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Fonsecaea pedrosoi
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<h2 id="taxonomy">Taxonomy</h2> <p><i><a href="/facts/Fonsecaea/pMuFI4Yv">Fonsecaea</a></i> is a genus of <a href="/facts/Ascomycota/4GJdsf2e">ascomycetous</a> fungi affiliated with the family <a href="/facts/Herpotrichiellaceae/kJvEsd9x">Herpotrichiellaceae</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> The genus comprises three sibling species, all with pathogenic potential: <i>F. pedrosoi</i>, <i>F. monophora</i> and <i>F. nubica</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> The species was first <a href="/facts/Species_description/JyFpxSvJ">formally described</a> in 1922 as <i>Hormodendrum pedrosoi</i> by French parasitologist <a href="/facts/%C3%89mile_Brumpt/QHKxzThR">Émile Brumpt</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> Pablo Negroni transferred it to the genus <i><a href="/facts/Fonsecaea/pMuFI4Yv">Fonsecaea</a></i> in 1936. </p><p>Sparingly branched, brownish <a href="/facts/Conidiophore/klClhD20">conidiophores</a> produce clusters of one-celled, club-shaped conidia in short, dry, unbranched chains. A <i><a href="/facts/Phialophora/4vc0uvW4">Phialophora</a></i>-like asexual state sometimes appears along with yeast cells at low pH.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="ecology-and-distribution">Ecology and distribution</h2> <p><i>Fonsecaea pedrosoi</i> occurs in soil and on plants and trees where it grows as a <a href="/facts/Saprotroph/sJkDfrJW">saprotroph</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> It is found predominantly in tropical regions especially South- and Central America.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> All three recognized species of <i>Fonsecaea</i> exhibit geographically patterned genetic variation. The closely related species <i>F. monophora</i> and <i>F. nubica</i> are distributed worldwide and show the greater population-level <a href="/facts/Genetic_diversity/GIymbUr8">genetic diversity</a> than the geographically restricted <i>F. pedrosoi</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> Environmental surveys have documented the recovery of <i>F. pedrosoi</i> on rotting wood of the Cambara tree (<i><a href="/facts/Gochnatia_polymorpha/W6TWJXnF">Gochnatia polymorpha</a></i>) from the <a href="/facts/Empresa_Brasileira_de_Pesquisa_Agropecu%C3%A1ria/2WEd2ymy">Brazilian Corporation of Agricultural Research</a> forest in <a href="/facts/Colombo,_Paran%C3%A1/Fz4JdzcS">Colombo, Paraná</a>, Brazil.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> It has also been isolated from living trees, stumps, woodpiles and fence posts in central <a href="/facts/Nigeria/gbW17BX8">Nigeria</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="physiology">Physiology</h2> <p>Clinical isolates of grow consistently at temperatures up to 35 °C (95 °F).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> In contrast, environmental isolates of <i>F. pedrosoi</i> exhibit growth consistently up to 35 °C, and irregularly up to 37 °C (99 °F)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> Physiological studies have shown the degradation of <a href="/facts/Urea/6j84AoCG">urea</a> and <a href="/facts/Tyrosine/RJhEgE4C">tyrosine</a>, and the lack of growth on the proteins <a href="/facts/Gelatin/RDeVU6HT">gelatin</a>, <a href="/facts/Casein/Udl5k8sx">casein</a> and the <a href="/facts/Purine/9ogLp0Wc">purines</a> <a href="/facts/Xanthine/3ARA2QCg">xanthine</a> and <a href="/facts/Hypoxanthine/QIyA0sQr">hypoxanthine</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> Likewise, <a href="/facts/Lipase/nPgIyNBS">lipase</a> activity was demonstrated, but <a href="/facts/Phospholipase/kWbLYcA5">phospholipase</a>, <a href="/facts/Collagenase/IWkePfvJ">collagenase</a> and <a href="/facts/Amylase/H1MPNNVL">amylase</a> were not expressed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="human-disease">Human disease</h2> <p><i>Fonsecaea pedrosoi</i> is one of several main causative agents of human <a href="/facts/Chromoblastomycosis/RdqAQeCF">chromoblastomycosis</a>, a <a href="/facts/Chronic_(medicine)/6CqLP41r">chronic</a> fungal infection localized to skin and <a href="/facts/Subcutaneous_tissue/EPYjXN3G">subcutaneous tissue</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> The disease was first described by Alexandrino Pedroso in 1911.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> The fungus infects the host through the traumatic implantation of sexual spores known as <a href="/facts/Conidia/klClhD20">conidia</a> or hyphal fragments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> Once introduced in the subcutaneous tissues, the <a href="/facts/Propagule/HHtASl2P">propagules</a> germinate to establish an invasive <a href="/facts/Mycelium/znB97XNn">mycelium</a> associated with <a href="/facts/Sclerosis_(medicine)/KPhDDorL">sclerotic</a> cells.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> This proliferation manifests as a well-defined, chronically progressive, crusted <a href="/facts/Ulcer_(dermatology)/ALY0IW1n">ulceration</a> of the skin known as chromoblastomycosis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> Clinically it is often misdiagnosed as <a href="/facts/Squamous_cell_carcinoma/AkoAvh1P">squamous cell carcinoma</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> </p> <h3>Histology</h3> <p>The disease is characterized by the appearance of spherical, brownish yellow cells with thick, darkly pigmented walls.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> The presence of the agent is associated with host cell proliferation and enlargement known as <a href="/facts/Hyperplasia/gDv6kB4j">hyperplasia</a> localized to the <a href="/facts/Stratified_squamous_epithelium/RLlp5jnr">stratified squamous epithelium</a> and the formation of mycotic <a href="/facts/Granuloma/mqEhHfjS">granulomas</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> Sclerotic bodies are present both extracellularly and intracellularly throughout the affected tissue and are a defining feature of chromoblastomycosis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> The melanin content of sclerotic bodies may be important in the establishment of host immune responses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> </p> <h3>Risk factors for infection</h3> <p>Farmers in Central and South America are most susceptible to chromoblastomycosis due to <i>F. pedrosoi</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> Infection often occurs in the upper body and legs of agricultural laborers since these areas are more prone to exposure to infected soil, plant debris or other fomites.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> The sex ratio of disease is globally variable. In Brazil, the agent has shown a 4:1 proclivity for men, likely as a function of exposure differences relating to work and lifestyle,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> while Japanese infections have shown evenly distributed infection rates between the sexes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> </p> <h3>Treatment</h3> <p>Infections by <i>F. pedrosoi</i> are more difficult to treat than those of <i>F. monophora</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> In severe cases, treatment is quite complex and involves a combination of antifungal drug therapy and surgical excision.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> Antifungal agents like <a href="/facts/Itraconazole/x7IeB92o">itraconazole</a> and <a href="/facts/Terbinafine/7qBCjoYW">terbinafine</a> are commonly used. Surgery is often used to treat small, localized infections,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> although <a href="/facts/Cryotherapy/gCfk5RAT">cryotherapy</a> has been suggested an alternative approach.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> Topical application of <a href="/facts/Amphotericin_B/c2H3NmRQ">amphotericin B</a> followed by long-term administration of oral antifungal therapy has been shown to be effective in the treatment of corneal chromoblastomycosis from <i>F. pedrosoi</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> The diagnosis and treatment of chromoblastomycosis by <i>F. pedrosoi</i> remains clinically challenging due to the relative rarity of the disease, its slow, chronic nature, the absence of clinical features readily differentiating it from other more common diseases such as squamous cell carcinoma, the restricted nature of therapies, and the lack of literature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Alviano, D; Franzen, A; Travassos, L; Holandino, C; Rozental, S; Ejzemberg, R; Rodrigues, M (2004). "Melanin from Fonsecaea pedrosoi induces production of human antifungal antibodies and enhances the antimicrobial efficacy of phagocytes". Infection and Immunity. 72 (1): 229–237. doi:10.1128/IAI.72.1.229-237.2004. PMC 344007. PMID 14688100. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC344007" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC344007</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Deb Roy, A; Das, D; Deka, M (2013). "Chromoblastomycosis – A clinical mimic of squamous carcinoma". Australasian Medical Journal. 6 (9): 458–460. doi:10.4066/AMJ.2013.1806. PMC 3794416. PMID 24133538. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3794416" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3794416</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Deb Roy, A; Das, D; Deka, M (2013). "Chromoblastomycosis – A clinical mimic of squamous carcinoma". Australasian Medical Journal. 6 (9): 458–460. doi:10.4066/AMJ.2013.1806. PMC 3794416. PMID 24133538. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3794416" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3794416</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Nimrichter, L; Cerqueira, M; Leitao, E; Miranda, K; Nakayasu, E; Almeida, S; Rodrigues, M (2005). "Structure, cellular distribution, antigenicity, and biological functions of Fonsecaea pedrosoi ceramide monohexosides". Infection and Immunity. 73 (12): 7860–7868. doi:10.1128/IAI.73.12.7860-7868.2005. PMC 1307093. PMID 16299276. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1307093" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1307093</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Najafzadeh, M; Sun, J; Vincete, V; Klaassen, C; Bonifaz, A; Gerrits van den Ende, A; Sybren de Hoog, G (2011). "Molecular epidemiology of Fonsecaea species". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 17 (3): 464–69. doi:10.3201/eid1703.100555. PMC 3165995. PMID 21392438. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3165995" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3165995</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Najafzadeh, M; Sun, J; Vincete, V; Klaassen, C; Bonifaz, A; Gerrits van den Ende, A; Sybren de Hoog, G (2011). "Molecular epidemiology of Fonsecaea species". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 17 (3): 464–69. doi:10.3201/eid1703.100555. PMC 3165995. PMID 21392438. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3165995" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3165995</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Brumpt, E. (1922). "Précis de parasitologie" (in French): 1105. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) <a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" target="_blank">/wiki/Template:Cite_journal</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Hoog, GS de; Guarro, J; Gene, J; Figueras, MJ (2000). Atlas of clinical fungi. Baarn, the Netherlands: Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures. <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Najafzadeh, M; Sun, J; Vincete, V; Klaassen, C; Bonifaz, A; Gerrits van den Ende, A; Sybren de Hoog, G (2011). "Molecular epidemiology of Fonsecaea species". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 17 (3): 464–69. doi:10.3201/eid1703.100555. PMC 3165995. PMID 21392438. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3165995" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3165995</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Nimrichter, L; Cerqueira, M; Leitao, E; Miranda, K; Nakayasu, E; Almeida, S; Rodrigues, M (2005). "Structure, cellular distribution, antigenicity, and biological functions of Fonsecaea pedrosoi ceramide monohexosides". Infection and Immunity. 73 (12): 7860–7868. doi:10.1128/IAI.73.12.7860-7868.2005. PMC 1307093. PMID 16299276. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1307093" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1307093</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Sangwan, Jyoti; Jachuck, SJ (2013). "Fonsecaea Pedrosoi: A rare etiology in fungal keratitis". Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 7 (10): 2272–2273. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2013/6627.3491. PMC 3843447. PMID 24298496. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3843447" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3843447</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Najafzadeh, M; Sun, J; Vincete, V; Klaassen, C; Bonifaz, A; Gerrits van den Ende, A; Sybren de Hoog, G (2011). "Molecular epidemiology of Fonsecaea species". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 17 (3): 464–69. doi:10.3201/eid1703.100555. PMC 3165995. PMID 21392438. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3165995" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3165995</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Yang, Y; Yongxuan, H; Zhang, J; Li, X; Lu, C; Xi, L; Xi, Liyan (2012). "A refractory case of chromoblastomycosis due to Fonsecaea monophora with improvement by photodynamic therapy". Medical Mycology. 50 (1): 649–653. doi:10.3109/13693786.2012.655258. PMID 22309458. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F13693786.2012.655258" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3109%2F13693786.2012.655258</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Najafzadeh, M; Sun, J; Vincete, V; Klaassen, C; Bonifaz, A; Gerrits van den Ende, A; Sybren de Hoog, G (2011). "Molecular epidemiology of Fonsecaea species". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 17 (3): 464–69. doi:10.3201/eid1703.100555. PMC 3165995. PMID 21392438. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3165995" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3165995</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Vicente, Vânia Aparecida; Angelis, Derlene Attili de; Queiróz-Telles Filho, Flávio; Pizzirani-Kleiner, Aline Aparecida (2001). "Isolation of herpotrichiellacious fungi from the environment". Brazilian Journal of Microbiology. 32 (1): 47–51. doi:10.1590/S1517-83822001000100011. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2FS1517-83822001000100011" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1590%2FS1517-83822001000100011</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Okeke, CN; Gugnani, HC (1986). "Studies on pathogenic dematiaceous fungi. 1. Isolation from natural sources". Mycopathologia. 94 (1): 19–25. doi:10.1007/bf00437257. PMID 3724831. S2CID 32343915. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Rippon, John Willard (1988). Medical Mycology: The Pathogenic Fungi and the Pathogenic Actinomycetes (3rd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders. ISBN 0721624448. <a href="0721624448" target="_blank">0721624448</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Gugnani, H.C.; Okeke, C.N. (2009). "Physiological characteristics of environmental isolates of pathogenic dematiaceous fungi". Mycoses. 32 (2): 78–83. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0507.1989.tb02206.x. PMID 2710157. S2CID 29175415. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Gugnani, H.C.; Okeke, C.N. (2009). "Physiological characteristics of environmental isolates of pathogenic dematiaceous fungi". Mycoses. 32 (2): 78–83. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0507.1989.tb02206.x. PMID 2710157. S2CID 29175415. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Gugnani, H.C.; Okeke, C.N. (2009). "Physiological characteristics of environmental isolates of pathogenic dematiaceous fungi". Mycoses. 32 (2): 78–83. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0507.1989.tb02206.x. PMID 2710157. S2CID 29175415. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Alviano, D; Franzen, A; Travassos, L; Holandino, C; Rozental, S; Ejzemberg, R; Rodrigues, M (2004). "Melanin from Fonsecaea pedrosoi induces production of human antifungal antibodies and enhances the antimicrobial efficacy of phagocytes". Infection and Immunity. 72 (1): 229–237. doi:10.1128/IAI.72.1.229-237.2004. PMC 344007. PMID 14688100. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC344007" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC344007</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Yang, Y; Yongxuan, H; Zhang, J; Li, X; Lu, C; Xi, L; Xi, Liyan (2012). "A refractory case of chromoblastomycosis due to Fonsecaea monophora with improvement by photodynamic therapy". Medical Mycology. 50 (1): 649–653. doi:10.3109/13693786.2012.655258. PMID 22309458. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F13693786.2012.655258" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3109%2F13693786.2012.655258</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Deb Roy, A; Das, D; Deka, M (2013). "Chromoblastomycosis – A clinical mimic of squamous carcinoma". Australasian Medical Journal. 6 (9): 458–460. doi:10.4066/AMJ.2013.1806. PMC 3794416. PMID 24133538. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3794416" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3794416</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Deb Roy, A; Das, D; Deka, M (2013). "Chromoblastomycosis – A clinical mimic of squamous carcinoma". Australasian Medical Journal. 6 (9): 458–460. doi:10.4066/AMJ.2013.1806. PMC 3794416. PMID 24133538. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3794416" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3794416</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Alviano, D; Franzen, A; Travassos, L; Holandino, C; Rozental, S; Ejzemberg, R; Rodrigues, M (2004). "Melanin from Fonsecaea pedrosoi induces production of human antifungal antibodies and enhances the antimicrobial efficacy of phagocytes". Infection and Immunity. 72 (1): 229–237. doi:10.1128/IAI.72.1.229-237.2004. PMC 344007. PMID 14688100. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC344007" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC344007</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Alviano, D; Franzen, A; Travassos, L; Holandino, C; Rozental, S; Ejzemberg, R; Rodrigues, M (2004). "Melanin from Fonsecaea pedrosoi induces production of human antifungal antibodies and enhances the antimicrobial efficacy of phagocytes". Infection and Immunity. 72 (1): 229–237. doi:10.1128/IAI.72.1.229-237.2004. PMC 344007. PMID 14688100. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC344007" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC344007</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Nimrichter, L; Cerqueira, M; Leitao, E; Miranda, K; Nakayasu, E; Almeida, S; Rodrigues, M (2005). "Structure, cellular distribution, antigenicity, and biological functions of Fonsecaea pedrosoi ceramide monohexosides". Infection and Immunity. 73 (12): 7860–7868. doi:10.1128/IAI.73.12.7860-7868.2005. PMC 1307093. 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