> to promote <a href="/facts/Terrorism/DHJGPJ6P">terrorism</a>, which contributed to the <a href="/facts/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack/hcF25Aqf">January 6th attack</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> Discord later worked to remove right-wing <a href="/facts/Extremism/2AgIalFJ">extremists</a> from its userbase, and became a more mainstream platform.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> Joe Mulhall, a senior researcher for the UK <a href="/facts/Anti-racism/YP5XEMwH">anti-racism</a> organization <a href="/facts/Hope_not_Hate/JgN8aWeA">Hope not Hate</a>, also distinguishes groups of alt-tech platforms: he says that some of them, such as DLive and Telegram, are "co-opted platforms" which have become widely popular among the far-right because of their minimal moderation; others including BitChute, Gab, and Parler are "bespoke platforms" which were created by people who themselves have "far-right leanings".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Ethan_Zuckerman/7B2Y4wrL">Ethan Zuckerman</a> and Chand Rajendra-Nicolucci, in contrast, described alt-tech services in explicitly political terms in a 2021 article for the <a href="/facts/Knight_Institute/TEP3vP6m">Knight First Amendment Institute</a> at <a href="/facts/Columbia_University/Hlf1gw53">Columbia University</a>: </p> <blockquote><p>We use the alt-tech term to refer to platforms that offer a promise of uncensored speech, which exist specifically to give a space for far-right, nationalist, racist, or extremist points of view, and which harbor a broad sense of grievance that speech has been "censored" for failure to be "politically correct." Many, but not all of these alt-tech sites are far-right communities.</p>— <a href="/facts/Ethan_Zuckerman/7B2Y4wrL">Ethan Zuckerman</a> and Chand Rajendra-Nicolucci<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a></blockquote> <p>Researchers have also found that alt-tech platforms can also be used by far-right extremists for mobilization and recruitment purposes, which is more dangerous than just spreading their viewpoints.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> </p><p>Austrian researcher <a href="/facts/Julia_Ebner/KEzJuRYp">Julia Ebner</a> has described alt-tech platforms as "ultra-libertarian".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="platforms">Platforms</h2> <h3>List of alt-tech platforms</h3> <table><tbody><tr><th>Type</th><th>Company</th><th>Citations</th><th>Active</th></tr><tr><td rowspan="5"><a href="/facts/Microblogging/f0QJUHt9">Microblogging</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Gab_(social_network)/Wzyardn0">Gab</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Gettr/yzWngLtu">Gettr</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Parler/Y4eyk9p3">Parler</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a></td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Truth_Social/PxhzHqnq">Truth Social</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Twitter/VWwDNGUm">X (formerly Twitter)</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="8"><a href="/facts/Online_video_platform/tNBgCRKy">Online video platform</a></td><td><a href="/facts/BitChute/J3uQNMos">BitChute</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/DLive/a3DjTv3g">DLive</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>DTube</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Odysee/xgjYAnbp">Odysee</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>PewTube</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a></td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Rumble_(website)/KLgKASnK">Rumble</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>TokenTube</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Triller_(app)/B9nnEXs2">Triller</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5"><a href="/facts/Crowdfunding/u9gwrlYI">Crowdfunding</a></td><td><a href="/facts/GiveSendGo/mrpDdpNa">GiveSendGo</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Hatreon/Wfzbl3cP">Hatreon</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a></td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td>SubscribeStar</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/WeSearchr/nm7cXVHS">WeSearchr</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a></td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/GoyFundMe/AFf35P99">GoyFundMe</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6"><a href="/facts/Social_networking_service/qFIh6VT1">Social networking service</a></td><td><a href="/facts/MeWe/4JPwkDb4">MeWe</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Minds_(social_network)/Ehqv0jwd">Minds</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>Slug</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Telegram_(software)/TqaAlHwN">Telegram</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Thinkspot/SrehCg63">Thinkspot</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>WrongThink</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110"><sup>110</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/News_aggregator/nzy1zPes">News aggregator</a></td><td><a href="/facts/TheDonald.win/byRSXFQp">Patriots.win</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111"><sup>111</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Voat/SWjomyYz">Voat</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112"><sup>112</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113"><sup>113</sup></a></td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3"><a href="/facts/Wiki/uCKCEzqb">Wiki</a> encyclopedia</td><td><a href="/facts/Infogalactic/lEPAIBCV">Infogalactic</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114"><sup>114</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115"><sup>115</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Metapedia/chNS9cur">Metapedia</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116"><sup>116</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117"><sup>117</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118"><sup>118</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119"><sup>119</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120"><sup>120</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121"><sup>121</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Conservapedia/S6QGylgI">Conservapedia</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122"><sup>122</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123"><sup>123</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124"><sup>124</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125"><sup>125</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Imageboard/w5n42Clc">Imageboard</a></td><td><a href="/facts/8kun/AMWmQ5fc">8kun</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126"><sup>126</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127"><sup>127</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Online_dating_service/39SID74s">Online dating service</a></td><td>WASP Love</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128"><sup>128</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Domain_name_registrar/GwozfbFt">Domain name registrar</a> and<a href="/facts/Web_hosting/sDHN29ve">web hosting</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Epik/vyoIpkYt">Epik</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129"><sup>129</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130"><sup>130</sup></a></td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Civic_engagement/QwJgdYoM">Civic engagement</a> platform</td><td>CloutHub</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131"><sup>131</sup></a></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Big_Tech/n3mdHnMK">Big Tech</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Deplatforming/DmeMSYMB">Deplatforming</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Freedom_of_speech/jYakwGMP">Freedom of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Platform_economy/5mQ6Eb4w">Platform economy</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Surveillance_capitalism/0UfUXB4w">Surveillance capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Technology_and_society/ehIfjRN7">Technology and society</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Freelon, Deen; Marwick, Alice; Kreiss, Daniel (September 4, 2020). "False equivalencies: Online activism from left to right". Science. 369 (6508): 1197–1201. Bibcode:2020Sci...369.1197F. doi:10.1126/science.abb2428. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 32883863. S2CID 221471947. Archived from the original on September 4, 2020. Retrieved September 5, 2020. (freely available version) <a href="/wiki/Alice_Marwick" target="_blank">/wiki/Alice_Marwick</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Andrews, Frank; Pym, Ambrose (February 24, 2021). "The Websites Sustaining Britain's Far-Right Influencers". Bellingcat. Archived from the original on February 24, 2021. 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