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Flowering plant
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<h2 id="distinguishing-features">Distinguishing features</h2> <p>Angiosperms are terrestrial vascular plants; like the gymnosperms, they have <a href="/facts/Root/x2U60Gdm">roots</a>, <a href="/facts/Plant_stem/QlQWSzV4">stems</a>, <a href="/facts/Leaves/1m6wCNTg">leaves</a>, and <a href="/facts/Seed/a4xGSLxJ">seeds</a>. They differ from other <a href="/facts/Spermatophyte/MQBG4KEw">seed plants</a> in several ways. </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Feature</th><th>Description</th><th>Image</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Flower/7gI5Kefw">Flowers</a></td><td>The <a href="/facts/Reproductive_organ/c2ypY14E">reproductive organs</a> of flowering plants, not found in any other <a href="/facts/Seed_plants/MQBG4KEw">seed plants</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Reduced <a href="/facts/Gametophyte/g1zag3Su">gametophytes</a>, three <a href="/facts/Cell_(biology)/bLM9UQvy">cells</a> in male, seven cells with eight nuclei in female (except for basal angiosperms)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a></td><td>The gametophytes are smaller than those of gymnosperms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> The smaller size of the <a href="/facts/Pollen/eqRP052I">pollen</a> reduces the time between pollination and <a href="/facts/Fertilization/g8u3UKzF">fertilization</a>, which in gymnosperms is up to a year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a></td><td rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Endosperm/oGnmuWud">Endosperm</a></td><td>Endosperm forms after fertilization but before the <a href="/facts/Zygote/mSu2xMWA">zygote</a> divides. It provides food for the developing <a href="/facts/Embryo/9QHnLVLN">embryo</a>, the <a href="/facts/Cotyledon/cX8ntUF2">cotyledons</a>, and sometimes the <a href="/facts/Seedling/4v0rv1CT">seedling</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Closed <a href="/facts/Carpel/P5qFQMk1">carpel</a> enclosing the <a href="/facts/Ovule/DFvS1VvA">ovules</a>.</td><td>Once the ovules are fertilised, the carpels, often with surrounding tissues, develop into fruits. Gymnosperms have unenclosed seeds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Xylem/6lovdKuF">Xylem</a> made of <a href="/facts/Vessel_element/8CDa73yt">vessel elements</a></td><td>Open vessel elements are stacked end to end to form continuous tubes, whereas gymnosperm xylem is made of tapered <a href="/facts/Tracheids/EQN3mzNJ">tracheids</a> connected by small <a href="/facts/Pit_(botany)/Lk6IWS92">pits</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="diversity">Diversity</h2> <h3>Ecological diversity</h3> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Plant_ecology/2BXY9GeC">Plant ecology</a></p> <p>The largest angiosperms are <i><a href="/facts/Eucalyptus/Y0BjE3KQ">Eucalyptus</a></i> gum trees of Australia, and <i><a href="/facts/Shorea_faguetiana/EUV0RI16">Shorea faguetiana</a></i>, dipterocarp rainforest trees of Southeast Asia, both of which can reach almost 100 metres (330 ft) in height.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> The smallest are <i><a href="/facts/Wolffia/wHprfrAA">Wolffia</a></i> duckweeds which float on freshwater, each plant less than 2 millimetres (0.08 in) across.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p> <p>Considering their method of obtaining energy, some 99% of flowering plants are <a href="/facts/Photosynthetic/TMV7w693">photosynthetic</a> <a href="/facts/Autotroph/UDc8bzqD">autotrophs</a>, deriving their energy from sunlight and using it to create molecules such as <a href="/facts/Sugar/jb5KXRHT">sugars</a>. The remainder are <a href="/facts/Parasitic/HWPcgky7">parasitic</a>, whether <a href="/facts/Myco-heterotrophy/rk0V5dmV">on fungi</a> like the <a href="/facts/Orchids/UKmu0DhW">orchids</a> for part or all of their life-cycle,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> or <a href="/facts/Parasitic_plant/70UAImum">on other plants</a>, either wholly like the broomrapes, <i><a href="/facts/Orobanche/LIlbrzM8">Orobanche</a></i>, or partially like the witchweeds, <i><a href="/facts/Striga/dA37uy6s">Striga</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> </p> <p>In terms of their environment, flowering plants are cosmopolitan, occupying a wide range of <a href="/facts/Habitat/zo1DN2gA">habitats</a> on land, in fresh water and in the sea. On land, they are the dominant plant group in every habitat except for frigid moss-lichen <a href="/facts/Tundra/BqC0AQ7u">tundra</a> and <a href="/facts/Coniferous_forest/vDUgqxCx">coniferous forest</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Seagrass/3DcPAsCr">seagrasses</a> in the <a href="/facts/Alismatales/pUXrplRf">Alismatales</a> grow in marine environments, spreading with <a href="/facts/Rhizome/wWDKJrSf">rhizomes</a> that grow through the mud in sheltered coastal waters.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p> <p>Some specialised angiosperms are able to flourish in extremely acid or alkaline habitats. The <a href="/facts/Sundew/R5fHmgoe">sundews</a>, many of which live in nutrient-poor acid <a href="/facts/Bog/LuPbb2qV">bogs</a>, are <a href="/facts/Carnivorous_plant/GWTld9Ke">carnivorous plants</a>, able to derive nutrients such as <a href="/facts/Nitrate/5AnVlYnL">nitrate</a> from the bodies of trapped insects.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> Other flowers such as <i><a href="/facts/Gentiana_verna/j5eBL10h">Gentiana verna</a></i>, the spring gentian, are adapted to the alkaline conditions found on <a href="/facts/Calcium/hf252CC0">calcium</a>-rich <a href="/facts/Chalk/b6hepsNS">chalk</a> and <a href="/facts/Limestone/8ntvtFnR">limestone</a>, which give rise to often dry <a href="/facts/Topography/SS8Bx4t9">topographies</a> such as <a href="/facts/Limestone_pavement/89haf6Ul">limestone pavement</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p> <p>As for their <a href="/facts/Growth_habit/WzDQdHUn">growth habit</a>, the flowering plants range from small, soft <a href="/facts/Herbaceous_plant/u6myDhE2">herbaceous plants</a>, often living as <a href="/facts/Annual_plant/SkPv72DA">annuals</a> or <a href="/facts/Biennials/utHmQsd6">biennials</a> that set seed and die after one growing season,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> to large <a href="/facts/Perennial_plant/MQ3NvAUW">perennial</a> woody <a href="/facts/Tree/HVVn3srN">trees</a> that may live for many centuries and grow to many metres in height. Some species grow tall without being self-supporting like trees by <a href="/facts/Climbing_plant/3nVRIAws">climbing</a> on other plants in the manner of <a href="/facts/Vine/3nVRIAws">vines</a> or <a href="/facts/Liana/sgnumoqo">lianas</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p> <h3>Taxonomic diversity</h3> <p>The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> This compares to around 12,000 species of <a href="/facts/Moss/YF8Rbf8y">moss</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> and 11,000 species of <a href="/facts/Pteridophyta/8sa9P2TA">pteridophytes</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/APG_system/8fLMu2zs">APG system</a> seeks to determine the number of <a href="/facts/Family_(biology)/qTrn6E8E">families</a>, mostly by <a href="/facts/Molecular_phylogenetics/FysplHP5">molecular phylogenetics</a>. In the 2009 <a href="/facts/APG_III/fQWR7DUq">APG III</a> there were 415 families.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> The 2016 <a href="/facts/APG_IV/YRp3zPNp">APG IV</a> added five new orders (Boraginales, Dilleniales, Icacinales, Metteniusales and Vahliales), along with some new families, for a total of 64 angiosperm orders and 416 families.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> </p><p>The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining five clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e. less than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among nine families. The 25 most species-rich of 443 families,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> containing over 166,000 species between them in their APG circumscriptions, are: </p> The 25 largest angiosperm families<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><th></th><th>Group</th><th><a href="/facts/Family_(biology)/qTrn6E8E">Family</a></th><th>English name</th><th>No. of <a href="/facts/Species/oDg6b96r">spp.</a></th></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Eudicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Asteraceae/bouc6v8C">Asteraceae</a> or Compositae</td><td><a href="/facts/Bellis_perennis/moloflfJ">daisy</a></td><td>22,750</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Monocot</td><td><a href="/facts/Orchidaceae/UKmu0DhW">Orchidaceae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Orchid/UKmu0DhW">orchid</a></td><td>21,950</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Eudicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Fabaceae/uxuHNdAr">Fabaceae</a> or Leguminosae</td><td><a href="/facts/Pea/hlndxpId">pea</a>, <a href="/facts/Legume/x6s6gVHY">legume</a></td><td>19,400</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Eudicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Rubiaceae/MqQIkUSj">Rubiaceae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Rubia/MAt2Jnwo">madder</a></td><td>13,150<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Monocot</td><td><a href="/facts/Poaceae/q2CRK8q0">Poaceae</a> or Gramineae</td><td><a href="/facts/Grass/q2CRK8q0">grass</a></td><td>10,035</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Eudicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Lamiaceae/PUp3Bbjj">Lamiaceae</a> or Labiatae</td><td><a href="/facts/Mentha/rLFxkqXI">mint</a></td><td>7,175</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Eudicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Euphorbiaceae/Go2K3M2l">Euphorbiaceae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Spurge/vkNTS8W4">spurge</a></td><td>5,735</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Eudicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Melastomataceae/6FXtTGrX">Melastomataceae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Melastoma/JTjDdPDT">melastome</a></td><td>5,005</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Eudicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Myrtaceae/s1QMCFTj">Myrtaceae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Myrtus/kw7umG7z">myrtle</a></td><td>4,625</td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>Eudicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Apocynaceae/FAQmY5tB">Apocynaceae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Dogbane/MDavNlYH">dogbane</a></td><td>4,555</td></tr><tr><td>11</td><td>Monocot</td><td><a href="/facts/Cyperaceae/A1oI2H0U">Cyperaceae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Sedge/A1oI2H0U">sedge</a></td><td>4,350</td></tr><tr><td>12</td><td>Eudicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Malvaceae/qXjmLBto">Malvaceae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Malva/gBI6QUWn">mallow</a></td><td>4,225</td></tr><tr><td>13</td><td>Monocot</td><td><a href="/facts/Araceae/2kEK4LjR">Araceae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Arum/RQ2KNazM">arum</a></td><td>4,025</td></tr><tr><td>14</td><td>Eudicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Ericaceae/fthVmp8G">Ericaceae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Erica_(plant)/qxIfNnm4">heath</a></td><td>3,995</td></tr><tr><td>15</td><td>Eudicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Gesneriaceae/pgFJc3Ug">Gesneriaceae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Gesneria/52wlHFxD">gesneriad</a></td><td>3,870</td></tr><tr><td>16</td><td>Eudicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Apiaceae/YtVJ0nBk">Apiaceae</a> or Umbelliferae</td><td><a href="/facts/Parsley/q6xqWokU">parsley</a></td><td>3,780</td></tr><tr><td>17</td><td>Eudicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Brassicaceae/xMjNIBzU">Brassicaceae</a> or Cruciferae</td><td><a href="/facts/Cabbage/WeEDQzxK">cabbage</a></td><td>3,710</td></tr><tr><td>18</td><td>Magnoliid dicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Piperaceae/wG7bRs1N">Piperaceae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Piper_(genus)/hWx2Epf6">pepper</a></td><td>3,600</td></tr><tr><td>19</td><td>Monocot</td><td><a href="/facts/Bromeliaceae/4dzWKIFY">Bromeliaceae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Bromelia/esMtQ2C8">bromeliad</a></td><td>3,540</td></tr><tr><td>20</td><td>Eudicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Acanthaceae/rg95t2Xg">Acanthaceae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Acanthus_(plant)/gpdU622A">acanthus</a></td><td>3,500</td></tr><tr><td>21</td><td>Eudicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Rosaceae/KYrlFdv6">Rosaceae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Rose/00sLwePY">rose</a></td><td>2,830</td></tr><tr><td>22</td><td>Eudicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Boraginaceae/wGbPMTXF">Boraginaceae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Borage/vWoA6YGe">borage</a></td><td>2,740</td></tr><tr><td>23</td><td>Eudicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Urticaceae/tTndoBs9">Urticaceae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Urtica_dioica/Bz1qWXXW">nettle</a></td><td>2,625</td></tr><tr><td>24</td><td>Eudicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Ranunculaceae/pHbdAjKD">Ranunculaceae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Buttercup/dLB7Fmo4">buttercup</a></td><td>2,525</td></tr><tr><td>25</td><td>Magnoliid dicot</td><td><a href="/facts/Lauraceae/PPnQfy5n">Lauraceae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Laurus/VPQSxaaB">laurel</a></td><td>2,500</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="evolution">Evolution</h2> <h3>History of classification</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Plant_taxonomy/vr5BKfLQ">Plant taxonomy</a></p> <p>The botanical term "angiosperm", from Greek words <i>angeíon</i> (ἀγγεῖον 'bottle, vessel') and <i>spérma</i> (σπέρμα 'seed'), was coined in the form "Angiospermae" by <a href="/facts/Paul_Hermann_(botanist)/pDwAmxXX">Paul Hermann</a> in 1690, including only flowering plants whose seeds were enclosed in capsules.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> The term angiosperm fundamentally changed in meaning in 1827 with <a href="/facts/Robert_Brown_(Scottish_botanist_from_Montrose)/Yf68N7tb">Robert Brown</a>, when angiosperm came to mean a seed plant with enclosed ovules.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> In 1851, with <a href="/facts/Wilhelm_Friedrich_Benedikt_Hofmeister/QDwG13xX">Wilhelm Hofmeister</a>'s work on embryo-sacs, Angiosperm came to have its modern meaning of all the flowering plants including Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/APG_system/8fLMu2zs">APG system</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> treats the flowering plants as an unranked clade without a formal Latin name (angiosperms). A formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants rank as the subclass Magnoliidae.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> From 1998, the <a href="/facts/Angiosperm_Phylogeny_Group/HPTcwEPr">Angiosperm Phylogeny Group</a> (APG) has reclassified the angiosperms, with updates in the <a href="/facts/APG_II_system/hxewkKQy">APG II system</a> in 2003,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> the <a href="/facts/APG_III_system/fQWR7DUq">APG III system</a> in 2009,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> and the <a href="/facts/APG_IV_system/YRp3zPNp">APG IV system</a> in 2016.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> </p> <h3>Phylogeny</h3> <h4>External</h4> <p>In 2019, a <a href="/facts/Molecular_phylogenetics/FysplHP5">molecular phylogeny</a> of <a href="/facts/Plant/X5BMDMvS">plants</a> placed the flowering plants in their evolutionary context:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><td><a href="/facts/Embryophyte/8pzYKGvv">Embryophytes</a></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Bryophyte/DWXKNQ1h">Bryophytes</a> </p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Tracheophyte/5nWI2huT">Tracheophytes</a></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Lycophyte/n3pgWJCH">Lycophytes</a> </p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Fern/e6Cngdyo">Ferns</a> </p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Spermatophyte/MQBG4KEw">Spermatophytes</a></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td><a href="/facts/Gymnosperm/lzcpfbUK">Gymnosperms</a></td><td rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td>conifers and allies</td></tr><tr><td>Angiosperms</td><td rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td>flowering plants</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td>seed plants</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td>vascular plants</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td>land plants</td></tr></tbody></table> <h4>Internal</h4> <p>The main groups of living angiosperms are:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><td><table><tbody><tr><td> Angiosperms </td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Amborellales/lIJVMQml">Amborellales</a> 1 sp. <a href="/facts/New_Caledonia/VI15kA61">New Caledonia</a> shrub</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Nymphaeales/jvddQVcY">Nymphaeales</a> c. 80 spp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Nymphaeaceae/SbaJ32yv">water lilies</a> & allies</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Austrobaileyales/6mKNYLU4">Austrobaileyales</a> c. 100 spp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> woody plants</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Magnoliids/YcslSG6b">Magnoliids</a> c. 10,000 spp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Merosity/knhgSLGu">3-part</a> flowers, 1-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Chloranthales/TL3ltv4D">Chloranthales</a> 77 spp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> Woody, apetalous</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Monocots/mXCuuCYo">Monocots</a> c. 70,000 spp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> 3-part flowers, 1 <a href="/facts/Cotyledon/cX8ntUF2">cotyledon</a>, 1-pore pollen, usu. parallel-veined leaves </p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Ceratophyllales/qnLX9WyS">Ceratophyllales</a> c. 6 spp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Aquatic_plant/Tr1rlK49">aquatic plants</a></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Eudicots/exlS0I93">Eudicots</a> c. 175,000 spp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> 4- or 5-part flowers, 3-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td><a href="/facts/Basal_angiosperms/JczzowAg">Basal angiosperms</a><a href="/facts/Core_angiosperms/ATFpKH9L">Core angiosperms</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <table><tbody><tr><th>Detailed <a href="/facts/Cladogram/fWFYhUFo">cladogram</a> of the 2016 <a href="/facts/Angiosperm_Phylogeny_Group/HPTcwEPr">Angiosperm Phylogeny Group</a> (APG) IV classification.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a></th></tr><tr><td><table><tbody><tr><td>Angiosperms</td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Amborellales/lIJVMQml">Amborellales</a> Melikyan, Bobrov & Zaytzeva 1999</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Nymphaeales/jvddQVcY">Nymphaeales</a> Salisbury ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Austrobaileyales/6mKNYLU4">Austrobaileyales</a> Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Mesangiosperms/ATFpKH9L">Mesangiosperms</a></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Chloranthales/TL3ltv4D">Chloranthales</a> Mart. 1835</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td><a href="/facts/Magnoliids/YcslSG6b">Magnoliids</a></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Canellales/kXyd12B4">Canellales</a> Cronquist 1957</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Piperales/luMJvdv0">Piperales</a> von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Magnoliales/vqKoklaw">Magnoliales</a> de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Laurales/mSSn0Qa5">Laurales</a> de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td><a href="/facts/Monocots/mXCuuCYo">Monocots</a></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Acorales/TPJ0k5ut">Acorales</a> Link 1835</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Alismatales/pUXrplRf">Alismatales</a> Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Petrosaviales/VnHdeWrh">Petrosaviales</a> Takhtajan 1997</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Dioscoreales/RhBsHETg">Dioscoreales</a> Brown 1835</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Pandanales/WJNSB3E1">Pandanales</a> Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Liliales/GRW8rjkz">Liliales</a> Perleb 1826</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Asparagales/dnfLtq6M">Asparagales</a> Link 1829</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Commelinids/asqQGr39">Commelinids</a></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Arecales/YdwvX2Gk">Arecales</a> Bromhead 1840</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Poales/hBRDsaPS">Poales</a> Small 1903</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Zingiberales/6H16YM65">Zingiberales</a> Grisebach 1854</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Commelinales/jAVDBI0N">Commelinales</a> de Mirbel ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Ceratophyllales/qnLX9WyS">Ceratophyllales</a> Link 1829</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Eudicots/exlS0I93">Eudicots</a></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Ranunculales/S6nWHKtt">Ranunculales</a> de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Proteales/llqfvuY3">Proteales</a> de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Trochodendrales/qmJYBQbL">Trochodendrales</a> Takhtajan ex Cronquist 1981</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Buxales/B0dQ76pI">Buxales</a> Takhtajan ex Reveal 1996</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Core_eudicots/exlS0I93">Core eudicots</a></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Gunnerales/JMhtd4fJ">Gunnerales</a> Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Dilleniales/pyXk7YRr">Dilleniales</a> de Candolle ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Superrosids/VXGpU0u6">Superrosids</a></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Saxifragales/BETPkF9S">Saxifragales</a> von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Rosids/QK2awBU0">Rosids</a></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Vitales/FXPHra32">Vitales</a> de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td>Fabids</td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Zygophyllales/2hpEkHal">Zygophyllales</a> Link 1829</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Celastrales/sbmR8Pdl">Celastrales</a> Link 1829</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Oxalidales/GUJFylyy">Oxalidales</a> von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Malpighiales/Cwn9ILSk">Malpighiales</a> de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Fabales/H0aMr1uL">Fabales</a> Bromhead 1838</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Rosales/H73YkSeg">Rosales</a> von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Cucurbitales/YWVCjs3z">Cucurbitales</a> de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Fagales/o8CjmegD">Fagales</a> Engler 1892</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td>(eurosids I)</td></tr><tr><td>Malvids</td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Geraniales/mCx1osqY">Geraniales</a> de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Myrtales/WdlbXJSr">Myrtales</a> de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Crossosomatales/NuEnXa2R">Crossosomatales</a> Takhtajan ex Reveal 1993</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Picramniales/5JFhu51S">Picramniales</a> Doweld 2001</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Sapindales/Q6kM5Itm">Sapindales</a> de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Huerteales/mcw3FecD">Huerteales</a> Doweld 2001</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Malvales/Bpjhds4j">Malvales</a> de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Brassicales/9zIQEoKQ">Brassicales</a> Bromhead 1838</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td>(eurosids II)</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Superasterids/UtBmQBpY">Superasterids</a></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Berberidopsidales/c6qxuTHX">Berberidopsidales</a> Doweld 2001</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Santalales/gpBDS6ho">Santalales</a> Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Caryophyllales/D0kzbVhq">Caryophyllales</a></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Asterids/dQK3vQS5">Asterids</a></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Cornales/RJ0hpfDP">Cornales</a> Link 1829</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Ericales/P786XDgF">Ericales</a> von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td>Lamiids</td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Icacinales/92U39Tqt">Icacinales</a> Van Tieghem 1900</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Metteniusales/0j0dD9zU">Metteniusales</a> Takhtajan 1997</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Garryales/AUFwpoS3">Garryales</a> Mart. 1835</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Gentianales/vF925zK5">Gentianales</a> de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Solanales/SLSIJ2D4">Solanales</a> de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Boraginales/N1MhrMqM">Boraginales</a> de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Vahliales/c5zDLvlE">Vahliales</a> Doweld 2001</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Lamiales/yDY1ElfU">Lamiales</a> Bromhead 1838</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td>(euasterids I)</td></tr><tr><td>Campanulids</td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Aquifoliales/pogFKQxa">Aquifoliales</a> Senft 1856</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Escalloniales/YCnvWlW9">Escalloniales</a> Mart. 1835</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Asterales/BrQeTwN8">Asterales</a> Link 1829</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Bruniales/IRIzyEVd">Bruniales</a> Dumortier 1829</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Apiales/1fed3kPq">Apiales</a> Nakai 1930</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Paracryphiales/SUIuyswC">Paracryphiales</a> Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Dipsacales/SHfA8QD4">Dipsacales</a> de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td>(euasterids II)</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In 2024, Alexandre R. Zuntini and colleagues constructed a tree of some 6,000 flowering plant genera, representing some 60% of the existing genera, on the basis of analysis of 353 nuclear genes in each specimen. Much of the existing phylogeny is confirmed; the <a href="/facts/Rosidae/8WcWIPRL">rosid</a> phylogeny is revised.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> </p> <h3>Fossil history</h3> <p class="note">Main article: Fossil history of flowering plants</p> <p>Fossilised <a href="/facts/Spore/6qDRdcrs">spores</a> suggest that land plants (<a href="/facts/Embryophyte/8pzYKGvv">embryophytes</a>) have existed for at least 475 million years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> However, angiosperms <a href="/facts/Abominable_mystery/NkgjDVAt">appear suddenly</a> and in great diversity in the fossil record in the <a href="/facts/Early_Cretaceous/5uWEJGYC">Early Cretaceous</a> (~130 mya).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> Claimed records of flowering plants prior to this are not widely accepted.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> Molecular evidence suggests that the ancestors of angiosperms diverged from the <a href="/facts/Gymnosperms/lzcpfbUK">gymnosperms</a> during the late <a href="/facts/Devonian/nWgakqzk">Devonian</a>, about 365 million years ago.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> The origin time of the <a href="/facts/Crown_group/fHDhwp5x">crown group</a> of flowering plants remains contentious.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> By the Late Cretaceous, angiosperms appear to have dominated environments formerly occupied by <a href="/facts/Fern/e6Cngdyo">ferns</a> and gymnosperms. Large <a href="/facts/Canopy_(biology)/P1C0uxKl">canopy</a>-forming trees replaced <a href="/facts/Conifer/vDUgqxCx">conifers</a> as the dominant trees close to the end of the Cretaceous, 66 million years ago.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> The radiation of herbaceous angiosperms occurred much later.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="reproduction">Reproduction</h2> <h3>Flowers</h3> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Flower/7gI5Kefw">Flower</a> and <a href="/facts/Plant_reproductive_morphology/Up20kQT3">Plant reproductive morphology</a></p> <p>The characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Its function is to ensure <a href="/facts/Fertilisation/g8u3UKzF">fertilization</a> of the <a href="/facts/Ovule/DFvS1VvA">ovule</a> and development of <a href="/facts/Fruit/PBpuzk60">fruit</a> containing <a href="/facts/Seed/a4xGSLxJ">seeds</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> It may arise terminally on a shoot or from the <a href="/facts/Axil/1m6wCNTg">axil</a> of a leaf.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> The flower-bearing part of the plant is usually sharply distinguished from the leaf-bearing part, and forms a branch-system called an <a href="/facts/Inflorescence/CvpNd4vS">inflorescence</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> </p><p>Flowers produce two kinds of reproductive cells. <a href="/facts/Microspore/r2Irhc3W">Microspores</a>, which divide to become <a href="/facts/Pollen/eqRP052I">pollen grains</a>, are the male cells; they are borne in the <a href="/facts/Stamen/MzNPVK3D">stamens</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> The female cells, <a href="/facts/Megaspore/Wp94ryur">megaspores</a>, <a href="/facts/Megagametogenesis/kyeRjVGX">divide to become the egg cell</a>. They are contained in the <a href="/facts/Ovule/DFvS1VvA">ovule</a> and enclosed in the <a href="/facts/Carpel/P5qFQMk1">carpel</a>; one or more carpels form the <a href="/facts/Pistil/P5qFQMk1">pistil</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> </p><p>The flower may consist only of these parts, as in <a href="/facts/Anemophily/37MXM06c">wind-pollinated</a> plants like the <a href="/facts/Willow/F66Xvslm">willow</a>, where each flower comprises only a few <a href="/facts/Stamen/MzNPVK3D">stamens</a> or two carpels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> In <a href="/facts/Entomophily/cSwptQsL">insect-</a> or <a href="/facts/Ornithophily/EUKErd6D">bird-pollinated</a> plants, other structures protect the <a href="/facts/Sporophyll/dKjSP6dd">sporophylls</a> and attract pollinators. The individual members of these surrounding structures are known as <a href="/facts/Sepal/rFYnXN4d">sepals</a> and <a href="/facts/Petal/DQMkpRSm">petals</a> (or <a href="/facts/Tepal/c34KrfNG">tepals</a> in flowers such as <i><a href="/facts/Magnolia/meB0pHXY">Magnolia</a></i> where sepals and petals are not distinguishable from each other). The outer series (calyx of sepals) is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, especially the bud.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> The inner series (corolla of petals) is, in general, white or brightly colored, is more delicate in structure, and attracts pollinators by colour, <a href="/facts/Floral_scent/TygRc2yJ">scent</a>, and <a href="/facts/Nectar/Y784ExfM">nectar</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a> </p><p>Most flowers are <a href="/facts/Hermaphrodite/C4aYIk4n">hermaphroditic</a>, producing both pollen and ovules in the same flower, but some use other devices to reduce self-fertilization. Heteromorphic flowers have carpels and stamens of differing lengths, so animal <a href="/facts/Pollinator/DBJNeDtv">pollinators</a> cannot easily transfer pollen between them. Homomorphic flowers may use a biochemical <a href="/facts/Self-incompatibility_in_plants/dn0bjr1T">self-incompatibility</a> to discriminate between self and non-self pollen grains. <a href="/facts/Dioecious/jwMHLkuM">Dioecious</a> plants such as <a href="/facts/Holly/8WwdaGm7">holly</a> have male and female flowers on separate plants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Monoecious/Up20kQT3">Monoecious</a> plants have separate male and female flowers on the same plant; these are often wind-pollinated,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> as in <a href="/facts/Maize/lJ6c5xMH">maize</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> but include some insect-pollinated plants such as <i><a href="/facts/Cucurbita/obYd9RFa">Cucurbita</a></i> squashes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> </p> <h3>Fertilisation and embryogenesis</h3> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Fertilization/g8u3UKzF">Fertilization</a> and <a href="/facts/Plant_embryogenesis/HEg2QxnA">Plant embryogenesis</a></p> <p><a href="/facts/Double_fertilization/aB2vEfKp">Double fertilization</a> requires two sperm cells to fertilise cells in the ovule. A <a href="/facts/Pollen/eqRP052I">pollen</a> grain sticks to the stigma at the top of the pistil, germinates, and grows a long <a href="/facts/Pollen_tube/9r9G5wup">pollen tube</a>. A haploid generative cell travels down the tube behind the tube nucleus. The generative cell divides by mitosis to produce two haploid (<i>n</i>) sperm cells. The pollen tube grows from the stigma, down the style and into the ovary. When it reaches the micropyle of the ovule, it digests its way into one of the synergids, releasing its contents including the sperm cells. The synergid that the cells were released into degenerates; one sperm makes its way to fertilise the egg cell, producing a diploid (2<i>n</i>) zygote. The second sperm cell fuses with both central cell nuclei, producing a triploid (3<i>n</i>) cell. The zygote develops into an embryo; the triploid cell develops into the endosperm, the embryo's food supply. The ovary develops into a fruit and each ovule into a seed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a> </p> <h3>Fruit and seed</h3> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Fruit/PBpuzk60">Fruit</a> and <a href="/facts/Seed/a4xGSLxJ">Seed</a></p> <p>As the embryo and endosperm develop, the wall of the embryo sac enlarges and combines with the <a href="/facts/Nucellus/DFvS1VvA">nucellus</a> and <a href="/facts/Integument/3PVbXVpK">integument</a> to form the <i>seed coat</i>. The ovary wall develops to form the fruit or <a href="/facts/Pericarp/VDLWzDkf">pericarp</a>, whose form is closely associated with type of seed dispersal system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a> </p><p>Other parts of the flower often contribute to forming the fruit. For example, in the <a href="/facts/Apple/SF1WND0v">apple</a>, the <a href="/facts/Hypanthium/mxS9G82W">hypanthium</a> forms the edible flesh, surrounding the ovaries which form the tough cases around the seeds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Apomixis/LVzVnGua">Apomixis</a>, setting seed without fertilization, is found naturally in about 2.2% of angiosperm genera.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a> Some angiosperms, including many <a href="/facts/Citrus/6FqG38Dk">citrus</a> varieties, are able to produce fruits through a type of apomixis called <a href="/facts/Nucellar_embryony/AePxMyI8">nucellar embryony</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a> </p> <h3>Sexual selection</h3> <p class="note">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Sexual_selection_in_flowering_plants/u186XePX">Sexual selection in flowering plants</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sexual_selection_in_flowering_plants&action=edit">edit</a>]</p> <a href="/facts/Sexual_selection/AjDd8Tam">Sexual selection</a> is <a href="/facts/Natural_selection/JXTte6en">natural selection</a> arising through preference by one sex for certain characteristics in individuals of the other sex. It is a common concept in animal <a href="/facts/Evolution/Hj0qAaBk">evolution</a> but, with <a href="/facts/Plant/X5BMDMvS">plants</a>, it is often overlooked because many plants are <a href="/facts/Hermaphrodite/C4aYIk4n">hermaphrodites</a>. Flowering plants have many sexually selected characteristics. For example, flower symmetry, nectar production, floral structure, and inflorescences are among the secondary sex characteristics acted upon by sexual selection. Sexual dimorphisms and reproductive organs can also be affected by sexual selection.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> <h3>Adaptive function of flowers</h3> <p>Charles Darwin in his 1878 book The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> in the initial paragraph of chapter XII noted "The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from the observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented." <a href="/facts/Flower/7gI5Kefw">Flowers</a> emerged in plant evolution as an adaptation for the promotion of cross-<a href="/facts/Fertilisation/g8u3UKzF">fertilisation</a> (<a href="/facts/Outcrossing/6sAJ4Gh7">outcrossing</a>), a process that allows the masking of deleterious <a href="/facts/Mutation/Ee4NnWbY">mutations</a> in the <a href="/facts/Genome/31Sm08JT">genome</a> of progeny. The masking effect is known as <a href="/facts/Complementation_(genetics)/4YJL6RGW">genetic complementation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Meiosis/Pj5Q6nGN">Meiosis</a> in flowering plants provides a direct mechanism for <a href="/facts/DNA_repair/hsURuYYq">repairing DNA</a> through genetic recombination in reproductive tissues.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Sexual_reproduction/hmsXy53s">Sexual reproduction</a> appears to be required for maintaining long-term <a href="/facts/Genome/31Sm08JT">genomic</a> integrity and only infrequent combinations of extrinsic and intrinsic factors permit shifts to asexuality.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a> Thus the two fundamental aspects of sexual reproduction in flowering plants, cross-fertilization (outcrossing) and meiosis appear to be maintained respectively by the advantages of genetic complementation and recombinational repair.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="human-uses">Human uses</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Human_uses_of_plants/oel8wWG4">Human uses of plants</a></p> <h3>Practical uses</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Agriculture/TGztqzJs">Agriculture</a> is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, which provide virtually all plant-based food and <a href="/facts/Fodder/b4Hw0Lq0">fodder</a> for <a href="/facts/Livestock/Quhv6GvP">livestock</a>. Much of this food derives from a small number of flowering plant families.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> For instance, half of the world's <a href="/facts/Calorie/ntNMPx65">calorie</a> intake is supplied by just three plants – <a href="/facts/Wheat/lrk6HdV3">wheat</a>, <a href="/facts/Rice/wvL1hBCz">rice</a> and <a href="/facts/Maize/lJ6c5xMH">maize</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a> </p> Major food-providing families<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><th>Family</th><th>English</th><th>Example foods from that family</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Poaceae/q2CRK8q0">Poaceae</a></td><td>Grasses, cereals</td><td>Most feedstocks, inc. <a href="/facts/Rice/wvL1hBCz">rice</a>, <a href="/facts/Maize/lJ6c5xMH">maize</a>, <a href="/facts/Wheat/lrk6HdV3">wheat</a>, <a href="/facts/Barley/GH7X2qtG">barley</a>, <a href="/facts/Rye/LwdwSNcp">rye</a>, <a href="/facts/Oat/wn3vnCnT">oats</a>, <a href="/facts/Pearl_millet/UuR51eR7">pearl millet</a>, <a href="/facts/Sugar_cane/925qszH4">sugar cane</a>, <a href="/facts/Sorghum/D1KNhtdT">sorghum</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Fabaceae/uxuHNdAr">Fabaceae</a></td><td>Legumes, pea family</td><td><a href="/facts/Pea/hlndxpId">Peas</a>, <a href="/facts/Bean/LPqkC1qW">beans</a>, <a href="/facts/Lentils/GUuCEt0o">lentils</a>; for animal feed, <a href="/facts/Clover/bKr90Vct">clover</a>, <a href="/facts/Alfalfa/Yesc424s">alfalfa</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Solanaceae/HQPdeAVC">Solanaceae</a></td><td>Nightshade family</td><td><a href="/facts/Potato/F8jRVExs">Potatoes</a>, <a href="/facts/Tomato/3d5Xsqw7">tomatoes</a>, <a href="/facts/Capsicum/oqoEFu4F">peppers</a>, <a href="/facts/Aubergine/UTRtUSsd">aubergines</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Cucurbitaceae/dwD6tNcQ">Cucurbitaceae</a></td><td>Gourd family</td><td><a href="/facts/Cucurbita/obYd9RFa">Squashes</a>, <a href="/facts/Cucumber/eq1DFox9">cucumbers</a>, <a href="/facts/Pumpkin/CwxGJmej">pumpkins</a>, <a href="/facts/Melon/DwpsXkk7">melons</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Brassicaceae/xMjNIBzU">Brassicaceae</a></td><td>Cabbage family</td><td><a href="/facts/Cabbage/WeEDQzxK">Cabbage</a> and its varieties, e.g. <a href="/facts/Brussels_sprout/MqTcugNn">Brussels sprout</a>, <a href="/facts/Broccoli/g4FE93oK">broccoli</a>; <a href="/facts/Mustard_plant/wCTpahzP">mustard</a>; <a href="/facts/Rapeseed/6KgzlLuc">oilseed rape</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Apiaceae/YtVJ0nBk">Apiaceae</a></td><td>Parsley family</td><td><a href="/facts/Parsnip/3llLb64P">Parsnip</a>, <a href="/facts/Carrot/8UM7xqzo">carrot</a>, <a href="/facts/Parsley/q6xqWokU">parsley</a>, <a href="/facts/Coriander/v4Sa5K4T">coriander</a>, <a href="/facts/Fennel/TjXgYjLp">fennel</a>, <a href="/facts/Cumin/wjrsUDk9">cumin</a>, <a href="/facts/Caraway/zzh59Mxs">caraway</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Rutaceae/sdC4DBWR">Rutaceae</a></td><td>Rue family<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Orange_(fruit)/qQdDNeL4">Oranges</a>, <a href="/facts/Lemon/dYYzVCVq">lemons</a>, <a href="/facts/Grapefruit/6zAuyqWT">grapefruits</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Rosaceae/KYrlFdv6">Rosaceae</a></td><td>Rose family<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Apple/SF1WND0v">Apples</a>, <a href="/facts/Pear/pRAKLrdK">pears</a>, <a href="/facts/Cherry/uVbsknBg">cherries</a>, <a href="/facts/Apricot/xCVFYtMK">apricots</a>, <a href="/facts/Plum/w05NWXGc">plums</a>, <a href="/facts/Peach/I7FLcBTU">peaches</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Flowering plants provide a diverse range of materials in the form of <a href="/facts/Wood/z13NpHPl">wood</a>, <a href="/facts/Paper/FUETwwKV">paper</a>, fibers such as <a href="/facts/Cotton/efXRcjbn">cotton</a>, <a href="/facts/Flax/rm28CMyJ">flax</a>, and <a href="/facts/Hemp/quexqR9M">hemp</a>, <a href="/facts/Medicinal_plants/KUvkVQ8q">medicines</a> such as <a href="/facts/Digoxin/JEHbskXq">digoxin</a> and <a href="/facts/Opioid/EGnE2x99">opioids</a>, and decorative and landscaping plants. <a href="/facts/Coffee/Q4Ko2C7I">Coffee</a> and <a href="/facts/Hot_chocolate/KeFN5zJY">hot chocolate</a> are beverages from flowering plants (in the <a href="/facts/Rubiaceae/MqQIkUSj">Rubiaceae</a> and <a href="/facts/Malvaceae/qXjmLBto">Malvaceae</a> respectively).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a> </p> <h3>Cultural uses</h3> <p>Both real and <a href="/facts/Fictional_plants/TWFmPXWI">fictitious plants</a> play a wide variety of <a href="/facts/List_of_fictional_plants/TWFmPXWI">roles in literature and film</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a> Flowers are the subjects of many poems by poets such as <a href="/facts/William_Blake/YQMnyh0G">William Blake</a>, <a href="/facts/Robert_Frost/r4BrNLBN">Robert Frost</a>, and <a href="/facts/Rabindranath_Tagore/SNQJqLtk">Rabindranath Tagore</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Bird-and-flower_painting/RT6TrFAF">Bird-and-flower painting</a> (<i>Huaniaohua</i>) is a kind of <a href="/facts/Chinese_painting/yff76oFM">Chinese painting</a> that celebrates the beauty of flowering plants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a> Flowers have been <a href="/facts/Language_of_flowers/fxbrKdF0">used in literature to convey meaning</a> by authors including <a href="/facts/William_Shakespeare/ohI96JTv">William Shakespeare</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a> Flowers are used in a variety of art forms which arrange cut or living plants, such as <a href="/facts/Bonsai/g4wLe7ak">bonsai</a>, <a href="/facts/Ikebana/eGqNoRUL">ikebana</a>, and flower arranging. <a href="/facts/Ornamental_plant/ImyCDwMW">Ornamental plants</a> have sometimes changed the course of history, as in <a href="/facts/Tulip_mania/WP9fQRa8">tulipomania</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a> Many countries and regions have <a href="/facts/Floral_emblem/GD6ktp6F">floral emblems</a>; a survey of 70 of these found that the most popular flowering plant family for such emblems is Orchidaceae at 15.7% (11 emblems), followed by Fabaceae at 10% (7 emblems), and Asparagaceae, Asteraceae, and Rosaceae all at 5.7% (4 emblems each).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a> </p> <h3>Conservation</h3> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Conservation_biology/S2693mIF">Conservation biology</a> and <a href="/facts/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity/snvtISFI">Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity</a></p> <p><a href="/facts/Human_impact_on_the_environment/vIAWqfPB">Human impact on the environment</a> has driven a range of species extinct and <a href="/facts/Holocene_extinction/C1LzDDy7">is threatening even more today</a>. Multiple organizations such as <a href="/facts/IUCN/QwV8JXup">IUCN</a> and <a href="/facts/Royal_Botanic_Gardens,_Kew/XN0rTTRv">Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew</a> suggest that around 40% of plant species are threatened with extinction.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a> The majority are threatened by <a href="/facts/Habitat_destruction/pyPMkBCY">habitat loss</a>, but activities such as logging of wild timber trees and collection of medicinal plants, or the introduction of non-native <a href="/facts/Invasive_species/Ya1v6RGx">invasive species</a>, also play a role.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a> </p><p> Relatively few plant diversity assessments currently consider <a href="/facts/Climate_change/rEN4BDE7">climate change</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a> yet it is <a href="/facts/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity/snvtISFI">starting to impact plants</a> as well. About 3% of flowering plants are very likely to be driven extinct within a century at 2 °C (3.6 °F) of global warming, and 10% at 3.2 °C (5.8 °F).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a> In worst-case scenarios, half of all tree species may be driven extinct by climate change over that timeframe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a> </p><p> Conservation in this context is the attempt to prevent extinction, whether <i><a href="/facts/In_situ/YolKlaCC">in situ</a></i> by protecting plants and their habitats in the wild, or <i><a href="/facts/Ex_situ_conservation/WsmfgdBa">ex situ</a></i> in <a href="/facts/Seed_bank/801yrPuz">seed banks</a> or as living plants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a> Some 3000 <a href="/facts/Botanic_gardens/dvg8YkRq">botanic gardens</a> around the world maintain living plants, including over 40% of the species known to be threatened, as an "insurance policy against extinction in the wild."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/United_Nations/fgXLnmgT">United Nations</a>' <a href="/facts/Global_Strategy_for_Plant_Conservation/GBhT5xGa">Global Strategy for Plant Conservation</a> asserts that "without plants, there is no life".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110"><sup>110</sup></a> It aims to "halt the continuing loss of plant diversity" throughout the world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111"><sup>111</sup></a></p> <h2 id="bibliography">Bibliography</h2> <h3>Articles, books and chapters</h3> <ul><li> This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/facts/Public_domain/YWKMDKw4">public domain</a>: <a href="/facts/Isaac_Bayley_Balfour/7cjE54cm">Balfour, Isaac Bayley</a>; <a href="/facts/Alfred_Barton_Rendle/HN8cLQMU">Rendle, Alfred Barton</a> (1911). 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