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Apocynaceae
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<h2 id="description">Description</h2> <h3>Growth pattern</h3> <p>The dogbane/milkweed<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> family includes annual plants, perennial herbs, stem succulents, woody shrubs, trees, or vines.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> Most exude a milky latex when cut.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p> <h3>Leaves and stems</h3> <p>Leaves are <a href="/facts/Simple_(leaf)/1m6wCNTg">simple</a>. They may appear one at a time (singly) with each occurrence on <a href="/facts/Alternate_(leaf)/1m6wCNTg">alternating</a> sides of the stem,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> but usually occur in pairs (and rarely in <a href="/facts/Whorls_(botany)/dhD4zdUI">whorls</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> When paired, they occur on opposite sides of the stem (opposite), with each pair occurring at an angle rotated 90° to the pair below it (<a href="/facts/Decussate/THJI9Mht">decussate</a>). </p><p>There is no <a href="/facts/Stipule/dpF27NFo">stipule</a> (a small leaf-like structure at the base of the leaf stem), or stipules are small and sometimes finger-like.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p> <h3>Inflorescence and fruit</h3> <p>Flowers have radial symmetry (<a href="/facts/Actinomorphic/oJMuxKtL">actinomorphic</a>),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> and are borne in heads that are <a href="/facts/Cymes/CvpNd4vS">cymes</a> or <a href="/facts/Raceme/lXl4udlJ">racemes</a>, or are solitary in axils.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> They are <a href="/facts/Perfect_flower/Up20kQT3">perfect</a> (bisexual), with a <a href="/facts/Synsepal/kslHpseS">synsepalous</a>, five-lobed <a href="/facts/Sepal/rFYnXN4d">calyx</a> united into a tube at the base.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> Inflorescences are terminal or <a href="/facts/Axillary_bud/JCxx980S">axillary</a>. Five petals are united into a tube with four or five <a href="/facts/Stamen/MzNPVK3D">epipetalous stamens</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Style_(botany)/JEQ85ChP">style</a> head is swollen.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> The pollen is transported in foam.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Ovary_(plants)/Qug4yDY4">ovary</a> is usually <a href="/facts/Ovary_(botany)/Qug4yDY4">superior</a>, <i>bicarpellary,</i> and <i>apocarpous,</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> with a common fused style and stigma. (Fig. 5. and Fig.6. in the illustration of <i><a href="/facts/Rhigospira_quadrangularis/dsUeD55c">Rhigospira quadrangularis</a></i> show a typical tripartite style which divides into three zones (specialised for pollen deposition, viscin secretion, and the reception of pollen).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p><p>The fruit is a <a href="/facts/Drupe/WrnGMPSa">drupe</a>, a <a href="/facts/Berry_(botany)/2JfhI0vw">berry</a>, a <a href="/facts/Capsule_(fruit)/nSgcw6KK">capsule</a>, or a (frequently paired) <a href="/facts/Follicle_(fruit)/64HV8WYY">follicle</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> The seeds are often winged or have appendages of long silky hairs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="taxonomy">Taxonomy</h2> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/List_of_subfamilies_and_genera_of_Apocynaceae/PvKYk2vS">List of subfamilies and genera of Apocynaceae</a></p> <p>As of 2012, the family was described as comprising some 5,100 species, in five subfamilies:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Apocynoideae/zVAyHSeD">Apocynoideae</a> Burnett, 1835</li> <li><a href="/facts/Asclepiadoideae/8SmTI0gv">Asclepiadoideae</a> Burnett, 1835 (incorporating the <a href="/facts/Asclepiadaceae/8SmTI0gv">Asclepiadaceae</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Periplocoideae/WMXfYPJb">Periplocoideae</a> Endl., 1838</li> <li><a href="/facts/Rauvolfioideae/Bek5RFDT">Rauvolfioideae</a> Kostel., 1834</li> <li><a href="/facts/Secamonoideae/YpJt9ayF">Secamonoideae</a> Endl., 1838</li></ul> <p>The former family Asclepiadaceae is included in Apocynaceae according to the <a href="/facts/Angiosperm/E5eGYIvY">Angiosperm</a> Phylogeny Group III (<a href="/facts/APG_III_system/fQWR7DUq">APG III</a>) modern, largely molecular-based system of flowering plant taxonomy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> An updated classification, including 366 genera, 25 tribes, and 49 subtribes, was published in 2014.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p><p>376 genera are currently accepted.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="distribution-and-habitat">Distribution and habitat</h2> <p>Species in this family are distributed mainly in tropical regions: </p> <ul><li>In the tropical forests and swamps of <a href="/facts/Indomalaya/GHK7p0aW">Indomalaya</a>: small to very tall evergreen trees up to 80 m (260 ft) tall, often with buttress roots, such as <i><a href="/facts/Alstonia/L4h1CCt0">Alstonia</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Dyera/CL1mnIVM">Dyera</a>.</i></li> <li>In Australia: occurs in all habitats; about 46 genera and about 200 species, including about 20 naturalised; herbs, vines, shrubs and trees.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a></li> <li>In deciduous forests of Africa, India, and <a href="/facts/Indo-China/5pknI7yy">Indo-China</a>: smaller trees such as <i><a href="/facts/Carissa/coUMY4aH">Carissa</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Wrightia/kYtjhTj8">Wrightia</a>,</i> and <i><a href="/facts/Holarrhena/4zpNxoGG">Holarrhena</a></i></li> <li>In tropical America, India, Myanmar, and Malaya: evergreen trees and shrubs, such as <i><a href="/facts/Rauvolfia/EjSGwf74">Rauvolfia</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Tabernaemontana/Bqw9J1dJ">Tabernaemontana</a>,</i> and <i><a href="/facts/Acokanthera/G36cwWLU">Acokanthera</a>.</i></li> <li>In Central America: <i><a href="/facts/Plumeria/uDuHAh8N">Plumeria</a></i>, or the frangipani, with its waxy white or pink flowers and a sweet scent.</li> <li>In South America, Africa, and Madagascar: many <a href="/facts/Liana/sgnumoqo">lianas</a>, such as <i><a href="/facts/Landolphia/rK6waV7d">Landolphia</a></i></li> <li>In the Mediterranean region: <i><a href="/facts/Nerium/zJM6fK4H">Nerium</a></i>, with the well-known oleander or be-still tree (<i><a href="/facts/Nerium_oleander/zJM6fK4H">Nerium oleander</a></i>), and Apple of Sodom (<i><a href="/facts/Calotropis_procera/PoHmpDdt">Calotropis procera</a></i>), with other (<i><a href="/facts/Calotropis/kcGbkwgb">Calotropis</a></i>) species extending into South Asia.</li> <li>The only genera found in temperate Europe away from the Mediterranean are <i><a href="/facts/Vinca/75dxz4D3">Vinca</a></i> (Rauvolfioideae) and <i><a href="/facts/Vincetoxicum/pGAsMTzM">Vincetoxicum</a></i> (Asclepiadoideae). Also <i><a href="/facts/Asclepias_syriaca/KEBJXTRA">Asclepias syriaca</a></i> is an invasive weed (e. g., in many areas of Ukraine).</li> <li>In North America: <i><a href="/facts/Apocynum/xaem4pw4">Apocynum</a></i>, dogbane or Indian hemp, including <i><a href="/facts/Apocynum_cannabinum/zA7dD3d4">Apocynum cannabinum</a></i>, a traditional source of fiber. Also the bluestars, <i><a href="/facts/Amsonia/gdk42TcE">Amsonia</a></i>, herbaceous perennials of upright habit, grown as ornamental plants for their attractive flowers.</li> <li>In continental southern Africa (Angola, Botswana, Eswatini, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zimbabwe) and Madagascar, except for the humid evergreen forest of the eastern side of Madagascar, and never above 2,000 m (6,600 ft) for the entire island: <i><a href="/facts/Pachypodium/lk2qodJX">Pachypodium</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Fockea/IUAc4pT0">Fockea</a>.</i></li></ul> <h2 id="ecology">Ecology</h2> <p>Several genera are preferred larval host plants for the <a href="/facts/Queen_(butterfly)/IgNMcMXQ">Queen Butterfly</a> (<i>Danaus gilippus</i>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="toxicity">Toxicity</h2> <p>Many species of plants from the family Apocynaceae have some toxicity, with some being extremely poisonous if parts are ingested, or if they are not handled properly. Genera containing <a href="/facts/Cardiac_glycoside/Ws7Uvv9B">cardiac glycosides</a>—<i><a href="/facts/Cerbera/NG2rmb34">Cerbera</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Nerium/zJM6fK4H">Nerium</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Asclepias/vKM66A8v">Asclepias</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Cascabela/fQhPd8ku">Cascabela</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Strophanthus/BSPFDmLr">Strophanthus</a>,</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> <i><a href="/facts/Acokanthera/G36cwWLU">Acokanthera</a></i>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> <i><a href="/facts/Apocynum/xaem4pw4">Apocynum</a>,</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> <i><a href="/facts/Thevetia/c3hUR3TB">Thevetia</a>,</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> etc.—have therapeutic ranges, but are often associated with accidental poisonings, in many cases lethal (see below). <a href="/facts/Alkaloid/m6hUXohz">Alkaloid</a>-producing species like <i><a href="/facts/Rauvolfia_serpentina/WDHUQqyh">Rauvolfia serpentina</a>,</i> <i><a href="/facts/Catharanthus_roseus/aD4j4IAR">Catharanthus roseus</a>,</i> and <i><a href="/facts/Tabernanthe_iboga/xVS1qygd">Tabernanthe iboga</a></i> are likewise the source of compounds with therapeutic ranges, but which have significant associated toxicities if not taken in appropriate doses and in controlled fashion. (See below) </p> <h2 id="uses">Uses</h2> <p>Several members of the family Apocynaceae have had economic uses in the past. Several are sources of important <a href="/facts/Natural_product/J4RsVhmP">natural products</a>—pharmacologic tool compounds and drug research candidates, and in some cases actual prescription drugs. <a href="/facts/Cardiac_glycoside/Ws7Uvv9B">Cardiac glycosides</a>, which affect heart function, are a ready example. Genera studied and known to contain such glycosides include <i><a href="/facts/Acokanthera/G36cwWLU">Acokanthera</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Apocynum/xaem4pw4">Apocynum</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Cerbera/NG2rmb34">Cerbera</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Nerium/zJM6fK4H">Nerium</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Thevetia/c3hUR3TB">Thevetia</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Strophanthus/BSPFDmLr">Strophanthus</a>.</i> <i><a href="/facts/Rauvolfia_serpentina/WDHUQqyh">Rauvolfia serpentina</a></i> (Indian snakeroot) contains the alkaloid <a href="/facts/Reserpine/Hkb4T1oE">reserpine</a>, which has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic drug but its adverse effects limit its clinical use.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> <i><a href="/facts/Catharanthus_roseus/aD4j4IAR">Catharanthus roseus</a></i> yields alkaloids used in the treatment of cancer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> <i><a href="/facts/Tabernanthe_iboga/xVS1qygd">Tabernanthe iboga</a>, <a href="/facts/Voacanga_africana/3cjuGFEv">Voacanga africana</a>, and <a href="/facts/Tabernaemontana_undulata/c1kKt36B">Tabernaemontana undulata</a></i> contain the alkaloid <a href="/facts/Ibogaine/EImBELph">ibogaine</a>, which is a <a href="/facts/Psychedelic_drug/aj9GNANW">psychedelic drug</a> which may help with drug addiction, but which has significant adverse effects,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> with ibogaine being both cardiotoxic and neurotoxic.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Ajmalicine/Hh5RaLep">Ajmalicine</a>, an <a href="/facts/Alkaloid/m6hUXohz">alkaloid</a> found in <i><a href="/facts/Rauvolfia/EjSGwf74">Rauvolfia</a></i> spp., <i><a href="/facts/Catharanthus_roseus/aD4j4IAR">Catharanthus roseus</a></i>, and <i><a href="/facts/Mitragyna_speciosa/KwNnzaWC">Mitragyna speciosa</a></i>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> is an antihypertensive drug used in the treatment of high blood pressure.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> </p><p>Many genera are grown as <a href="/facts/Ornamental_plant/ImyCDwMW">ornamental plants</a>, including <i><a href="/facts/Amsonia/gdk42TcE">Amsonia</a></i> (bluestar),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> <i><a href="/facts/Nerium/zJM6fK4H">Nerium</a></i> (oleander),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> <i><a href="/facts/Vinca/75dxz4D3">Vinca</a></i> (periwinkle),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> <i><a href="/facts/Carissa/coUMY4aH">Carissa</a></i> (Natal plum),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> <i><a href="/facts/Allamanda/z5sSLbdW">Allamanda</a></i> (golden trumpet),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> <i><a href="/facts/Plumeria/uDuHAh8N">Plumeria</a></i> (frangipani),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> <i><a href="/facts/Thevetia/c3hUR3TB">Thevetia</a></i>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> <i><a href="/facts/Mandevilla/TDN3S7xs">Mandevilla</a></i> (Savannah flower),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> and <i><a href="/facts/Adenium/dTqkGYsc">Adenium</a></i> (desert-rose).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> </p><p>In addition, the genera <i><a href="/facts/Landolphia/rK6waV7d">Landolphia</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Carpodinus/rK6waV7d">Carpodinus</a></i>, and <i><a href="/facts/Mascarenhasia/HVhvcoWa">Mascarenhasia</a></i> have been used as commercial sources of inferior rubber.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> (See <a href="/facts/Congo_rubber/RjtbCLxL">Congo rubber</a>) </p><p>There are limited dietary uses of plants from this family. The flower of <i><a href="/facts/Echites_panduratus/Aa3VjPtN">Echites panduratus</a></i> (common name: <i><i>loroco</i></i>) is edible.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> <i><a href="/facts/Carissa/coUMY4aH">Carissa</a></i> (Natal plum) produces an edible fruit, but all other parts of the plant are poisonous.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> The genus <i><a href="/facts/Apocynum/xaem4pw4">Apocynum</a></i> was reportedly used as a source of fiber by Native Americans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> The aromatic fruit juice from <i><a href="/facts/Saba_comorensis/EenKE3g3">Saba comorensis</a></i> (syn. <i>Landolphia comorensis</i>, the <a href="/facts/Bungo_(fruit)/EenKE3g3">Bungo or Mbungo fruit</a>) is used as a drink.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> </p><p>Finally, ethnopharmacologic and ethnotoxicologic uses are also known. The roots of <i><a href="/facts/Tabernanthe_iboga/xVS1qygd">Tabernanthe iboga</a></i> and certain <i><a href="/facts/Voacanga/XsG6A5jv">Voacanga</a></i> species have traditionally been used ceremonially as hallucinogens in Africa. The <a href="/facts/Ibogaine/EImBELph">ibogaine</a>-type alkaloids responsible for the psychoactivity of these plants have been studied with regard to the treatment of drug addiction.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> The juice of <i><a href="/facts/Acokanthera/G36cwWLU">Acokanthera</a></i> species such as <i><a href="/facts/Acokanthera_venenata/cLK4Gvn1">A. venenata</a></i> and the milky juice of the <a href="/facts/Namibia/ahXuaypy">Namibian</a> <i><a href="/facts/Pachypodium/lk2qodJX">Pachypodium</a></i> have been used as poison for arrow tips.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> </p><p>Many species are ornamental in gardens or as houseplants. </p> <h2 id="gallery">Gallery</h2> <h3>Flowers</h3> <h3>Fruits</h3> <h3>Pachycaul species</h3> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="http://www.botanical-dermatology-database.info/BotDermFolder/APOC-1.html">Apocynaceae</a> in <a href="http://www.botanical-dermatology-database.info/index.html">BoDD – Botanical Dermatology Database</a></li> <li> Media related to Apocynaceae at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li> Data related to Apocynaceae at Wikispecies</li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>A review on antimicrobial botanicals, phytochemicals and natural resistance modifying agents from Apocynaceae family: Possible therapeutic approaches against multidrug resistance in pathogenic microorganisms. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.drup.2020.100695">10.1016/j.drup.2020.100695</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Endress ME, Bruyns PV (2000). "A revised classification of the Apocynaceae s.l." (PDF). The Botanical Review. 66 (1): 1–56. Bibcode:2000BotRv..66....1E. doi:10.1007/BF02857781. S2CID 31739212. <a href="http://doc.rero.ch/record/321598/files/12229_2008_Article_BF02857781.pdf" target="_blank">http://doc.rero.ch/record/321598/files/12229_2008_Article_BF02857781.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Simpson, Michael George (2010). Plant Systematics. Academic Press. ISBN 9780123743800. <a href="9780123743800" target="_blank">9780123743800</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Endress ME, Bruyns PV (2000). "A revised classification of the Apocynaceae s.l." (PDF). The Botanical Review. 66 (1): 1–56. Bibcode:2000BotRv..66....1E. doi:10.1007/BF02857781. 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