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François Rabelais
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<h2 id="biography">Biography</h2> <h3>Touraine countryside to monastic life</h3> <p>According to a tradition dating back to <a href="/facts/Roger_de_Gaigni%C3%A8res/upkfh2km">Roger de Gaignières</a> (1642–1715), François Rabelais was the son of <a href="/facts/Seneschal/EM7K87yx">seneschal</a> and lawyer Antoine Rabelais<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> and was born at the estate of <i>La Devinière</i> in <a href="/facts/Seuilly/N7FATD0n">Seuilly</a> (near <a href="/facts/Chinon/LNe0HIg0">Chinon</a>), <a href="/facts/Touraine/HXKY5azv">Touraine</a> in modern-day <a href="/facts/Indre-et-Loire/Vp54lJ5Q">Indre-et-Loire</a>, where a Rabelais museum can be found today.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> The exact dates of his birth (c. 1483–1494) and death (1553) are unknown, but most scholars accept his likely birthdate as being 1483.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> His education was likely typical of the late medieval period: beginning with the <a href="/facts/Trivium/F180PttJ">trivium</a> syllabus that included the study of grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic before moving on to the <a href="/facts/Quadrivium/Qm48ab6G">quadrivium</a>, which dealt with arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p><p>In 1623, Jacques Bruneau de Tartifume wrote that Rabelais began his life as a <a href="/facts/Novitiate/vbJI4MeE">novice</a> of the <a href="/facts/Order_of_Friars_Minor/ezz1tGVz">Franciscan Order of Cordeliers</a>, at the Convent of the Cordeliers, near <a href="/facts/Angers/VYyXBD5c">Angers</a>; however there is no direct evidence to support this theory.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> By 1520, he was at <a href="/facts/Fontenay-le-Comte/CUvb6DoV">Fontenay-le-Comte</a> in <a href="/facts/Poitou/0IneyHsA">Poitou</a> where he became friends with Pierre Lamy, a fellow Franciscan, and corresponded with <a href="/facts/Guillaume_Bud%C3%A9/mlJ8mlgw">Guillaume Budé</a>, who observed that he was already competent in law.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> Following <a href="/facts/Erasmus/BLSrWcKI">Erasmus</a>' commentary on the original Greek version of the <i><a href="/facts/Gospel_of_Luke/TWayBl9v">Gospel of Luke</a></i>, the <a href="/facts/College_of_Sorbonne/VKpGHzhc">Sorbonne</a> banned the study of Greek in 1523,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> believing that it encouraged "personal interpretation" of the New Testament.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> As a result, both Lamy and Rabelais had their Greek books confiscated. Frustrated by the ban, Rabelais petitioned <a href="/facts/Pope_Clement_VII/LtYJwhAe">Pope Clement VII</a> (1523–1534) and obtained an <a href="/facts/Indult/ajgevCuW">indult</a> with the help of Bishop Geoffroy d'Estissac [fr], and was able to leave the Franciscans for the <a href="/facts/Benedictines/wPDY4zrT">Benedictine Order</a> at <a href="/facts/Maillezais/kmIJ2xgv">Maillezais</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> At the Saint-Pierre-de-Maillezais abbey, he worked as a secretary to the bishop—a well-read <a href="/facts/Prelate/3xI4N0k1">prelate</a> appointed by <a href="/facts/Francis_I_of_France/US9aL69h">Francis I</a>—and enjoyed his protection.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p> <h3>Physician and author</h3> <p>Around 1527 he left the monastery without authorization, becoming an <a href="/facts/Apostasy/9QAL3bjK">apostate</a> until <a href="/facts/Pope_Paul_III/fq3qarwb">Pope Paul III</a> absolved him of this crime, which carried with it the risk of severe sanctions, in 1536.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> Until this time, <a href="/facts/Church_law/hW0Qt10A">church law</a> forbade him to work as a doctor or surgeon.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> J. Lesellier surmises that it was during the time he spent in Paris from 1528 to 1530 that two of his three children (François and Junie) were born.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> After Paris, Rabelais went to the <a href="/facts/University_of_Poitiers/uIwHw49B">University of Poitiers</a> and then to the <a href="/facts/University_of_Montpellier/3S5tWSeW">University of Montpellier</a> to study medicine. In 1532 he moved to <a href="/facts/Lyon/hKh6EX67">Lyon</a>, one of the intellectual centres of the Renaissance, and began working as a doctor at the hospital <a href="/facts/H%C3%B4tel-Dieu_de_Lyon/QgmoMpur">Hôtel-Dieu de Lyon</a>. During his time in Lyon, he edited Latin works for the printer <a href="/facts/Sebastian_Gryphius/wVWlAuX3">Sebastian Gryphius</a>, and wrote a famous admiring letter to Erasmus to accompany the transmission of a Greek manuscript from the printer. Gryphius published Rabelais' translations and annotations of <a href="/facts/Hippocrates/lXUElFQD">Hippocrates</a>, <a href="/facts/Galen/9gDqPdwl">Galen</a> and <a href="/facts/Giovanni_Manardo/p76kJyqG">Giovanni Manardo</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> In 1537 he returned to Montpellier to pay the fees to obtain his licence to practice medicine (April 3) and obtained his doctorate the following month (May 22).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> Upon his return to Lyon in the summer, he gave an anatomy lesson at Lyon's Hôtel-Dieu using the corpse of a hanged man,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> which <a href="/facts/Etienne_Dolet/TjQjyutH">Etienne Dolet</a> described in his <i>Carmina</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> It was through his work and scholarship in the field of medicine that Rabelais gained European fame.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p><p>In 1532, under the pseudonym Alcofribas Nasier (an <a href="/facts/Anagram/T8L7yImr">anagram</a> of François Rabelais), he published his first book, <i>Pantagruel King of the Dipsodes</i>, the first of his <a href="/facts/Gargantua_and_Pantagruel/3lNc1JhS"><i>Gargantua</i> series</a>, primarily to supplement his income at the hospital.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> The idea of basing an allegory on the lives of giants came to Rabelais from the folklore legend of <i>les Grandes chroniques du grand et énorme géant Gargantua</i>, which were sold by <a href="/facts/Colportage/DvbUlErr">colporteurs</a> and at the fairs of Lyon [fr] as popular literature in the form of inexpensive pamphlets.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> The first edition of an almanac parodying the astrological predictions of the time called <i>Pantagrueline prognostications</i> appeared for the year 1533 from the press of Rabelais' publisher François Juste. It contained the name "Maître Alcofribas" in its full title. The popular almanacs continued irregularly until the final 1542 edition, which was prepared for the "perpetual year". From 1537, they were printed at the end of Juste's editions of <i>Pantagruel</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> Pantagruelism is an "eat, drink and be merry" philosophy, which led his books into disfavor with the theologians but brought them popular success and the admiration of later critics for their focus on the body. This first book, critical of the existing monastic and educational system, contains the first known occurrence in French of the words <a href="/facts/Encyclopedia/fRsmb4q6"><i>encyclopédie</i></a>, <a href="/facts/Kaballah/sqfKq2wu"><i>caballe</i></a>, <i>progrès</i>, and <a href="/facts/Utopia/Jddz3yUp"><i>utopie</i></a>, among others.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> The book became popular, along with its 1534 <a href="/facts/Prequel/FFQAyudS">prequel</a>, which dealt with the life and exploits of Pantagruel's father Gargantua, and which was more infused with the politics of the day and overtly favorable to the monarchy than the preceding volume had been. The 1534 re-edition of <i>Pantagruel</i> contains many orthographic, grammatical, and typographical innovations, in particular the use of diacritics (accents, apostrophes, and <a href="/facts/Diaeresis_(diacritic)/FsYeoSzC">diaereses</a>), which was then new in French.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> Mireille Huchon ascribes this innovation in part to the influence of <a href="/facts/Dante_Alighieri/rXX7fIg0">Dante</a>'s <i><a href="/facts/De_vulgari_eloquentia/xHctF1jr">De vulgari eloquentia</a></i> on French letters.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> </p> <h3>Travel to Italy</h3> <p>No clear evidence establishes when Jean du Bellay and Rabelais met. Nevertheless, when du Bellay was sent to Rome in January 1534 to convince Pope Clément VII not to excommunicate <a href="/facts/Henry_VIII_of_England/LFgGAjh0">Henry VIII</a>, he was accompanied by Rabelais, who worked as his secretary and personal physician until his return in April. During his stay, Rabelais found the city fascinating and decided to bring out a new edition of <a href="/facts/Bartolomeo_Marliani/kV0gmdsT">Bartolomeo Marliani</a>'s <i>Topographia antiqua Romae</i> with Sebastien Gryphe in Lyon.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p><p>Rabelais quietly left the Hôtel Dieu de Lyon on 13 February 1535 after receiving his salary, disappearing until August 1535 as a result of the tumultuous <a href="/facts/Affair_of_the_Placards/bKl0MTtG">Affair of the Placards</a>, which led Francis I to issue an edict forbidding all printing in France. Only the influence of the du Bellays allowed the printing presses to run again.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> In May, Jean du Bellay was named cardinal, and still with a diplomatic mission for Francis I, had Rabelais join him in Rome. During this time, Rabelais was also working for Geoffroy d'Estissac's interests and maintained a correspondence with him through diplomatic channels (under royal seal as far as Poitiers). Three letters from Rabelais have survived.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> On 17 January 1536, Paul III issued a <a href="/facts/Papal_brief/zGrzQfrn">papal brief</a> authorizing Rabelais to join a Benedictine monastery and practice medicine, as long as he refrained from surgery.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> Jean du Bellay having been named the abbot <i>in commendam</i> of the <a href="/facts/Saint-Maur_Abbey/97yMcJhn">Saint-Maur Abbey</a>, Rabelais arranged to be assigned there, knowing that the monks were to become <a href="/facts/Secular_clergy/l5hS9pQz">secular clergy</a> the following year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> </p> <p>In 1540, Rabelais lived for a short time in <a href="/facts/Turin/PudIVEnr">Turin</a> as part of the household of du Bellay's brother, <a href="/facts/Guillaume_du_Bellay/2KqLbAel">Guillaume</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> It was at this time that his two children were legitimized by Paul III, the same year that his third child (Théodule) died in Lyon at the age of two.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> Rabelais also spent some time lying low, under periodic threat of being condemned of <a href="/facts/Heresy/1eHqC2km">heresy</a> depending upon the health of his various protectors. In 1543, both <i>Gargantua</i> and <i>Pantagruel</i> were condemned by the <a href="/facts/College_of_Sorbonne/VKpGHzhc">Sorbonne</a>, then a theological college.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> Only the protection of du Bellay saved Rabelais after the condemnation of his novel by the Sorbonne. In June 1543 Rabelais became a <a href="/facts/Master_of_Requests_(France)/mgPXKsDR">Master of Requests</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> Between 1545 and 1547 François Rabelais lived in <a href="/facts/Metz/IgGFKcq6">Metz</a>, then a <a href="/facts/Free_imperial_city/1IFRXHob">free imperial city</a> and a republic, to escape the condemnation by the <a href="/facts/University_of_Paris/yXAx8nlG">University of Paris</a>. In 1547, he became <a href="/facts/Curate/e3pR0HnH">curate</a> of <a href="/facts/Saint-Christophe-du-Jambet/msKEQjoC">Saint-Christophe-du-Jambet</a> in <a href="/facts/Maine_(province)/C8NC6wzW">Maine</a> and of <a href="/facts/Meudon/4xqKn5Js">Meudon</a> near Paris. </p><p>With support from members of the prominent <a href="/facts/Du_Bellay_family/LFc7SG60">du Bellay family</a>, Rabelais had received approval from <a href="/facts/Francis_I_of_France/US9aL69h">King Francis I</a> to continue to publish his collection on 19 September 1545 for six years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> However, on 31 December 1546, the <i>Tiers Livre</i> joined the Sorbonne's list of banned books.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> After the king's death in 1547, the academic élite frowned upon Rabelais, and the Paris <a href="/facts/Parlement/Qfv527YQ">Parlement</a> suspended the sale of The Fourth Book, published in 1552,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> despite Henry II having accorded him the royal privilege. This suspension proved ineffective, for the time being, as the king reiterated his support for the book.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> </p><p>Rabelais resigned from the curacy in January 1553 and died in Paris later that year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="novels">Novels</h2> <h3><i>Gargantua and Pantagruel</i></h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Gargantua_and_Pantagruel/3lNc1JhS">Gargantua and Pantagruel</a></p> <p><i>Gargantua and Pantagruel</i> relates the adventures of Gargantua and his son Pantagruel. The tales are adventurous and erudite, festive and gross, ecumenical, and rarely—if ever—solemn for long. The first book, chronologically, was <i>Pantagruel: King of the Dipsodes</i> and the Gargantua mentioned in the Prologue refers not to Rabelais' own work but to storybooks that were being sold at the Lyon fairs in the early 1530s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> In the first chapter of the earliest book, Pantagruel's lineage is listed back 60 generations to a giant named Chalbroth. The narrator dismisses the skeptics of the time—who would have thought a giant far too large for <a href="/facts/Noah%27s_Ark/gEaMFrjE">Noah's Ark</a>—stating that Hurtaly (the giant reigning during the flood and a great fan of soup) simply rode the Ark like a kid on a rocking horse, or like a fat Swiss guy on a cannon.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> </p><p>In the Prologue to <i>Gargantua</i> the narrator addresses the: "Most illustrious drinkers, and <i>you</i> the most precious pox-ridden—for to <i>you</i> and <i>you</i> alone are my writings dedicated ..." before turning to Plato's <i><a href="/facts/Symposium_(Plato)/Cj33N4p3">Banquet</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> An unprecedented <a href="/facts/Syphilis/fdnGLyLT">syphilis</a> epidemic had raged through Europe for over 30 years when the book was published,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> even the king of France was reputed to have been infected. Etion was the first giant in Pantagruel's list of ancestors to suffer from the disease.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> </p><p>Although most chapters are humorous, wildly fantastic and frequently absurd, a few relatively serious passages have become famous for expressing humanistic ideals of the time. In particular, the chapters on Gargantua's boyhood and Gargantua's paternal letter to Pantagruel<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a>: 192–96 present a quite detailed vision of education. </p> <h4>Thélème</h4> <p class="note">"Thélème" and "Abbey of Thélème" redirect here. For the new religious movement, see <a href="/facts/Thelema/IlvjK0ex">Thelema</a>. For the Thelemic monastery, see <a href="/facts/Abbey_of_Thelema/bfuYAvjo">Abbey of Thelema</a>.</p> <p>In the second novel, <i>Gargantua</i>, M. Alcofribas narrates the Abbey of Thélème, built by the giant Gargantua. It differs markedly from the monastic norm, since it is open to both monks and nuns and has a swimming pool, maid service, and no clocks in sight. Only the good-looking are permitted to enter.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> The inscription at the gate first specifies who is not welcome: hypocrites, bigots, the pox-ridden, Goths, Magoths, straw-chewing law clerks, usurious grinches, old or officious judges, and burners of heretics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> When the members are defined positively, the text becomes more inviting: </p> <p>Honour, praise, distraction Herein lies subtraction in the tuning up of joy. To healthy bodies so employed Do pass on this reaction: Honour, praise, distraction<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> </p> <p>The Thélèmites in the abbey live according to a single rule: </p> <p>DO WHAT YOU WANT</p> <h3><i>The Third Book</i></h3> <p>Published in 1546 under his own name with the <i>privilège</i> granted by Francis I for the first edition and by Henri II for the 1552 edition, <i>The Third Book</i> was condemned by the Sorbonne, like the previous tomes. In it, Rabelais revisited discussions he had had while working as a secretary to Geoffroy d'Estissac earlier in Fontenay–le–Comte, where <a href="/facts/The_woman_question/QeIbHWtH"><i>la querelle des femmes</i></a> had been a lively subject of debate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> More recent exchanges with <a href="/facts/Marguerite_de_Navarre/RFnAkEn2">Marguerite de Navarre</a>—possibly about the question of clandestine marriage and the <a href="/facts/Book_of_Tobit/VpT2lxSe">Book of Tobit</a> whose canonical status was being debated at the <a href="/facts/Council_of_Trent/vRPIBssJ">Council of Trent</a>—led Rabelais to dedicate the book to her before she wrote the <i><a href="/facts/Heptam%C3%A9ron/YyAdhajC">Heptaméron</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> </p> <p>In contrast to the two preceding chronicles, the dialogue between the characters is much more developed than the plot elements in the third book. In particular, the central question of the book, which Panurge and Pantagruel consider from multiple points of view, is an abstract one: whether Panurge should marry or not. Torn between the desire for a wife and the fear of being cuckolded, Panurge engages in divinatory methods, like dream interpretation and <a href="/facts/Bibliomancy/E1dwLAEd">bibliomancy</a>. He consults authorities vested with revealed knowledge, like the sibyl of Panzoust or the mute Nazdecabre, profane acquaintances, like the theologian Hippothadée or the philosopher Trouillogan,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> and even the jester <a href="/facts/Triboulet/fxPL8I14">Triboulet</a>. It is likely that several of the characters refer to real people: <a href="/facts/Abel_Lefranc/WSFfFRsN">Abel Lefranc</a> argues that Hippothadée was <a href="/facts/Jacques_Lef%C3%A8vre_d%27%C3%89taples/5F4HsXRG">Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> Rondibilis was the doctor <a href="/facts/Guillaume_Rondelet/nBzS4mTK">Guillaume Rondelet</a>, the <a href="/facts/Esoteric/AW5dDFh1">esoteric</a> Her Trippa corresponds to <a href="/facts/Cornelius_Agrippa/sj4aGa9F">Cornelius Agrippa</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> One of the comic features of the story is the contradictory interpretations Pantagruel and Panurge get embroiled in, the first of which being the paradoxical <a href="/facts/Encomium/7Ao8evHy">encomium</a> of debts in chapter III.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> <i>The Third Book</i>, deeply indebted to <i><a href="/facts/In_Praise_of_Folly/A19KvHTk">In Praise of Folly</a></i>, contains the first-known attestation of the word <i>paradoxe</i> in French.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> </p><p>The more reflective tone shows the characters' evolution from the earlier tomes. Here Panurge is not as crafty as Pantagruel and is stubborn in his will to turn every sign to his advantage, refusing to listen to advice he had himself sought out. For example, when Her Trippa reads dark omens in his future marriage, Panurge accuses him of the same blind self-love (<i>philautie</i>) from which he seems to suffer. His erudition is more often put to work for pedantry than let to settle into wisdom. By contrast, Pantagruel's speech gains in weightiness by the third book, the exuberance of the young giant having faded.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> </p><p>At the end of the <i>Third Book</i>, the protagonists decide to set sail in search of a discussion with the Oracle of the Divine Bottle. The last chapters are focused on the praise of Pantagruelion, which combines properties of linen and hemp—a plant used in the 16th century for both the hangman's rope and medicinal purposes, being copiously loaded onto the ships.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> As a naturalist inspired by <a href="/facts/Pliny_the_Elder/grx67ghR">Pliny the Elder</a> and <a href="/facts/Charles_Estienne/j0Ivamap">Charles Estienne</a>, the narrator intercedes in the story, first describing the plant in great detail, then waxing lyrical on its various qualities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> </p> <h3><i>The Fourth Book</i></h3> <p>Rabelais began work on <i>The Fourth Book</i> while still in Metz. He dropped off a manuscript containing eleven chapters and ending mid-sentence in Lyon on his way to Rome to work as Cardinal du Bellay's personal physician in 1548. According to Jean Plattard, this publication served two purposes: first, it brought Rabelais some much-needed money; and second, it allowed him to respond to those who considered his work blasphemous. While the prologue denounced slanderers, the following chapters did not raise any polemical issues. Already it contained some of the best-known episodes, including the storm at sea and Panurge's sheep.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> It was framed as an erratic odyssey,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> inspired in part by the <a href="/facts/Argonauts/84ajr4Rx">Argonauts</a> and the news of <a href="/facts/Jacques_Cartier/5aYLNseA">Jacques Cartier</a>'s voyage to Canada,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> and in part by the imaginary voyage described by <a href="/facts/Lucian/r5bPEm9C">Lucian</a> in <i><a href="/facts/A_True_Story/WdLBr3yz">A True Story</a></i>, which provided Rabelais not only with several anecdotes, but also with a first-person narrator who regularly insisted on the <i>veracity</i> of obviously fantastical elements of the story.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> The full version appeared in 1552, after Rabelais received a royal privilege on 6 Aug 1550 for the exclusive right to publish his work in French, <a href="/facts/Tuscan_dialect/dcC4zTWS">Tuscan</a>, Greek, and Latin. This, he accomplished with the help of the young Cardinal of Châtillon (<a href="/facts/Odet_de_Coligny/NBLItB0F">Odet de Coligny</a>)—who would later convert to Protestantism<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> and be excommunicated.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> Rabelais thanks the Cardinal for his help in the prefatory letter signed 28 January 1552 and, for the first time in the Pantagruel series, titled the prologue in his own name rather than using a pseudonym.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="use-of-language">Use of language</h2> <p>The French Renaissance was a time of linguistic contact and debate. The first book of French, rather than Latin, grammar was published in 1530,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> followed nine years later by the language's first dictionary.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> Spelling was far less codified. Rabelais, as an educated reader of the day, preferred <a href="/facts/Etymological/18QG6y67">etymological</a> spelling—preserving clues to the lineage of words—to more phonetic spellings which wash those traces away. </p><p>Rabelais' use of Latin, Greek, regional and dialectal terms, creative <a href="/facts/Calque/A9M3UtAo">calquing</a>, <a href="/facts/Gloss_(annotation)/f7MlXzqo">gloss</a>, <a href="/facts/Neologism/vlq6w82X">neologism</a> and mis-translation was the fruit of the printing press having been invented less than a hundred years earlier. A doctor by trade, Rabelais was a prolific reader, who wrote a great deal about bodies and all they excrete or ingest. His fictional works are filled with multilingual, often sexual, puns, absurd creatures, bawdy songs and lists. Words and metaphors from Rabelais abound in modern French and some words have found their way into English, through <a href="/facts/Thomas_Urquhart/UwDnWHlK">Thomas Urquhart</a>'s unfinished 1693 translation, completed and considerably augmented by <a href="/facts/Peter_Anthony_Motteux/h5VoCsCa">Peter Anthony Motteux</a> by 1708. According to Radio-Canada, the novel <i>Gargantua</i> permanently added more than 800 words to the French language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="scholarly-views">Scholarly views</h2> <p>Most scholars today agree that Rabelais wrote from a perspective of <a href="/facts/Christian_humanism/EP2IUQ0c">Christian humanism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> This has not always been the case. <a href="/facts/Abel_Lefranc/WSFfFRsN">Abel Lefranc</a>, in his 1922 introduction to <i>Pantagruel</i>, depicted Rabelais as a militant anti-Christian atheist.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> On the contrary, <a href="/facts/M._A._Screech/aLNQh9JQ">M. A. Screech</a>, like Lucien Febvre before him,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a> describes Rabelais as an <a href="/facts/Erasmus/BLSrWcKI">Erasmian</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a> While formally a <a href="/facts/Roman_Catholic/rJ4F4gqH">Roman Catholic</a>, Rabelais was a <a href="/facts/Renaissance_humanism/wUYJgfR5">humanist</a>, and favoured classical Antiquity over the "barbarous" Middle Ages, believing in the need for reform to return science and arts to their classical blossoming, and theology and the Church to their original Evangelical form as expressed in the Gospels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a> In particular, he was critical of <a href="/facts/Monasticism/f0IhfXxb">monasticism</a>. Rabelais criticised what he considered to be inauthentic Christian positions by both Catholics and Protestants, and was attacked and portrayed as a threat to religion or even an atheist by both. For example, "at the request of Catholic theologians, all four Pantagrueline chronicles were censured by either the <a href="/facts/University_of_the_Sorbonne/yXAx8nlG">Sorbonne</a>, Parlement, or both".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a> On the opposite end of the spectrum, <a href="/facts/John_Calvin/CrUIG3p3">John Calvin</a> saw Rabelais as a representative of the numerous moderate evangelical humanists who, while "critical of contemporary Catholic institutions, doctrines, and conduct", did not go far enough; in addition, Calvin considered Rabelais' apparent mocking tone to be especially dangerous, since it could be easily interpreted as a rejection of the sacred truths themselves.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a> </p><p>Timothy Hampton writes that "to a degree unequaled by the case of any other writer from the European Renaissance, the reception of Rabelais's work has involved dispute, critical disagreement, and ... scholarly wrangling ..."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> In particular, as pointed out by Bruno Braunrot, the traditional view of Rabelais as a humanist has been challenged by early <a href="/facts/Post-structuralism/N1GPxB42">post-structuralist</a> analyses denying a single consistent ideological message of his text, and to some extent earlier by Marxist critiques such as <a href="/facts/Mikhail_Bakhtin/bqDVbyqg">Mikhail Bakhtin</a> with his emphasis on the subversive folk roots of Rabelais' humour in medieval "<a href="/facts/Carnival/zwDJMMS9">carnival</a>" culture. At present, however, "whatever controversy still surrounds Rabelais studies can be found above all in the application of feminist theories to Rabelais criticism", as he is alternately considered a misogynist or a feminist based on different episodes in his works.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> </p><p>An article by Edwin M. Duvall in <i>Études rabelaisiennes</i> 18 (1985)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a> sparked a debate on the prologue of <i>Gargantua</i> in the pages of the <i>Revue d’histoire littéraire de la France</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a> as to whether Rabelais intentionally hid higher meanings in his work, to be discovered through erudition and philology, or if instead the polyvalence of symbols was a poetic device meant to resist the reductive <a href="/facts/Gloss_(annotation)/f7MlXzqo">gloss</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a>[<i>jargon</i>] </p><p>Michel Jeanneret [fr] suggests that Panurge's description (in the Papimane Island episode in <i>The Fourth Book</i>) of the ill-effects of the pages of <a href="/facts/Decretal/HwLYPqIx">decretals</a> being used as toilet paper, targets, cones, and masks on whatever they touch was due to their misuse as material objects.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a> As the merry crew sail on from the island towards the Divine Bottle, in the subsequent episode, Pantagruel is content simply listening to the thawing words as they rain down on the boat,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> whereas Jeanneret observes that his companions focus instead on their colourful appearance while they are still frozen, hurrying to gather as many up as they can and offering to sell those they have collected. The pilot describes the words as evidence of a great battle,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a> and the narrator even wants to preserve some of the finest insults in oil.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> Jeanneret observes that Pantagruel considers the exchange of words to be an act of love rather than a commercial exchange,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a> argues that their artificial preservation is superfluous, and "insinuates that books are petrified tombs, where the signs threaten to stop moving and, left to the devices of lazy readers, get shriveled down into simplistic meanings[,]" implying that "[a]ll writing carries within it the danger of the Decretals."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a> </p><p>The <i><a href="/facts/Catholic_Encyclopedia/GKufVzBf">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i> of 1911 declared that Rabelais was </p> <p>... a revolutionary who attacked all the past, Scholasticism, the monks; his religion is scarcely more than that of a spiritually minded pagan. Less bold in political matters, he cared little for liberty; his ideal was a tyrant who loves peace. [...] His vocabulary is rich and picturesque, but licentious and filthy.[.....] As a whole it exercises a baneful influence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a></p> <h2 id="in-literature">In literature</h2><p> Acknowledging both the sordid side of the work and its protean nature, <a href="/facts/Jean_de_La_Bruy%C3%A8re/VSRPmv30">Jean de La Bruyère</a> in 1688 saw beyond that its sublimity:</p><p>His book is an enigma, it is whatever you want to say, it is inexplicable, it is a chimera ….. a monstrous assembling of refined and ingenious morality and foul corruption. Either it is bad, sinking far below the worst, to have the charm of the rabble. Or it is good, rising as far as exquisite and excellent, to be perhaps the most delicious of dishes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a></p> <p>In his 1759–1767 novel <i><a href="/facts/The_Life_and_Opinions_of_Tristram_Shandy,_Gentleman/dDNQe3KA">Tristram Shandy</a></i>, <a href="/facts/Laurence_Sterne/KlBSMcmP">Laurence Sterne</a> quotes extensively from Rabelais.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Alfred_Jarry/FypkBWwU">Alfred Jarry</a> performed, from memory, hymns of Rabelais at <a href="/facts/Symbolism_(movement)/LfFKeSLb">Symbolist</a> <a href="/facts/Rachilde/mW7PSVBN">Rachilde</a>'s Tuesday <a href="/facts/Salon_(gathering)/msrWHtYj">salons</a>, and worked for years on an unfinished <a href="/facts/Libretto/Nt8PWhWk">libretto</a> for an opera by <a href="/facts/Claude_Terrasse/IlUu2pmC">Claude Terrasse</a> based on Pantagruel.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Anatole_France/WDYn13Cy">Anatole France</a> gave lectures on Rabelais in Argentina. <a href="/facts/John_Cowper_Powys/L33x0Ern">John Cowper Powys</a>, <a href="/facts/D._B._Wyndham-Lewis/qEnJJ9NF">D. B. Wyndham-Lewis</a>, and <a href="/facts/Lucien_Febvre/Q8LTrLU4">Lucien Febvre</a> (one of the founders of the French historical school <i><a href="/facts/Annales_School/wnWmjVsa">Annales</a></i>), all wrote books about him. </p><p><a href="/facts/James_Joyce/Ty6qh67s">James Joyce</a> included an allusion to "Master Francois somebody" in his 1922 novel <i><a href="/facts/Ulysses_(novel)/Nmsv06fs">Ulysses</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Mikhail_Bakhtin/bqDVbyqg">Mikhail Bakhtin</a>, a Russian philosopher and critic, derived his concepts of the <a href="/facts/Carnivalesque/VxAzcFvH">carnivalesque</a> and <a href="/facts/Grotesque_body/5pIMzq4x">grotesque body</a> from the world of Rabelais. He points to the historical loss of communal spirit after the Medieval period and speaks of carnival laughter as an "expression of social consciousness".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Aldous_Huxley/Dq4XKMz4">Aldous Huxley</a> admired Rabelais' work. Writing in 1929, he praised Rabelais, stating "Rabelais loved the bowels which <a href="/facts/Jonathan_Swift/000AjJvj">Swift</a> so malignantly hated. His was the true <a href="/facts/Amor_fati/ywDt92Uu">amor fati</a> : he accepted reality in its entirety, accepted with gratitude and delight this amazingly improbable world."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/George_Orwell/aIQhGvNh">George Orwell</a> was not an admirer of Rabelais. Writing in 1940, he called him "an exceptionally perverse, morbid writer, a case for <a href="/facts/Psychoanalysis/gYCbGpPv">psychoanalysis</a>".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Milan_Kundera/o1RRoBHY">Milan Kundera</a>, in a 2007 article in <i><a href="/facts/The_New_Yorker/2RfeBrsR">The New Yorker</a></i>, commented on a list of the most notable works of French literature, noting with surprise and indignation that Rabelais was placed behind <a href="/facts/Charles_de_Gaulle/elj4Djpo">Charles de Gaulle</a>'s war memoirs, and was denied the "aura of a founding figure! Yet in the eyes of nearly every great novelist of our time he is, along with <a href="/facts/Miguel_de_Cervantes/Whcrx6FI">Cervantes</a>, the founder of an entire art, the art of the novel".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a> In the satirical musical <i><a href="/facts/The_Music_Man/HkBST7wr">The Music Man</a></i> by <a href="/facts/Meredith_Willson/ez9q1rDA">Meredith Willson</a>, the names "<a href="/facts/Chaucer/HR7rHQng">Chaucer</a>! Rabelais! <a href="/facts/Balzac/vgqJhSLP">Balzac</a>!" are presented by local gossips as evidence that the town librarian "advocates dirty books."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a> </p><p>Rabelais is a pivotal figure in <a href="/facts/Kenzabur%C5%8D_%C5%8Ce/0XHPUzQV">Kenzaburō Ōe</a>'s 1994 acceptance speech for the <a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature/wWVXbIbp">Nobel Prize in Literature</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="honours-tributes-and-legacy">Honours, tributes and legacy</h2> <ul><li>The public university in <a href="/facts/Tours,_France/NEE7BIFJ">Tours, France</a> is named <a href="/facts/Universit%C3%A9_Fran%C3%A7ois_Rabelais/QKWah7d4">Université François Rabelais</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Honor%C3%A9_de_Balzac/vgqJhSLP">Honoré de Balzac</a> was inspired by the works of Rabelais to write Les Cent Contes Drolatiques (The Hundred Humorous Tales). Balzac also pays homage to Rabelais by quoting him in more than twenty novels and the short stories of <a href="/facts/La_Com%C3%A9die_humaine/FhWIQj7Q">La Comédie humaine</a> (The Human Comedy). Michel Brix wrote of Balzac that he "is obviously a son or grandson of Rabelais... He has never hidden his admiration for the author of Gargantua, whom he cites in <a href="/facts/Le_Cousin_Pons/4sSCcsMl">Le Cousin Pons</a> as "the greatest mind of modern humanity".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a> In his story of <i>Zéro, Conte Fantastique</i> published in La Silhouette on 3 October 1830, Balzac even adopted Rabelais's pseudonym (<i>Alcofribas</i>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a></li> <li>There is a tradition at the <a href="/facts/University_of_Montpellier/3S5tWSeW">University of Montpellier</a>'s Faculty of Medicine: no graduating medic can undergo a convocation without taking an oath under <i>Rabelais's robe</i>. Further tributes are paid to him in other traditions of the university, such as its <i><a href="/facts/Faluche/gWcFrDhf">faluche</a></i>, a distinctive student headcap which in Montpellier is styled in his honour, with four bands of colour emanating from its centre.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/5666_Rabelais/clLL6DhB">Asteroid '5666 Rabelais'</a> was named in honor of François Rabelais in 1982.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110"><sup>110</sup></a></li> <li>In <a href="/facts/J._M._G._Le_Cl%C3%A9zio/62vpA8qw">Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio's</a> 2008 Nobel Prize lecture, Le Clézio referred to Rabelais as "the greatest writer in the French language".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111"><sup>111</sup></a></li> <li>In France the moment at a restaurant when the waiter presents the bill is still sometimes called <i>le quart d'heure de Rabelais</i> (The fifteen minutes of Rabelais), in memory of a famous trick Rabelais used to get out of paying a tavern bill.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112"><sup>112</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="works">Works</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Gargantua_and_Pantagruel/3lNc1JhS">Gargantua and Pantagruel</a>, a series of four or five books including: <ul><li><i><a href="/facts/Pantagruel/3lNc1JhS">Pantagruel</a> [fr] (1532)</i></li> <li><i>La vie très horrifique du grand Gargantua</i>, usually called <i><a href="/facts/Gargantua/3lNc1JhS">Gargantua</a> [fr]</i> (1534)</li> <li><i>The Third Book [fr]</i> (1546)</li> <li><i>The Fourth Book</i> (1552)</li> <li><i>The Fifth Book [fr]</i> (1564) whose authorship is contested</li></ul></li> <li><i>Pantagrueline Prognostication [fr]</i> (1532, 1533, 1535, 1537, 1542 ): parodic almanac, astrology</li> <li><i>Sciomachie [fr]</i> (1549): description of the festivities organized by Jean du Bellay to celebrate the birth of <a href="/facts/Louis_of_Valois_(1549%E2%80%931550)/SgbUplUD">Louis of Valois</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113"><sup>113</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><i><a href="/facts/Rabelais_and_His_World/RVHBDgSQ">Rabelais and His World</a></i></li> <li><a href="/facts/Thomas_Urquhart/UwDnWHlK">Thomas Urquhart</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Peter_Anthony_Motteux/h5VoCsCa">Peter Anthony Motteux</a>, (works at wikisource)</li> <li><a href="/facts/The_Great_Mare/zb6lXGf0">The Great Mare</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Rabelais_Student_Media/WUxV1HQk">Rabelais Student Media</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h3>Citations</h3> <h3>Works cited</h3> General <ul><li>Demerson, Guy (1986). <a href="https://archive.org/details/rabelais0000deme"><i>Rabelais</i></a> (in French). Paris: Balland. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9782715805668.</li> <li>Dupèbe, Jean (1985). "La date de la mort de Rabelais". <i>Études rabelaisiennes</i> (in French). Vol. XVIII. Droz. pp. 175–176.</li> <li>Lazard, Madeleine (2002). <i>Rabelais</i> (in French). Paris: Hachette Littératures. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 2012791077.</li> <li>Lefranc, Abel (1908). "Conjectures sur la date de naissance de Rabelais". <a href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k19482m/f291.image.r=abel%20lefranc%20rabelais%20naissance.langFR"><i>Revue des Études Rabelaisiennes</i></a> (in French). Vol. 6. Paris: Honoré Champion. pp. 265–270.</li> <li>Plattard, Jean (1930). <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.172627"><i>The Life of François Rabelais</i></a>. Translated by Louis P. Roche. London: George Routledge & Sons. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/504218182">504218182</a>.</li> <li>Radio-Canada (7 November 2017). <a href="https://ici.radio-canada.ca/ohdio/premiere/emissions/aujourd-hui-l-histoire/segments/entrevue/45739/histo-rabelais-litterature-gargantua-renaissance">"François Rabelais, truculent homme de littérature et de science"</a> (in French).</li></ul> Commentary <ul><li>Bakhtin, Mikhail (1993). <a href="https://archive.org/details/rabelaishisworld0000bakh"><i>Rabelais and His World</i></a>. Translated by Hélène Iswolsky. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.</li> <li>Boulenger, Jacques (1978). "Introduction: Vie de Rabelais". In Boulenger, Jacques; Scheler, Lucien (eds.). <i>Œuvres complètes Œuvres complètes</i>. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade (in Middle French). Vol. 15 (Revised edition with commentary by Lucien Scheler ed.). Paris: Gallimard. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5725863">5725863</a>.</li> <li>Bowen, Barbara C. (1998). <a href="https://archive.org/details/enterrabelaislau00bowe_0"><i>Enter Rabelais, Laughing</i></a>. Vanderbilt University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8265-1306-9.</li> <li>Febvre, Lucien (1942). <a href="https://archive.org/details/leproblemedelinc1962febv"><i>Le problème de l'incroyance au XVIe siècle: la religion de Rabelais</i></a> (in French). Paris: Albin Michel.</li> <li>Huchon, Mireille (2011). <i>Rabelais</i> (in French). Paris: Gallimard. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-2-07-073544-0.</li> <li>Jeanneret, Michel (1975). <a href="https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:21940">"Les paroles dégelées (Rabelais, Quart Livre, 48-65)"</a>. <i>Littérature</i> (in French). 17 (17): 14–30. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Flitt.1975.979">10.3406/litt.1975.979</a>.</li> <li>Screech, Michael A. (1979). <a href="https://archive.org/details/rabelais0000scre_o0r2"><i>Rabelais</i></a>. London: Duckworth. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7156-1660-4.</li> <li>Screech, Michael A. (1992). <i>Rabelais</i>. Tel (in French). Translated by Marie-Anne de Kisch. Paris: Gallimard. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/377631583">377631583</a>.</li></ul> Complete works <ul><li>Rabelais, François (1994). Huchon, Mireille; Moreau, François (eds.). <i>Rabelais Oeuvres complètes</i>. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade (in French). Vol. 15. Paris: Gallimard. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-2-07-011340-8. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31599267">31599267</a>. Presented and annotated by François Moreau</li> <li>Rabelais, François (1995). Demerson, Guy; Demerson, Geneviève (eds.). <i>Rabelais: Œuvres complètes</i>. Seuil.</li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Bakhtin, Mihail; Laine, Tapani; Nieminen, Paula; Salo, Erkki (2002). <i>François Rabelais: keskiajan ja renessanssin nauru</i> (in Finnish) (3rd ed.). Helsinki: Like. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-952-471-083-1.</li> <li>Dixon, J. E. G.; Dawson, John L. (1992). <i>Concordance des Oeuvres de François Rabelais</i> (in French). Geneva: Librairie Droz. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-952-471-083-1.</li> <li>Febvre, Lucien (1982). <i>The Problem of Unbelief in the Sixteenth Century: The Religion of Rabelais</i>. Translated by Beatrice Gottlieb. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-674-70825-9.</li> <li>Kinser, Samuel (1990). <a href="http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft596nb3q0/"><i>Rabelais's Carnival: Text, Context, Metatext</i></a>. Berkeley: University of California Press.</li> <li>Rabelais, François (1999). Frame, Donald Murdoch (ed.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/completeworksoff00rabe"><i>The complete works of François Rabelais</i></a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780520064010.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/551">Works by François Rabelais</a> at <a href="/facts/Project_Gutenberg/2l0R6GgQ">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Rabelais%2C%20François%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22François%20Rabelais%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Rabelais%2C%20François%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22François%20Rabelais%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Rabelais%2C%20F%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22François%20Rabelais%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Rabelais%2C%20François%22%20OR%20description%3A%22François%20Rabelais%22%20OR%20%28Fran%2Aois+Rabelais%29%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about François Rabelais</a> at the <a href="/facts/Internet_Archive/PHStU8Lo">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a href="https://librivox.org/author/1151">Works by François Rabelais</a> at <a href="/facts/LibriVox/FF71kJKC">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) </li> <li><a href="http://www.rabelais.nl/">Rabelais.nl</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210226125756/http://rabelais.nl/">Archived</a> 26 February 2021 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100111041744/http://www.renaissance-france.org/rabelais/pages/pagrablais2.html">Rabelais et la Renaissance</a>, sur le <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100110055916/http://www.renaissance-france.org/">Portail de la Renaissance française</a> (in French)</li> <li><a href="https://www.musee-rabelais.fr/">François Rabelais Museum on the Internet</a> (in French)</li> <li>Henry Émile Chevalier, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20001204222700/http://www.bmlisieux.com/curiosa/rabelais.htm"><i>Rabelais and his editors</i></a>[usurped], 1868 (in French)</li> <li><a href="/facts/George_Saintsbury/pmP7BsvR">Saintsbury, George</a> (1911). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Rabelais,_Fran%C3%A7ois">"Rabelais, François" </a>. <i><a href="/facts/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition/mPElbCRY">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). pp. 769–773.</li> <li><a href="https://www.discogs.com/artist/The+Monks+And+Nuns">The Monks and Nuns from Thélème's Abbey</a> discography at <a href="/facts/Discogs/wdyMoREv">Discogs</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Wells, John C. (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0. <a href="978-1-4058-8118-0" target="_blank">978-1-4058-8118-0</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John (eds.). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15255-6. <a href="978-0-521-15255-6" target="_blank">978-0-521-15255-6</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Renner, Bernd (26 February 2020). "François Rabelais". Oxford Bibliographies. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/OBO/9780195399301-0153. ISBN 978-0-19-539930-1. <a href="978-0-19-539930-1" target="_blank">978-0-19-539930-1</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>"Rabelaisian". Merriam-Webster.com. <a href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/rabelaisian" target="_blank">http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/rabelaisian</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>The Rabelais Encyclopedia, p. xiii. - Braunrot, Bruno (2004). "Critical Theory". In Chesney, Elizabeth A. (ed.). The Rabelais Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing. pp. 43–46. ISBN 978-0-313-31034-8 – via Google Books. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RwjWrTd5la4C&q=Rabelais+seemingly+misogynous&pg=PA45" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=RwjWrTd5la4C&q=Rabelais+seemingly+misogynous&pg=PA45</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Huchon 2011, p. 33–34. - Huchon, Mireille (2011). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-073544-0. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>In 1905, Abel Lefranc proposed 1494 as his year of birth based on the fact that the fictional giant Gargantua was born on a Shrove Tuesday taking place around 3 February.[8] In a letter Rabelais wrote to Guillaume Budé around 1520, he calls himself an adulescens, a Latin term applying to a young man under thirty, but scholars note this may well be a mark of modesty when addressing an elder humanist.[9] Researchers agree more on 1483, due to a copy of his epitaph indicating his death on April 9, 1553 at the age of 70.[10] The discovery of a notarial document relating to Rabelais' estate dated March 14, 1553 has led scholars to surmise that he was already dead by this date.[11] A third hypothesis put forward by Claude Bougreau deduces from a study of the chapter 39 of the Third Book that he was born on May 5, 1489.[12] <a href="/wiki/Abel_Lefranc" target="_blank">/wiki/Abel_Lefranc</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Lazard 2002, p. 38. - Lazard, Madeleine (2002). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Hachette Littératures. ISBN 2012791077. <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Demonet, Marie-Luce (2022). "Rabelais moinillon à la Baumette. Retour sur une hypothèse". In Garnier, Isabelle; La Charité, Claude (eds.). Narrations fabuleuses. Mélanges en l'honneur de Mireille Huchon (in French). Paris: Classiques Garnier. pp. 25–44. doi:10.48611/isbn.978-2-406-12714-7.p.0025. Qui sait si Tartifume, bon connaisseur du Gargantua, n'est pas parti du roman pour imaginer ce noviciat? <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Demonet, Marie-Luce (2022). "Rabelais moinillon à la Baumette. Retour sur une hypothèse". In Garnier, Isabelle; La Charité, Claude (eds.). Narrations fabuleuses. Mélanges en l'honneur de Mireille Huchon (in French). Paris: Classiques Garnier. pp. 25–44. doi:10.48611/isbn.978-2-406-12714-7.p.0025. Qui sait si Tartifume, bon connaisseur du Gargantua, n'est pas parti du roman pour imaginer ce noviciat? <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Boulenger 1978, p. xi. - Boulenger, Jacques (1978). "Introduction: Vie de Rabelais". In Boulenger, Jacques; Scheler, Lucien (eds.). Œuvres complètes Œuvres complètes. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade (in Middle French). Vol. 15 (Revised edition with commentary by Lucien Scheler ed.). Paris: Gallimard. OCLC 5725863. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5725863" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5725863</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Demerson 1986, p. 13. - Demerson, Guy (1986). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Balland. ISBN 9782715805668. <a href="https://archive.org/details/rabelais0000deme" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/rabelais0000deme</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Boulenger 1978, p. xi. - Boulenger, Jacques (1978). "Introduction: Vie de Rabelais". In Boulenger, Jacques; Scheler, Lucien (eds.). Œuvres complètes Œuvres complètes. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade (in Middle French). Vol. 15 (Revised edition with commentary by Lucien Scheler ed.). Paris: Gallimard. OCLC 5725863. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5725863" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5725863</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Lazard 2002, p. 41. - Lazard, Madeleine (2002). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Hachette Littératures. ISBN 2012791077. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Lesellier, J. (1936). "L'absolution de Rabelais en cour de Rome ses circonstances. Ses résultats". Humanisme et Renaissance (in French). 3 (3): 237–270. JSTOR 20673008. Les moines en rupture de ban se comptaient alors par milliers et, d'une façon générale, l'opinion ne se montrait nullement sévère à leur égard <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Demerson 1986, p. 14. - Demerson, Guy (1986). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Balland. ISBN 9782715805668. <a href="https://archive.org/details/rabelais0000deme" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/rabelais0000deme</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Lesellier, J. (1938). "Deux enfants naturels de Rabelais légitimés par Paul III". Humanisme et Renaissance (in French). 5 (4): 549–570. JSTOR 20673173. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Boulenger 1978, p. xiii. - Boulenger, Jacques (1978). "Introduction: Vie de Rabelais". In Boulenger, Jacques; Scheler, Lucien (eds.). Œuvres complètes Œuvres complètes. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade (in Middle French). Vol. 15 (Revised edition with commentary by Lucien Scheler ed.). Paris: Gallimard. OCLC 5725863. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5725863" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5725863</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Huchon 2011, p. 242. - Huchon, Mireille (2011). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-073544-0. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Boulenger 1978, p. xvii. - Boulenger, Jacques (1978). "Introduction: Vie de Rabelais". In Boulenger, Jacques; Scheler, Lucien (eds.). Œuvres complètes Œuvres complètes. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade (in Middle French). Vol. 15 (Revised edition with commentary by Lucien Scheler ed.). Paris: Gallimard. OCLC 5725863. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5725863" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5725863</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Huchon 2011, p. 247. - Huchon, Mireille (2011). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-073544-0. <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Demerson 1986, p. 15. - Demerson, Guy (1986). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Balland. ISBN 9782715805668. <a href="https://archive.org/details/rabelais0000deme" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/rabelais0000deme</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Boulenger 1978, pp. xiii, xv. - Boulenger, Jacques (1978). "Introduction: Vie de Rabelais". In Boulenger, Jacques; Scheler, Lucien (eds.). Œuvres complètes Œuvres complètes. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade (in Middle French). Vol. 15 (Revised edition with commentary by Lucien Scheler ed.). Paris: Gallimard. OCLC 5725863. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5725863" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5725863</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Boulenger 1978, p. xiii. - Boulenger, Jacques (1978). "Introduction: Vie de Rabelais". In Boulenger, Jacques; Scheler, Lucien (eds.). Œuvres complètes Œuvres complètes. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade (in Middle French). Vol. 15 (Revised edition with commentary by Lucien Scheler ed.). Paris: Gallimard. OCLC 5725863. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5725863" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5725863</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Huchon 2011, pp. 164–165. - Huchon, Mireille (2011). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-073544-0. <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Huchon, Mireille (2003). "Pantagruelistes et mercuriens lyonnais". In Defaux, Gérard; Colombat, Bernard (eds.). Lyon et l'illustration de la langue française à la Renaissance (in French). ENS Éditions. p. 405. ISBN 978-2-84788-032-8. <a href="978-2-84788-032-8" target="_blank">978-2-84788-032-8</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Original context (fr / en) <a href="https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Pantagruel/%C3%89dition_Marty-Laveaux,_1868/Chapitre_20" target="_blank">https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Pantagruel/%C3%89dition_Marty-Laveaux,_1868/Chapitre_20</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Huchon 2011, pp. 183–187. - Huchon, Mireille (2011). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-073544-0. <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Huchon 2011, pp. 188–192. - Huchon, Mireille (2011). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-073544-0. <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Huchon 2011, pp. 196–197. - Huchon, Mireille (2011). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-073544-0. <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Marliani, Bartolomeo (1534). Rabelais, François (ed.). Topographia antiqua Romae (in Latin). Sebastien Gryphe. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JHqUc_0UpbUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=JHqUc_0UpbUC</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Huchon 2011, pp. 201–203. - Huchon, Mireille (2011). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-073544-0. <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Huchon 2011, pp. 226–229. - Huchon, Mireille (2011). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-073544-0. <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Huchon 2011, p. 236. - Huchon, Mireille (2011). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-073544-0. <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Lesellier, J. (1938). "Deux enfants naturels de Rabelais légitimés par Paul III". Humanisme et Renaissance (in French). 5 (4): 549–570. JSTOR 20673173. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Demerson 1986, p. 17. - Demerson, Guy (1986). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Balland. ISBN 9782715805668. <a href="https://archive.org/details/rabelais0000deme" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/rabelais0000deme</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Lesellier, J. (1938). "Deux enfants naturels de Rabelais légitimés par Paul III". Humanisme et Renaissance (in French). 5 (4): 549–570. JSTOR 20673173. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Febvre 1942, pp. 111–15, 128–32. - Febvre, Lucien (1942). Le problème de l'incroyance au XVIe siècle: la religion de Rabelais (in French). Paris: Albin Michel. <a href="https://archive.org/details/leproblemedelinc1962febv" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/leproblemedelinc1962febv</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Marichal, Robert (1948). "Rabelais fût il Maître des Requêtes?". Bibliothèque d'Humanisme et Renaissance. 10: 169–78, at p. 169. JSTOR 20673434. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Huchon 2011, p. 296. - Huchon, Mireille (2011). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-073544-0. <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Huchon 2011, p. 311. - Huchon, Mireille (2011). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-073544-0. <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Boulenger 1978, p. xx. - Boulenger, Jacques (1978). "Introduction: Vie de Rabelais". In Boulenger, Jacques; Scheler, Lucien (eds.). Œuvres complètes Œuvres complètes. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade (in Middle French). Vol. 15 (Revised edition with commentary by Lucien Scheler ed.). Paris: Gallimard. OCLC 5725863. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5725863" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5725863</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Lefranc, Abel (1929). "Rabelais, la Sorbonne et le Parlement en 1552 (partie 1)". Comptes Rendus des Séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. 73: 276. <a href="http://www.persee.fr/doc/crai_0065-0536_1929_num_73_4_75794" target="_blank">http://www.persee.fr/doc/crai_0065-0536_1929_num_73_4_75794</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Screech 1979, pp. 321–322. - Screech, Michael A. (1979). Rabelais. London: Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-7156-1660-4. <a href="https://archive.org/details/rabelais0000scre_o0r2" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/rabelais0000scre_o0r2</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Boulenger 1978, pp. xx–xxi, xix–xx. - Boulenger, Jacques (1978). "Introduction: Vie de Rabelais". In Boulenger, Jacques; Scheler, Lucien (eds.). Œuvres complètes Œuvres complètes. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade (in Middle French). Vol. 15 (Revised edition with commentary by Lucien Scheler ed.). Paris: Gallimard. OCLC 5725863. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5725863" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5725863</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Traditionally, the death date of Rabelais has been given as 9 April 1553[1] but the discovery of a notarial document (concerning his brother) places Rabelais' death before 14 March 1553.[46] <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>Demerson & Demerson 1995, pp. 297, 300. - Rabelais, François (1995). Demerson, Guy; Demerson, Geneviève (eds.). Rabelais: Œuvres complètes. Seuil. <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Demerson & Demerson 1995, pp. 308–314. - Rabelais, François (1995). Demerson, Guy; Demerson, Geneviève (eds.). Rabelais: Œuvres complètes. Seuil. <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Demerson & Demerson 1995, p. 50. - Rabelais, François (1995). Demerson, Guy; Demerson, Geneviève (eds.). Rabelais: Œuvres complètes. Seuil. <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>Marshall, James (7 July 1948). "Rabelais on Syphilis". Nature. 162 (4107): 118. Bibcode:1948Natur.162..118M. doi:10.1038/162118a0. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F162118a0" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1038%2F162118a0</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>Demerson & Demerson 1995, p. 510. - Rabelais, François (1995). Demerson, Guy; Demerson, Geneviève (eds.). Rabelais: Œuvres complètes. Seuil. <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>Rabelais, François (1955). The Histories of Gargantua and Pantagruel. Penguin Classics. Translated by J. M. Cohen. Harmondsworth: Penguin. <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>Demerson & Demerson 1995, pp. 268–269. - Rabelais, François (1995). Demerson, Guy; Demerson, Geneviève (eds.). Rabelais: Œuvres complètes. Seuil. <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Demerson & Demerson 1995, p. 272. - Rabelais, François (1995). Demerson, Guy; Demerson, Geneviève (eds.). Rabelais: Œuvres complètes. Seuil. <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Demerson & Demerson 1995, p. 274. - Rabelais, François (1995). Demerson, Guy; Demerson, Geneviève (eds.). Rabelais: Œuvres complètes. Seuil. <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Boulenger 1978, p. xix. - Boulenger, Jacques (1978). "Introduction: Vie de Rabelais". In Boulenger, Jacques; Scheler, Lucien (eds.). Œuvres complètes Œuvres complètes. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade (in Middle French). Vol. 15 (Revised edition with commentary by Lucien Scheler ed.). Paris: Gallimard. OCLC 5725863. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5725863" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5725863</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Bauschatz, Cathleen M. (2003). "Rabelais and Marguerite de Navarre on Sixteenth-Century Views of Clandestine Marriage". Sixteenth Century Journal. 34 (2): 395–408. doi:10.2307/20061415. JSTOR 20061415. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20061415" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/20061415</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>Rabelais, François (1552). "XXXV: Comment Trouillogan Philosophe traicte la difficulté de mariage.". Tiers Livre. p. 113. <a href="https://renom.univ-tours.fr/fr/index/corpus/francois-rabelais/le-tiers-livre-1552/comment-trouillogan-philosophe-traicte-la-difficulte-de-mariage-chapitre-xxxv" target="_blank">https://renom.univ-tours.fr/fr/index/corpus/francois-rabelais/le-tiers-livre-1552/comment-trouillogan-philosophe-traicte-la-difficulte-de-mariage-chapitre-xxxv</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>"Les amis de Guillaume Budé – Hippothadée représente-t-il Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples". La Vie des Classiques (in French). 30 October 2019. <a href="https://laviedesclassiques.fr/article/les-amis-de-guillaume-bud%C3%A9-hippothad%C3%A9e-repr%C3%A9sente-t-il-jacques-lef%C3%A8vre-d%E2%80%99%C3%A9taples" target="_blank">https://laviedesclassiques.fr/article/les-amis-de-guillaume-bud%C3%A9-hippothad%C3%A9e-repr%C3%A9sente-t-il-jacques-lef%C3%A8vre-d%E2%80%99%C3%A9taples</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>Rabelais 1994, p. 1412. - Rabelais, François (1994). Huchon, Mireille; Moreau, François (eds.). Rabelais Oeuvres complètes. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade (in French). Vol. 15. Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-011340-8. OCLC 31599267. Presented and annotated by François Moreau <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31599267" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31599267</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>Rabelais 1994, p. 1424. - Rabelais, François (1994). Huchon, Mireille; Moreau, François (eds.). Rabelais Oeuvres complètes. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade (in French). Vol. 15. Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-011340-8. OCLC 31599267. Presented and annotated by François Moreau <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31599267" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31599267</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>Huchon 2011, p. 24. - Huchon, Mireille (2011). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-073544-0. <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:63"><p>Screech 1992, pp. 308–312. - Screech, Michael A. (1992). Rabelais. Tel (in French). Translated by Marie-Anne de Kisch. Paris: Gallimard. OCLC 377631583. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/377631583" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/377631583</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:64"><p>Demonet, Marie-Luce (1996). "Polysémie et pharmacie dans le Tiers Livre". Rabelais et le Tiers Livre (in French). Nice. pp. 61–84. <a href="https://shs.hal.science/halshs-00264797" target="_blank">https://shs.hal.science/halshs-00264797</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:65"><p>Rigolot, François (1996). Les Langages de Rabelais (in French). Droz. pp. 144–152. <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:66"><p>Plattard 1930, pp. 229–234. - Plattard, Jean (1930). The Life of François Rabelais. Translated by Louis P. Roche. London: George Routledge & Sons. OCLC 504218182. <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.172627" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.172627</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:67"><p>Screech 1992, pp. 379–407. - Screech, Michael A. (1992). Rabelais. Tel (in French). Translated by Marie-Anne de Kisch. Paris: Gallimard. OCLC 377631583. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/377631583" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/377631583</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:68"><p>Marie-Luce Demonet (2015). Les Argonautiques et le Quart Livre de Rabelais. Actes du colloque de Tours, 20–22 octobre 2011 (in French). Vol. 53. MOM editions. <a href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/mom_0151-7015_2015_act_53_1_3382" target="_blank">https://www.persee.fr/doc/mom_0151-7015_2015_act_53_1_3382</a> <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:69"><p>Le Cadet, Nicolas (2012). "Le topos lucianesque des « histoires vraies » et la poétique du Quart Livre". Réforme, Humanisme, Renaissance (in French) (74): 7–24. <a href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/rhren_1771-1347_2012_num_74_1_3159" target="_blank">https://www.persee.fr/doc/rhren_1771-1347_2012_num_74_1_3159</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:70"><p>Huchon 2011, p. 335. - Huchon, Mireille (2011). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-073544-0. <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:71"><p>Bullarum diplomatum et privilegiorum sanctorum Romanorum Pontificum, Taurinensis editio (in Latin). Vol. 7. Turin: Dalmazzo. 1862. pp. 247–249. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=48VXAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA247" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=48VXAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA247</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:72"><p>Screech 1979, pp. 321–322. - Screech, Michael A. (1979). Rabelais. London: Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-7156-1660-4. <a href="https://archive.org/details/rabelais0000scre_o0r2" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/rabelais0000scre_o0r2</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:73"><p>Julien, Jacques; Baddely, Susan (April 2016). "notice John Palsgrave" (in French). CTLF. Retrieved 17 November 2018. <a href="http://ctlf.ens-lyon.fr/notices/notice_165.htm" target="_blank">http://ctlf.ens-lyon.fr/notices/notice_165.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:74"><p>Dictionnaire francois latin contenant les motz et manières de parler francois, tournez en latin (in French). Paris: Robert Estienne. 1539. <a href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k505878" target="_blank">https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k505878</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:75"><p>Radio-Canada 2017. - Radio-Canada (7 November 2017). "François Rabelais, truculent homme de littérature et de science" (in French). <a href="https://ici.radio-canada.ca/ohdio/premiere/emissions/aujourd-hui-l-histoire/segments/entrevue/45739/histo-rabelais-litterature-gargantua-renaissance" target="_blank">https://ici.radio-canada.ca/ohdio/premiere/emissions/aujourd-hui-l-histoire/segments/entrevue/45739/histo-rabelais-litterature-gargantua-renaissance</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:76"><p>Bowen 1998. - Bowen, Barbara C. (1998). Enter Rabelais, Laughing. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 978-0-8265-1306-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/enterrabelaislau00bowe_0" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/enterrabelaislau00bowe_0</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:77"><p>Davis, Natalie Zemon (1998). "Beyond Babel". In Davis, Natalie Zemon; Hampton (eds.). Rabelais and His Critics. Occasional Papers Series, University of California Press. <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:78"><p>Febvre 1942, pp. 329–360. - Febvre, Lucien (1942). Le problème de l'incroyance au XVIe siècle: la religion de Rabelais (in French). Paris: Albin Michel. <a href="https://archive.org/details/leproblemedelinc1962febv" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/leproblemedelinc1962febv</a> <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:79"><p>Screech 1979, p. 14. - Screech, Michael A. (1979). Rabelais. London: Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-7156-1660-4. <a href="https://archive.org/details/rabelais0000scre_o0r2" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/rabelais0000scre_o0r2</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:80"><p>Duwal, Edwin M. (2004). "Humanism". In Chesney, Elizabeth A. (ed.). The Rabelais Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing. pp. 120–121. ISBN 978-0-313-31034-8 – via Google Books. <a href="978-0-313-31034-8" target="_blank">978-0-313-31034-8</a> <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:81"><p>Chesney, Elizabeth A., ed. (2004). "Evangelism". The Rabelais Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-313-31034-8. <a href="978-0-313-31034-8" target="_blank">978-0-313-31034-8</a> <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:82"><p>Persels, Jeff (2004). "Calvin, Jean or John (1509–64)". In Chesney, Elizabeth A. (ed.). The Rabelais Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing. pp. 27–28. ISBN 978-0-313-31034-8 – via Google Books. <a href="978-0-313-31034-8" target="_blank">978-0-313-31034-8</a> <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:83"><p>Hampton, Timothy (1998). "Language and Identities". In Davis, Natalie Zemon; Hampton (eds.). Rabelais and His Critics. Occasional Papers Series, University of California Press. <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:84"><p>Braunrot, Bruno (2004). "Critical Theory". In Chesney, Elizabeth A. (ed.). The Rabelais Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing. pp. 43–46. ISBN 978-0-313-31034-8 – via Google Books. <a href="978-0-313-31034-8" target="_blank">978-0-313-31034-8</a> <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:85"><p>Duval, Edwin M. (1985). "Interpretation and the 'Doctrine Absconce' of Rabelais's Prologue to Gargantua". Études Rabelaisiennes. 18: 1–17. <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:86"><p>Defaux, Gérard (1985). "D'un problème l'autre: herméneutique de l' "altior sensus" et "captatio lectoris" dans le Prologue de "Gargantua"". Revue d'Histoire littéraire de la France. 85 (2): 195–216. ISSN 0035-2411. JSTOR 40529732. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40529732" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/40529732</a> <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:87"><p>Renner, Bernd (26 February 2020). "François Rabelais". Oxford Bibliographies. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/OBO/9780195399301-0153. ISBN 978-0-19-539930-1. <a href="978-0-19-539930-1" target="_blank">978-0-19-539930-1</a> <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:88"><p>Jeanneret 1975, p. 16. - Jeanneret, Michel (1975). "Les paroles dégelées (Rabelais, Quart Livre, 48-65)". Littérature (in French). 17 (17): 14–30. doi:10.3406/litt.1975.979. <a href="https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:21940" target="_blank">https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:21940</a> <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:89"><p>Jeanneret 1975, p. 18. - Jeanneret, Michel (1975). "Les paroles dégelées (Rabelais, Quart Livre, 48-65)". Littérature (in French). 17 (17): 14–30. doi:10.3406/litt.1975.979. <a href="https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:21940" target="_blank">https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:21940</a> <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:90"><p>Jeanneret 1975, p. 19. - Jeanneret, Michel (1975). "Les paroles dégelées (Rabelais, Quart Livre, 48-65)". Littérature (in French). 17 (17): 14–30. doi:10.3406/litt.1975.979. <a href="https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:21940" target="_blank">https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:21940</a> <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:91"><p>Jeanneret 1975, p. 20. - Jeanneret, Michel (1975). "Les paroles dégelées (Rabelais, Quart Livre, 48-65)". Littérature (in French). 17 (17): 14–30. doi:10.3406/litt.1975.979. <a href="https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:21940" target="_blank">https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:21940</a> <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:92"><p>Jeanneret 1975, p. 19. - Jeanneret, Michel (1975). "Les paroles dégelées (Rabelais, Quart Livre, 48-65)". Littérature (in French). 17 (17): 14–30. doi:10.3406/litt.1975.979. <a href="https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:21940" target="_blank">https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:21940</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:93"><p>Jeanneret 1975, p. 20, "Mais le livre, insinue Pantagruel, est un tombeau pétrifié, où les signes menacent de s'immobiliser et, abandonnés à des lecteurs indolents, de se recroqueviller en significations simplistes. Tout écrit porte en soi le péril des Décrétales" - Jeanneret, Michel (1975). "Les paroles dégelées (Rabelais, Quart Livre, 48-65)". Littérature (in French). 17 (17): 14–30. doi:10.3406/litt.1975.979. <a href="https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:21940" target="_blank">https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:21940</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:94"><p>Bertrin, Georges (1911). "François Rabelais". The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 25 November 2018 – via newadvent.org. <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12619b.htm" target="_blank">http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12619b.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:95"><p>Jean de La Bruyère (2010). "Des ouvrages de l'esprit". Les Caractères. Paris: Éditions Garnier. p. 91. ISBN 978-2-8105-0173-1. <a href="978-2-8105-0173-1" target="_blank">978-2-8105-0173-1</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:96"><p>Saintsbury, George (1912). Tristram Shandy. London: J.M. 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