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<h2 id="application-specific-low-code-development-platforms">Application specific low code development platforms</h2> <p>Roughly 40 vendors now offer solutions targeted at end users designed to reduce programming efforts. These solutions do not require traditional programming and may be based around relatively narrow functionality, e.g. contract management, customer relationships management, issue and bug tracking. Often referred to as low code development platforms, web based interactions guide a user to develop an application in as little as 40–80 hours.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a>[<i>circular reference</i>] </p> <h2 id="definition">Definition</h2> <p>Lieberman et al. propose the following definition:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p> <p>End-User Development can be defined as a set of methods, techniques, and tools that allow users of software systems, who are acting as non-professional software developers, at some point to create, modify or extend a software artifact.</p><p>Ko et al. propose the following definition:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p><p>End-user programming is programming to achieve the result of a program primarily for personal, rather [than] public use.</p> <p>Artifacts defined by end users may be objects describing some automated behavior or control sequence, such as database requests or grammar rules,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> which can be described with programming paradigms such as <a href="/facts/Programming_by_demonstration/k4Kewbkx">programming by demonstration</a>, <a href="/facts/Programming_by_example/p3Qo41Kb">programming with examples</a>, <a href="/facts/Visual_programming/j0eyIPzU">visual programming</a>, or <a href="/facts/Macro_(computer_science)/7abAsm1o">macro</a> generation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> They can also be parameters that choose between alternative predefined behaviors of an application.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> Other artifacts of end-user development may also refer to the creation of user-generated content such as annotations, which may be or not computationally interpretable (i.e. can be processed by associated automated functions).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="examples">Examples</h2> <p>Examples of end-user development include the creation and modification of: </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Computer_animation/rPW63nm0">Animation</a> scripts used by graphic artists to describe characters, environments and how characters move to produce an intended animation</li> <li><a href="/facts/Configuration_file/DDzU0FLJ">Configuration files</a> that blur the line between programs and data (e.g., <a href="/facts/E-mail_filtering/aKxq5uSf">email filters</a> are sequenced lists of criteria and actions to take)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Example-Centric_Programming/4cpDLngB">Example-Centric Programming</a> tools<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Mod_(computer_gaming)/Keze0GUe">Game modifications</a> to introduce users' own characters, environments, etc. — many recent games are distributed with modification in mind</li> <li>Interaction scripts used in <a href="/facts/Call_centre/jxKon6G8">CRM call centres</a></li> <li>Mobile app development tools such as <a href="/facts/App_Inventor/IclELXqa">App Inventor</a></li> <li>Process models used in <a href="/facts/Workflow_application/hEEAQ5lQ">workflow applications</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Software_prototyping/cLqGURoM">Prototypes</a> and domain-specific programs written by businesspeople, engineers, and scientists to demonstrate or test specific theories</li> <li>Robot behaviour<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a></li> <li>Scientific models used in <a href="/facts/Computer_simulation/Re6o8vzN">computer simulation</a>.</li> <li>Scripts and macros added to extend or automate <a href="/facts/Office_suite/WcKtjN6j">office productivity suites</a> and <a href="/facts/Graphics_software/81h9n4M2">graphics applications</a>.</li> <li>Simulations created using <a href="/facts/Software_prototyping/cLqGURoM">application definition software</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Simultaneous_editing/xYjuPb69">Simultaneous editing</a> of many related items either through a <a href="/facts/Batch_processing/hKY2rX3N">batch process</a> specified by the end user or by <a href="/facts/Direct_manipulation_interface/XvzG3fQq">direct manipulation</a>, like those available in the <a href="/facts/Lapis_(text_editor)/r3HkFBLI">Lapis text editor</a> and <a href="http://blogs.gnome.org/jessevdk/2009/11/15/new-gedit-plugin-multi-edit/">multi edit</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Spreadsheets/0cvc1GeB">Spreadsheet</a> models, e.g., used for budgeting, risk analysis, interactive <a href="/facts/Machine_learning/e0w0XJTu">machine learning</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> or <a href="/facts/Electronic_circuit_design/fsJzx0fs">electronic circuit design</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Visual_programming_language/j0eyIPzU">Visual programming</a> in the form of visual languages such as <a href="/facts/AgentSheets/kYeIbWLQ">AgentSheets</a>, <a href="/facts/LabVIEW/ue0vyha4">LabVIEW</a>, <a href="/facts/Scratch_(programming_language)/vNfuSb2L">Scratch (programming language)</a> or <a href="/facts/LEGO_Mindstorms/WhKlrqE6">LEGO Mindstorms</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Web_page/5JK7xQLe">Web pages</a> - plain HTML or HTML and scripting</li> <li><a href="/facts/Wiki/uCKCEzqb">Wikis</a> - a collaborative end-user development process </li> <li><a href="/facts/Mashup_(web_application_hybrid)/gn6mpfH9">Web Mashups</a> in the form of visual languages.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/3D_modeling/6V3Ry9AJ">3D models</a> created with end-user oriented tools and apps such as <a href="/facts/Sketchup/jNSyQW7z">Sketchup</a></li></ul> <h2 id="cost-benefit-modeling">Cost-benefit modeling</h2> <p>According to <a href="/facts/Alistair_Sutcliffe/1DIbrPgS">Sutcliffe</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> EUD essentially outsources development effort to the end user. Because there is always some effort to learn an EUD tool, the users' motivation depends on their confidence that it will empower their work, save time on the job or raise productivity. In this model, the benefits to users are initially based on marketing, demonstrations and word-of-mouth. Once the technology is put into use, experience of actual benefits becomes the key motivator. </p><p>This study defines costs as the sum of: </p> <ul><li>Technical cost: the price of the technology and the effort to install it</li> <li>Learning cost: the time taken to understand the technology</li> <li>Development cost: the effort to develop applications using the technology</li> <li>Test and debugging cost: the time taken to verify the system</li></ul> <p>The first and second costs are incurred once during acquisition, whereas the third and fourth are incurred every time an application is developed. Benefits (which may be perceived or actual) are seen as: </p> <ul><li>Functionality delivered by the technology</li> <li>Flexibility to respond to new requirements</li> <li>Usability of applications produced</li> <li>Overall quality of the applications produced</li></ul> <h2 id="collaborations-in-end-user-development">Collaborations in end-user development</h2> <p>Many end-user development activities are collaborative in nature, including collaboration between professional developers and end-user developers and collaboration among end-user developers. </p><p>Mutual development<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> is a technique where professional developers and end-user developers work together in creating software solutions. In mutual development, the professional developers often “under design” the system and provide the tools to allow the “owners of problems<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a>" to create the suitable solution at use time for their needs, objectives and situational contexts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> Then the communication between professional developers and end-user developers can often stimulate formalizing ad hoc modifications by the end users into software artifacts, transforming end-user developed solutions into commercial product features with impacts beyond local solutions. </p><p>In this collaboration, various approaches such as the Software Shaping Workshop<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> are proposed to bridge the communication gap between professional developers and end-user developers. These approaches often provide translucency according to the social translucence model,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> enabling everyone in the collaboration to be aware of changes made by others and to be held accountable of their actions because of the awareness. </p><p>Besides programming collaboration platforms like GitHub, which are mostly utilized by expert developers due to their steep learning curve, collaborations among end-user developers often take place on wiki platforms where the software artifacts created are shared. End-user development is also often used for creating automation scripts or interactive tutorials for sharing “how-to” knowledge. Examples of such application include CoScripter<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> and HILC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> In such applications, user can create scripts for tasks using pseudo-natural language or via programming by demonstration. The users can choose to upload the script to a wiki style repository of scripts. On this wiki, users can browse available scripts and extend existing scripts to support additional parameters, to handle additional conditions or to operate on additional objects. </p><p>Online and offline communities of end-user developers have also been formed, where end-user developers can collaboratively solve EUD problems of shared interest or for mutual benefit. In such communities, local experts spread expertise and advice. Community members also provide social support for each other to support the collaborative construction of software.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="criticism">Criticism</h2> <p>Commentators have been concerned that end users do not understand how to test and secure their applications. Warren Harrison, a professor of computer science at Portland State University, wrote:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p> <p>It’s simply unfathomable that we could expect security... from the vast majority of software applications out there when they’re written with little, if any, knowledge of generally accepted good practices such as specifying before coding, systematic testing, and so on.... How many X for Complete Idiots (where "X" is your favorite programming language) books are out there? I was initially amused by this trend, but recently I’ve become uneasy thinking about where these dabblers are applying their newfound knowledge.</p> <p>This viewpoint assumes that all end users are equally naive when it comes to understanding software, although Pliskin and Shoval argue this is not the case, that sophisticated end users are capable of end-user development.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> However, compared with expert programmers, end-user programmers rarely have the time or interest in systematic and disciplined software engineering activities,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> which makes ensuring the quality of the software artifact produced by end-user development particularly challenging. </p><p>In response to this, the study of end-user software engineering has emerged. It is concerned with issues beyond end-user development, whereby end users become motivated to consider issues such as reusability, security and verifiability when developing their solutions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> </p><p>An alternative scenario is that end users or their consultants employ <a href="/facts/Declarative_programming/gogtdzcJ">declarative</a> tools that support rigorous business and security rules at the expense of performance and scalability; tools created using EUD will typically have worse efficiency than those created with professional programming environments. Though separating functionality from efficiency is a valid <a href="/facts/Separation_of_concerns/Tx8jawNT">separation of concerns</a>, it can lead to a situation where end users will complete and document the <a href="/facts/Requirements_analysis/fHtWUoMs">requirements analysis</a> and <a href="/facts/Software_prototyping/cLqGURoM">prototyping</a> of the tool, without the involvement of <a href="/facts/Business_analysis/yKgTq3Ty">business analysts</a>. Thus, users will define the functions required before these experts have a chance to consider the limitations of a specific <a href="/facts/Application_software/YQuj7Kog">application</a> or <a href="/facts/Software_framework/EWasA8sG">software framework</a>. Senior management support for such end-user initiatives depends on their attitude to existing or potential <a href="/facts/Vendor_lock-in/BLndHDVl">vendor lock-in</a>. </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Automatic_programming/zrrwX3CW">Automatic programming</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/End-user_computing/S6yqsrs7">End-user computing</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Low-code_development_platforms/JEEGmlVl">Low-code development platforms</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Natural_language_programming/u756D2Bz">Natural language programming</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Situational_application/xKuVhMuF">Situational application</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Software_engineering/KX6cE9kz">Software engineering</a></li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Cypher, Allen (1993). <a href="https://archive.org/details/watchwhatido00alle"><i>Watch What I Do: Programming by Demonstration</i></a>. Contributor Daniel C. Halbert. Publisher: MIT Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-262-03213-1.</li> <li>Lieberman, Henry (2001). <a href="http://web.media.mit.edu/~lieber/PBE/Your-Wish/"><i>Your Wish is My Command: Programming By Example</i></a>. Contributor Ben Shneiderman. Publisher: Morgan Kaufmann. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-55860-688-3.</li> <li>F. Paternò (2013) <a href="http://www.hindawi.com/isrn/se/2013/532659/">End User Development: Survey of an Emerging Field for Empowering People</a>, ISRN Software Engineering, vol. 2013, Article ID 532659, 11 pages, 2013. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2013%2F532659">10.1155/2013/532659</a>, 2013</li> <li>B. Guo, D. Zhang, M. Imai. Enabling User-Oriented Management for Ubiquitous Computing: The Meta-Design Approach, Computer Networks, Elsevier, Vol. 54, No. 16, 2010.</li> <li>Burnett, Margaret M. and Scaffidi, Christopher (2011): <a href="http://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/end-user_development.html">End-User Development</a>. In: Soegaard, Mads and Dam, Rikke Friis (eds.). "Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction".</li> <li>Kierkegaard, Patrick (2011)Kierkegaard, Patrick (2011). "Beefing up End User Development: Legal Protection and Regulatory Compliance". <i>End-User Development</i>. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 6654/2011. pp. 203–217. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-21530-8_16">10.1007/978-3-642-21530-8_16</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-642-21529-2. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="http://www.eud2009.uni-siegen.de">Second International Symposium on End User Development</a></li> <li><a href="http://eusesconsortium.org">EUSES Consortium, a collaboration that researches end user computing</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.springer.com/west/home/generic/search/results?SGWID=4-40109-22-85672321-0&referer=www.springeronline.com&SHORTCUT=www.springer.com/sgw/cda/frontpage/0,11855,4-40109-22-85672321-0,00.html">The End User Development book</a></li> <li><a href="http://giove.cnuce.cnr.it/eud-net.htm">The European Commission Network of Excellence on End-User Development</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191133/http://giove.cnuce.cnr.it/eud-net.htm">Archived</a> 2016-03-03 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120402234145/http://www.iisi.de/international-symposium-on-end-user-development/conference-series/">Conference Series International Symposium on End-User Development</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Scaffidi, C.; Shaw, M.; Myers, B. (2005-09-01). "Estimating the Numbers of End Users and End User Programmers". 2005 IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing (VL/HCC'05). pp. 207–214. doi:10.1109/VLHCC.2005.34. ISBN 978-0-7695-2443-6. S2CID 14608501. <a href="978-0-7695-2443-6" target="_blank">978-0-7695-2443-6</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Little, Greg, and Robert C. Miller. "Translating keyword commands into executable code." Proceedings of the 19th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology. ACM, 2006. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171210231913/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/b740/08688a029d7c48a2153a7905e7fa65fea72f.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20171210231913/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/b740/08688a029d7c48a2153a7905e7fa65fea72f.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Bruckman, Amy, and Elizabeth Edwards. "Should we leverage natural-language knowledge? An analysis of user errors in a natural-language-style programming language." Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. ACM, 1999. APA <a href="http://www.cc.gatech.edu/~asb/papers/conference/edwards-bruckman-chi99.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.cc.gatech.edu/~asb/papers/conference/edwards-bruckman-chi99.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Burnett, Margaret M.; Scaffidi, Christopher (January 2024). End-User Development. Interaction-Design.org. at "Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction". <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Burnett" target="_blank">/wiki/Margaret_Burnett</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Burnett, Margaret M.; Scaffidi, Christopher (January 2024). End-User Development. Interaction-Design.org. at "Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction". <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Burnett" target="_blank">/wiki/Margaret_Burnett</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Hornsby, Peter (2009-08-03). "Empowering Users to Create Their Own Software". UXmatters. Retrieved 2014-01-31. <a href="http://www.uxmatters.com/mt/archives/2009/08/empowering-users-to-create-their-own-software.php" target="_blank">http://www.uxmatters.com/mt/archives/2009/08/empowering-users-to-create-their-own-software.php</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Abraham, R.; Burnett, M; Erwig, M (2009). "Spreadsheet programming". Wiley Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Engineering. pp. 1–10. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Kruck, S. & Sheetz, S., 2001. Spreadsheet accuracy theory Archived 2018-08-18 at the Wayback Machine. Journal of Information Systems Education. <a href="http://www.pucrs.br/ciencias/viali/tic_literatura/artigos/planilhas/KRUCK-SHEETZ_SpreadsheetAccTheory.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.pucrs.br/ciencias/viali/tic_literatura/artigos/planilhas/KRUCK-SHEETZ_SpreadsheetAccTheory.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Scaffidi, C., Shaw, M. & Myers, B., 2005. Estimating the Numbers of End Users and End User Programmers Archived 2011-09-12 at the Wayback Machine. 2005 IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing (VL/HCC’05), pp.207–214. <a href="http://web.engr.oregonstate.edu/~cscaffid/papers/eu_20050923_vlhcc.pdf" target="_blank">http://web.engr.oregonstate.edu/~cscaffid/papers/eu_20050923_vlhcc.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Paternò F., 2013, ISRN Software Engineering, End User Development: Survey of an Emerging Field for Empowering People <a href="http://www.hindawi.com/journals/isrn/2013/532659/" target="_blank">http://www.hindawi.com/journals/isrn/2013/532659/</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Ghiani, G., Manca, M., Paternò, F., Santoro, C.: Personalization of Context-dependent Applications through Trigger-Action Rules. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, Vol.24, Issue 2, Article N.14, April 2017. <a href="https://dl.acm.org/ft_gateway.cfm?id=3057861&ftid=1868975&dwn=1&CFID=15395619&CFTOKEN=88b71644acac92dd-68065E67-C078-832A-D6A5CF54EBDFA5C9/" target="_blank">https://dl.acm.org/ft_gateway.cfm?id=3057861&ftid=1868975&dwn=1&CFID=15395619&CFTOKEN=88b71644acac92dd-68065E67-C078-832A-D6A5CF54EBDFA5C9/</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Low-code development platforms <a href="/wiki/Low-code_development_platforms" target="_blank">/wiki/Low-code_development_platforms</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Lieberman, H., Paternò, F., Klann, M., and Wulf, V. (2006). End-User Development: An Emerging Paradigm. In: End-User Development, Lieberman, H., Paternò, F., and Wulf, V. (eds.), Springer Netherlands, 2006, ser. Human-Computer Interaction Series, vol. 9, Chapter 1, pp. 1-7, doi:10.1007/1-4020-5386-X_1 <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Ko, Andrew J.; Abraham, Robin; Beckwith, Laura; Blackwell, Alan; Burnett, Margaret; Erwig, Martin; Scaffidi, Chris; Lawrance, Joseph; Lieberman, Henry (2011-04-01). "The State of the Art in End-user Software Engineering". ACM Comput. Surv. 43 (3): 21:1–21:44. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.159.8597. doi:10.1145/1922649.1922658. ISSN 0360-0300. S2CID 9435548. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>H. Lieberman, B. A. Nardi, and D. Wright. Grammex: Defining grammars by example. In ACM conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (Summary, Demonstrations) (CHI ’98), Los Angeles, California, USA, pages 11–12. ACM Press, Apr. 1998. <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Maria Francesca Costabile, Daniela Fogli, Piero Mussio, Antonio Piccinno. End-user development: the software shaping workshop approach. In Lieberman, H., Paternò, F., Wulf, V. 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