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Merovingian illumination
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<h2 id="historical-context">Historical context</h2> <p>The <a href="/facts/Merovingian_dynasty/mz0Sv722">Merovingian dynasty</a> was the ruling family of the <a href="/facts/Franks/RHyCqfkd">Franks</a> from the middle of the 5th century until 751.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> They first appear as "Kings of the Franks" in the Roman army of northern <a href="/facts/Gaul/fSpNpRqy">Gaul</a>. By 509 they had united all the Franks and northern Gaulish Romans under their rule. They conquered most of Gaul, defeating the <a href="/facts/Visigoths/1GffbA8F">Visigoths</a> (507) and the <a href="/facts/Burgundians/7gNzAbbS">Burgundians</a> (534), and also extended their rule into <a href="/facts/Raetia/kCsRsVsD">Raetia</a> (537). In <a href="/facts/Germania/4lC7Xymf">Germania</a>, the <a href="/facts/Alemanni/46vLyWu5">Alemanni</a>, <a href="/facts/Bavarii/RNqLkDa7">Bavarii</a> and <a href="/facts/Saxons/mqm06m4r">Saxons</a> accepted their lordship. The Merovingian realm was the largest and most powerful of the states of western Europe following the breaking up of the empire of <a href="/facts/Theodoric_the_Great/7aNHJB6H">Theodoric the Great</a>. </p><p>The dynastic name, <a href="/facts/Medieval_Latin/gyLMjaCX">medieval Latin</a> <i>Merovingi</i> or <i>Merohingii</i> ("sons of Merovech"), derives from an unattested <a href="/facts/Frankish_language/3uluTEgR">Frankish</a> form, akin to the attested <a href="/facts/Old_English/9rsmQG2a">Old English</a> <i>Merewīowing</i>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> with the final -<i>ing</i> being a typical <a href="/facts/Germanic_languages/BxAJX3Kf">Germanic</a> <a href="/facts/Patronymic/wrvUvUtT">patronymic</a> suffix. The name derives from King <a href="/facts/Merovech/S9uWY4Kl">Merovech</a>, whom many legends surround. Unlike the <a href="/facts/Anglo-Saxon_royal_genealogies/JGvSpopI">Anglo-Saxon royal genealogies</a>, the Merovingians never claimed descent from a god, nor is there evidence that they were regarded as <a href="/facts/Sacred_king/vVILnmJV">sacred</a>. </p><p>The Merovingians' <a href="/facts/Long_hair/JRtxrHcd">long hair</a> distinguished them among the Franks, who commonly cut their hair short. Contemporaries sometimes referred to them as the "long-haired kings" (Latin <i>reges criniti</i>). A Merovingian whose hair was cut could not rule, and a rival could be removed from the succession by being <a href="/facts/Tonsure/bbz0RyhJ">tonsured</a> and sent to a monastery. The Merovingians also used a distinct name stock. One of their names, Clovis, evolved into <a href="/facts/Louis_(given_name)/78UMQmBy">Louis</a> and remained common among French royalty down to the 19th century. </p><p>The first known Merovingian king was <a href="/facts/Childeric_I/5xCueNFB">Childeric I</a> (died 481). His son <a href="/facts/Clovis_I/Wx7Wl6Do">Clovis I</a> (died 511) converted to <a href="/facts/Christianity/nKyJHlqq">Christianity</a>, united the Franks and conquered most of Gaul. The Merovingians treated their kingdom as single yet divisible. Clovis's four sons divided the kingdom among themselves and it remained divided—with the exception of four short periods (558–61, 613–23, 629–34, 673–75)—down to 679. After that it was only divided again once (717–18). The main divisions of the kingdom were <a href="/facts/Austrasia/fdF9UNfn">Austrasia</a>, <a href="/facts/Neustria/hoyNRmHg">Neustria</a>, <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Burgundy/oTojGVY4">Burgundy</a> and <a href="/facts/Aquitaine/p9s8I93k">Aquitaine</a>. </p><p>During the final century of Merovingian rule, the kings were increasingly pushed into a ceremonial role. Actual power was increasingly in the hands of the <a href="/facts/Mayor_of_the_palace/XJ7KIqUv">mayor of the palace</a>, the highest-ranking official under the king. In 656, the mayor <a href="/facts/Grimoald_the_Elder/ImHs0Emh">Grimoald I</a> tried to place his son <a href="/facts/Childebert_the_Adopted/3CdsHbJ3">Childebert</a> on the throne in Austrasia. Grimoald was arrested and executed, but his son ruled until 662, when the Merovingian dynasty was restored. When King <a href="/facts/Theuderic_IV/fR89RM1m">Theuderic IV</a> died in 737, the mayor <a href="/facts/Charles_Martel/5kLNW5lm">Charles Martel</a> continued to rule the kingdoms without a king until his death in 741. The dynasty was restored again in 743, but in 751 Charles's son, <a href="/facts/Pepin_the_Short/oKJwXb04">Pepin the Short</a>, deposed the last king, <a href="/facts/Childeric_III/Mom9d9T9">Childeric III</a>, and had himself crowned, inaugurating the <a href="/facts/Carolingian_dynasty/L3WWV4It">Carolingian dynasty</a>. </p> <h2 id="types">Types</h2> <p>The manuscripts produced at this time are essentially intended for the practice of worship within monasteries and not for the <a href="/facts/Evangelization/eTtegu8a">evangelization</a> of the population. <a href="/facts/Gospel/oC3s2MdL">Gospel</a> books are therefore rarer than <a href="/facts/Missal/gKcIKFEU">missals</a>, <a href="/facts/Sacramentary/a5gR83IN">sacramentaries</a>, <a href="/facts/Lectionary/dsPDGTog">lectionaries</a>, etc., at least among illuminated manuscripts. The books of the <a href="/facts/Church_Fathers/U2aPanJQ">Church Fathers</a> were also of great privilege, such as the writings of <a href="/facts/Augustine_of_Hippo/RJI1otNA">Augustine</a> or <a href="/facts/Pope_Gregory_I/tXPh1gce">Gregory</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="characteristics">Characteristics</h2> <h3>Ornaments</h3> <p>The style of Merovingian illuminations is largely ornamental, and representations of the human figure are extremely rare and only occur at the end of the <a href="/facts/Merovingian_period/mz0Sv722">Merovingian period</a>. Several typical types of ornament are found in Merovingian manuscripts. </p> <p>The manuscripts do not contain large <a href="/facts/Initial/Ak2WEGW3">initials</a> occupying a full page, but the text generally begins with an integrated initial or a decorated title, accompanied by arches framing the text. The <a href="/facts/Gelasian_Sacramentary/7vYfVax1">Gelasian sacramentary</a> contains at the beginning of each part of the missal a large portico framing the text.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> </p> <p>Particular care is taken with the scribal work of the text. While <a href="/facts/Insular_art/np4qDydm">Insular artists</a> heavily ornamented entire pages of their manuscripts with interlacing motifs in freehand, the Merovingian artists systematically used the ruler and the compass to trace the initials. The initials and sometimes several whole words of the text were decorated with plant and <a href="/facts/Zoomorphism/ygKILC2G">zoomorphic</a> motifs (especially birds and fish) which mingle with abstract geometric motifs. Gradually, these animals left their geometric form to take more and more a realistic appearance. In some manuscripts appear the first zoomorphic and anthropomorphic initials in the history of illumination. These are letters that do not serve as a framework for the representation of an animal or a human being, but which are constituted by one or more of these beings forming the letter or its various parts. For example, at f° 132 of the Gelasian Sacramentary, the letters of the word “NOVERIT” are made up of both birds and fish. The artist in charge of these decorations was generally the same scribe who copied the text.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p><p>The almost ubiquitous Christian motif is the <a href="/facts/Cross/a3W7gkFH">cross</a>. It sometimes covers a full page, sometimes integrated into a <a href="/facts/Carpet_page/xmlGGxbw">carpet page</a>, as in <a href="/facts/Irish_manuscripts/FGAKkVWH">Irish manuscripts</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p> <h3>First instance of human depiction</h3><p> Human depictions appeared towards the end of this period, they are not strictly speaking historiated illuminations, that is to say representing a scene taken from the <a href="/facts/Bible/SqkRTKCh">Bible</a> or a historical scene. The first surviving manuscript to include human representations is the <a href="/facts/Sacramentary_of_Gellone/7yhFfUgH">Sacramentary of Gellone</a>. With portraits of <a href="/facts/Four_Evangelists/2rJ6wUE1">evangelists</a> found for the first time in the <a href="/facts/Gundohinus_Gospels/Meq6zrz9">Gospel of Gundohinus</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a></p> <h3>Influences</h3><p> The <a href="/facts/Byzantine_Empire/njEELXWF">Byzantine</a> influence in particular is often noticed. Some historians have put forward the hypothesis that the Merovingian illuminators sometimes took as models motifs found on oriental fabrics having wrapped <a href="/facts/Relic/oSksAgIf">relics</a>. The Sacramentary of Gellone, for example, seems in certain aspects very close to the <a href="/facts/Byzantine_manuscript/9EjURWz0">Byzantine manuscripts</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a></p> <p>Several centers were also influenced by <a href="/facts/Insular_illumination/j2b70tKy">Insular illumination</a>. Several abbeys, founded by abbots from <a href="/facts/Ireland/35vYxXdP">Ireland</a> or <a href="/facts/Northumbria/fkVzk6xc">Northumbria</a>, were places of production of manuscripts mixing the two styles and sometimes artists from the islands and the continent. This is particularly the case at the <a href="/facts/Abbey_of_Echternach/YXfj19l5">Abbey of Echternach</a>, where the <a href="/facts/Trier_Gospels/En3fJjL5">Trier Gospel Book</a> was produced around 700–750. The style that developed there is sometimes referred to as Franco-Saxon.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="centers-of-production">Centers of production</h2> <p>With a few exceptions, the precise localization of the place of production of the Merovingian manuscripts is not guaranteed and is sometimes called into question. </p> <h3>Laon</h3> <p>This episcopal see, founded by <a href="/facts/Saint_Remigius/B4WC2FR2">Remigius</a> at the beginning of the sixth century, is a notable exception among others to the cultural decline of the cities. Always dominated by its bishops, <a href="/facts/Laon/aNdpkFXT">Laon</a> remained, during the Merovingian and <a href="/facts/Carolingian_Empire/kyp74kXx">Carolingian</a> period, a living artistic and intellectual center, and in particular the Colombian <a href="/facts/Abbey_of_St_Vincent,_Laon/GUeepNfR">abbey of Saint-Vincent</a>. </p><p>Main manuscripts: </p> <ul><li><i>Quaestiones in Heptateuchon</i> of <a href="/facts/Augustine_of_Hippo/RJI1otNA">Saint Augustine</a> (<a href="/facts/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France/4TNyWsxG">National Library of France</a>).</li> <li>Codices 137 and 423 (Library of Laon).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a></li></ul> <h3>Luxeuil Monastery</h3> <p>In 590, <a href="/facts/Columbanus/Wcz3XEPQ">Columbanus</a> founded the <a href="/facts/Monastery_of_Luxeuil/wDojf7W1">monastery of Luxeuil</a> in the <a href="/facts/Vosges/FUG7xABL">Vosges</a>. The <a href="/facts/Scriptorium/xX1KyjVW">scriptorium</a> of this abbey acquired a high reputation for Its quality a few decades later. Plundered and ravaged by the <a href="/facts/Saracen/txYv1kIL">Saracens</a>, who massacred all the monks, in 731 or 732, the abbey was relieved by <a href="/facts/Charlemagne/o0PlxScC">Charlemagne</a> who entrusted it to the <a href="/facts/Benedictines/wPDY4zrT">Benedictines</a>. The abbey gave its name to a particular script, without it being possible to say with certainty that it could have been created in its scriptorium. It is found in several manuscripts whose place of production remains controversial: </p> <ul><li><i>In Epistolam Joannis ad Parthos tractatus decem,</i> Augustine of Hippo, dated around 669, <a href="/facts/Pierpont_Morgan_Library/MMFxozHb">Pierpont Morgan Library</a> (M.334).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a></li> <li>The so-called Luxeuil Lectionary, National French Library, Lat. 9427.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Missale_Gothicum/7C41Lm2m">Missale Gothicum</a>, sacramentary produced around 700.</li> <li>Vatican, Reg. Lat. 317. Codex Ragyntrudis, texts of the Church Fathers, Library of the Cathedral of Fulda (<a href="/facts/Hesse/kEmEjUK9">Hesse</a>, <a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a>).</li> <li>Works of Saint Augustine, circa 730, currently at the <a href="/facts/Herzog_August_Bibliothek/An18kIHE">Herzog August Bibliothek</a> in <a href="/facts/Wolfenb%C3%BCttel/az9DJJXd">Wolfenbüttel</a> (<a href="/facts/Lower_Saxony/fWt73Hu4">Lower Saxony</a> (Weissenburg 99), Germany).</li></ul> <h3>Corbie Abbey</h3> <p>Located in the <a href="/facts/Somme_(department)/1xNDvLgz">Somme</a>, near <a href="/facts/Amiens/MluWTCmt">Amiens</a>, <a href="/facts/Corbie_Abbey/ShvtS1fv">the abbey</a> was founded by <a href="/facts/Balthild_of_Chelles/mvvPnNSN">Balthild of Chelles</a>. Manuscripts produced on site use less zoomorphic motifs but more ornaments such as the "bull's eye" (a circle with a dot in the middle). From the middle of the 8th century, we find more and more <a href="/facts/Interlace_(art)/0GVtFj1t">interlacing</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p><p>Main manuscripts: </p> <ul><li><i>Commentary on Ezekiel</i> by <a href="/facts/Pope_Gregory_I/tXPh1gce">Saint Gregory</a> (2nd quarter of the 7th century. <a href="/facts/Saint_Petersburg/pNuCBxaM">Saint Petersburg</a> Library (Q.V.I.14).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Rule_of_Saint_Basil/bdvUueHB">Rule of Saint Basil</a></i>, around 700. Book preserved in the <a href="/facts/Russian_National_Library/LDn1Bdyp">Russian National Library</a> in Saint Petersburg.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Hexameron/1sSLXlWv">Hexaemeron</a> said of <a href="/facts/Ambrose/QQh2xucd">Ambrose</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> 2nd half of the 8th century, National Library of France.</li> <li>A manuscript of <i>The Mystical Exposition on the Song of Songs</i> by <a href="/facts/Justus_of_Urgell/vl4Wba4f">Justus of Urgell</a>, circa 700, <a href="/facts/Biblioteca_Vallicelliana/IHRL0kyo">Vallicelliane Library</a>, <a href="/facts/Rome/bh1Ttx3T">Rome</a> (B.62).</li></ul> <h3>Chelles</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Chelles,_Seine-et-Marne/Hof9DJmo">Chelles</a>, in <a href="/facts/Seine-et-Marne/YJwyDVGE">Seine-et-Marne</a>, was the seat of a Merovingian palace. In 584, <a href="/facts/Chilperic_I/QhgLIcUp">Chilperic I</a> was assassinated there on the orders of the mayor of the Landry palace, lover of <a href="/facts/Fredegund/ECTqdoMK">Frédégonde</a>, the king's own wife. A first abbey of nuns was founded by <a href="/facts/Clotilde/EGHqt5l6">Clotilde</a> in the sixth century. It was rebuilt in the 7th century by Bathilde, wife of <a href="/facts/Clovis_II/U1YKvBKH">Clovis II</a>. The historian Bernard Bischoff has shown that nine nuns of this abbey, whose names are known, copied and illuminated at the end of the Merovingian era, three manuscripts for the <a href="/facts/Archchaplain/0pYMYKP0">archchaplain</a> of Charlemagne, Bishop <a href="/facts/Hildebold_of_Cologne/gllBFPNK">Hildebold of Cologne</a>. These are Ms. 63, 65, 67, late 8th century, now in the library of <a href="/facts/Cologne_Cathedral/uBjfSxgj">Cologne Cathedral</a>. </p> <h3>Saint-Denis Abbey</h3> <p>The scriptorium of the <a href="/facts/Abbey_of_Saint_Denis/VP0ePKv8">abbey of Saint-Denis</a>, protected by <a href="/facts/Charles_Martel/5kLNW5lm">Charles Martel</a> and <a href="/facts/Pepin_the_Short/oKJwXb04">Pepin the Short</a>, is, according to some historians, perhaps the place of production of one of the most famous Merovingian illuminated manuscripts: the Gelasian Sacramentary which keeps track transformations of the liturgy due to <a href="/facts/Pope_Gelasius_I/8V4zA9TH">Gelasius</a>. <a href="/facts/Vatican_City/JTKnEt6J">Vatican</a>, <a href="/facts/Apostolic_Library/RNwpW2hl">Apostolic Library</a>, Reg. Lat. 316. </p> <h2 id="examples">Examples</h2> <table><tbody><tr><td>Image</td><td>Name</td><td>Date</td><td>Location, school</td><td>Contents, significance</td><td>Inventory number</td></tr><tr><td></td><td><a href="/facts/S%C3%A9lestat_Lectionary/xzPwz1ao">Sélestat Lectionary</a></td><td>c.700</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Humanist_Library_of_S%C3%A9lestat/hDNtvuXE">Humanist Library of Sélestat</a></td></tr><tr><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Gelasian_Sacramentary/7vYfVax1">Gelasian Sacramentary</a></td><td>c.750</td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Sacramentary/a5gR83IN">Sacramentary</a></td><td>Rome, <a href="/facts/Vatican_Library/RNwpW2hl">Vatican Library</a>, Reg. Lat. 316</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>c.750</td><td>East <a href="/facts/West_Francia/rCGugs8D">West Francia</a> (<a href="/facts/Burgundy/59fP404S">Burgundy</a>?)</td><td><a href="/facts/Bible/SqkRTKCh">Bible</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Autun/kClrjAX6">Autun</a>, Bibliothèque Municipale, Ms 2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Gundohinus_Gospels/Meq6zrz9">Gundohinus Gospels</a></td><td>754/755</td><td>Vosevio Abbey (location unknown), East <a href="/facts/West_Francia/rCGugs8D">West Francia</a>, possibly <a href="/facts/Burgundy/59fP404S">Burgundy</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Evangeliary/uf3ldSJB">Evangeliary</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Autun/kClrjAX6">Autun</a>, Bibliothèque Municipale. Ms 3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>c.780</td><td>Saint-Pierre de <a href="/facts/Flavigny-sur-Ozerain/GTKbVoLt">Flavigny</a> (east <a href="/facts/West_Francia/rCGugs8D">West Francia</a>)</td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Autun/kClrjAX6">Autun</a>, Bibliothèque Municipale. Ms 5</td></tr><tr><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Sacramentary_of_Gellone/7yhFfUgH">Sacramentary of Gellone</a></td><td>End of the eighth century</td><td><a href="/facts/Meaux/MnvtTN2p">Meaux</a></td><td>Sakramentar</td><td>Paris, <a href="/facts/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France/4TNyWsxG">Bibliothèque Nationale</a>, Lat. 12048</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>End of the eighth century</td><td><a href="/facts/Burgundy/59fP404S">Burgundy</a></td><td>Evangeliary for the use of Saint-Pierre de <a href="/facts/Flavigny-sur-Ozerain/GTKbVoLt">Flavigny</a> (<a href="/facts/Burgundy/59fP404S">Burgundy</a>)</td><td><a href="/facts/Autun/kClrjAX6">Autun</a>, Bibliothèque Municipale. Ms 4</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Merovingian_art_and_architecture/SlF4EJss">Merovingian art and architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Merovingian_script/r1h4UMfM">Merovingian script</a></li></ul> <h2 id="bibliography">Bibliography</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Merovingian manuscripts. <ul><li>Kunibert Bering: <i>Kunst des frühen Mittelalters</i>. 2nd revised edition. Reclam, Stuttgart 2008, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-15-018169-0, (<i>Kunst-Epochen</i>. 2) (<i>Reclams Universal-Bibliothek</i>. 18169).</li> <li>Ernst Günther Grimme: <i>Die Geschichte der abendländischen Buchmalerei</i>. 3rd Edition. Köln, DuMont 1988. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 3-7701-1076-5.</li> <li>Christine Jakobi-Mirwald: <i>Das mittelalterliche Buch. Funktion und Ausstattung</i>. Stuttgart, Reclam 2004. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-15-018315-1, (<i>Reclams Universal-Bibliothek</i> 18315), (Besonders Kapitel <i>Geschichte der europäischen Buchmalerei</i> S. 222–278).</li> <li><i>Buchmalerei</i>. In Severin Corsten / Günther Pflug / Friedrich Adolf Schmidt-Künsemüller (Edd.): <i><a href="/facts/Lexikon_des_Mittelalters/mmpnCDts">Lexikon des Mittelalters</a></i> 2: <i>Bettlerwesen bis Codex von Valencia</i>. Lizenzausgabe. Unveränderter Nachdruck der Studienausgabe 1999. <a href="/facts/Wissenschaftliche_Buchgesellschaft/fyI35CQ1">Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft</a>, Darmstadt 2009, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-534-22804-1, pp. 837–893, (Contributions by K. Bierbrauer, Ø. Hjort, O. Mazal, D. Thoss, G. Dogaer, J. Backhouse, G. Dalli Regoli, H. Künzl).</li> <li><a href="/facts/Otto_P%C3%A4cht/Yzatbs3P">Otto Pächt</a>: <i>Buchmalerei des Mittelalters. Eine Einführung.</i> Edited by Dagmar Thoss. 5th Edition. Prestel, München 2004. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-7913-2455-5.</li> <li>Ingo F. Walther / Norbert Wolf: <i>Codices illustres. Die schönsten illuminierten Handschriften der Welt. Meisterwerke der Buchmalerei. 400 bis 1600</i>. Taschen, Köln etc. 2005, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 3-8228-4747-X.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Pfister, Christian (1911). "Merovingians" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 172–172. <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Merovingians" target="_blank">https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Merovingians</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Babcock, Philip (ed). Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc., 1993: 1415 <a href="/wiki/Webster%27s_Dictionary" target="_blank">/wiki/Webster%27s_Dictionary</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Nordenfalk, p.44 <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Patrick Périn, Encyclopædia Universalis, article « Mérovingiens / Art mérovingien ». <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Nordenfalk, p.44 <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Nordenfalk, p.44-47 et 51 <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Nordenfalk, p.44-46 <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Nordenfalk, p.44 <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Nordenfalk, p.51 <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>J.J.G. Carl Nordenfalk, Manuscrits Irlandais et Anglo-Saxons : L'enluminure dans les îles Britanniques de 600 à 800, Paris, éditions du Chêne, 1977, p.88 <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>« Manuscrits de la bibliothèque de Laon » <a href="http://manuscrit.ville-laon.fr/" target="_blank">http://manuscrit.ville-laon.fr/</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Notice de la Morgan Lib. <a href="http://corsair.themorgan.org/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=77209" target="_blank">http://corsair.themorgan.org/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=77209</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Nordenfalk, p.52 <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Notice du manuscrit <a href="http://www.nlr.ru/eng/exib/cult/vatikan.html" target="_blank">http://www.nlr.ru/eng/exib/cult/vatikan.html</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>L'Hexaemeron ou Ouvrage des six jours, est une œuvre de saint Basile (330-379) célèbre dans l'Antiquité ; Grégoire de Nysse (vers 330-vers 395 son frère, Grégoire de Nazianze (vers 330-vers 390) son ami et plusieurs autres, en ont fait le plus grand éloge. Saint Ambroise (vers 330/340-397) en a fait une traduction latine. <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>