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<h2 id="geometry">Geometry</h2> <p>Most rifts consist of a series of separate segments that together form the linear zone characteristic of rifts. The individual rift segments have a dominantly half-graben geometry, controlled by a single basin-bounding fault. Segment lengths vary between rifts, depending on the elastic thickness of the lithosphere. </p><p>Areas of thick colder lithosphere, such as the Baikal Rift, have segment lengths in excess of 80 km, while in areas of warmer thin lithosphere, segment lengths may be less than 30 km.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> Along the axis of the rift the position, and in some cases the polarity (the dip direction), of the main rift bounding fault changes from segment to segment. Segment boundaries often have a more complex structure and generally cross the rift axis at a high angle. These segment boundary zones accommodate the differences in fault displacement between the segments and are therefore known as accommodation zones. </p><p>Accommodation zones take various forms, from a simple relay ramp at the overlap between two major faults of the same polarity, to zones of high structural complexity, particularly where the segments have opposite polarity. Accommodation zones may be located where older crustal structures intersect the rift axis. In the Gulf of Suez rift, the Zaafarana accommodation zone is located where a <a href="/facts/Shear_zone/S7PYjozn">shear zone</a> in the <a href="/facts/Arabian-Nubian_Shield/IblznUvs">Arabian-Nubian Shield</a> meets the rift.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p><p>Rift flanks or shoulders are elevated areas around rifts. Rift shoulders are typically about 70 km wide.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> Contrary to what was previously thought, elevated passive continental margins (EPCM) such as the <a href="/facts/Brazilian_Highlands/hQatffU7">Brazilian Highlands</a>, the <a href="/facts/Scandinavian_Mountains/lAWdP0Tr">Scandinavian Mountains</a> and India's <a href="/facts/Western_Ghats/KzX5UdRo">Western Ghats</a>, are not rift shoulders.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="rift-development">Rift development</h2> <h3>Rift initiation</h3> <p>The formation of rift basins and strain localization reflects rift maturity. At the onset of rifting, the upper part of the lithosphere starts to extend on a series of initially unconnected <a href="/facts/Normal_fault/0Fw2ladx">normal faults</a>, leading to the development of isolated basins.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> In subaerial rifts, for example, drainage at the onset of rifting is generally internal, with no element of through drainage. </p> <h3>Mature rift stage</h3> <p>As the rift evolves, some of the individual fault segments grow, eventually becoming linked together to form the larger bounding faults. Subsequent extension becomes concentrated on these faults. The longer faults and wider fault spacing leads to more continuous areas of fault-related <a href="/facts/Subsidence/EIwtz9w9">subsidence</a> along the rift axis. Significant uplift of the rift shoulders develops at this stage, strongly influencing drainage and sedimentation in the rift basins.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p><p>During the climax of lithospheric rifting, as the crust is thinned, the Earth's surface subsides and the <a href="/facts/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity/1NBmpcKT">Moho</a> becomes correspondingly raised. At the same time, the mantle lithosphere becomes thinned, causing a rise of the top of the asthenosphere. This brings high heat flow from the upwelling asthenosphere into the thinning lithosphere, heating the orogenic lithosphere for dehydration melting, typically causing extreme metamorphism at high thermal gradients of greater than 30 °C. The metamorphic products are high to ultrahigh temperature granulites and their associated migmatite and granites in collisional orogens, with possible emplacement of metamorphic core complexes in continental rift zones but oceanic core complexes in spreading ridges. This leads to a kind of orogeneses in extensional settings, which is referred as to rifting orogeny.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p> <h3>Post-rift subsidence</h3> <p>Once rifting ceases, the mantle beneath the rift cools and this is accompanied by a broad area of post-rift subsidence. The amount of subsidence is directly related to the amount of thinning during the rifting phase calculated as the beta factor (initial crustal thickness divided by final crustal thickness), but is also affected by the degree to which the rift basin is filled at each stage, due to the greater density of sediments in contrast to water. The simple 'McKenzie model' of rifting, which considers the rifting stage to be instantaneous, provides a good first order estimate of the amount of crustal thinning from observations of the amount of post-rift subsidence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> This has generally been replaced by the 'flexural cantilever model', which takes into account the geometry of the rift faults and the <a href="/facts/Lithospheric_flexure/P5oFxben">flexural</a> <a href="/facts/Isostasy/GaRMFQNP">isostasy</a> of the upper part of the crust.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p> <h3>Multiphase rifting</h3> <p>Some rifts show a complex and prolonged history of rifting, with several distinct phases. The <a href="/facts/Geology_of_the_North_Sea/wbwuPdK7">North Sea rift</a> shows evidence of several separate rift phases from the <a href="/facts/Permian/CYgLgu5u">Permian</a> through to the Earliest <a href="/facts/Cretaceous/nwKtFtKx">Cretaceous</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> a period of over 100 million years. </p> <h3>Rifting to break-up</h3> <p>Rifting may lead to continental breakup and formation of oceanic basins. Successful rifting leads to seafloor spreading along a mid-oceanic ridge and a set of conjugate margins separated by an oceanic basin.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> Rifting may be active, and controlled by <a href="/facts/Mantle_convection/YV2IE8KQ">mantle convection</a>. It may also be passive, and driven by far-field tectonic forces that stretch the lithosphere. Margin architecture develops due to spatial and temporal relationships between extensional deformation phases. Margin segmentation eventually leads to the formation of rift domains with variations of the <a href="/facts/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity/1NBmpcKT">Moho</a> topography, including proximal domain with fault-rotated crustal blocks, necking zone with thinning of crustal <a href="/facts/Basement_(geology)/nThFlUPv">basement</a>, distal domain with deep sag basins, ocean-continent transition and oceanic domain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p><p>Deformation and magmatism interact during rift evolution. Magma-rich and magma-poor rifted margins may be formed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> Magma-rich margins include major volcanic features. Globally, volcanic margins represent the majority of passive continental margins.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> Magma-starved rifted margins are affected by large-scale faulting and crustal hyperextension.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> As a consequence, upper mantle peridotites and gabbros are commonly exposed and serpentinized along extensional detachments at the seafloor. </p> <h2 id="magmatism">Magmatism</h2> <p>Many rifts are the sites of at least minor <a href="/facts/Magmatism/HE7sG7Mp">magmatic activity</a>, particularly in the early stages of rifting.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Alkali_basalt/LY6EpsQS">Alkali basalts</a> and <a href="/facts/Bimodal_volcanism/bwmtXfxk">bimodal volcanism</a> are common products of rift-related magmatism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p><p>Recent studies indicate that post-collisional granites in collisional orogens are the product of rifting magmatism at converged plate margins. </p> <h2 id="economic-importance">Economic importance</h2> <p>The sedimentary rocks associated with continental rifts host important deposits of both minerals and <a href="/facts/Hydrocarbon/Dcg95Ju5">hydrocarbons</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p> <h3>Mineral deposits</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Sedimentary_exhalative_deposits/jdQBtAeH">SedEx</a> mineral deposits are found mainly in continental rift settings. They form within post-rift sequences when hydrothermal fluids associated with magmatic activity are expelled at the seabed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> </p> <h3>Oil and gas</h3> <p>Continental rifts are the sites of significant oil and gas accumulations, such as the <a href="/facts/Geology_of_the_North_Sea/wbwuPdK7">Viking Graben</a> and the <a href="/facts/Gulf_of_Suez_Rift/1acV3HKI">Gulf of Suez Rift</a>. Thirty percent of <a href="/facts/Giant_oil_and_gas_fields/WzRjkfId">giant oil and gas fields</a> are found within such a setting.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> In 1999 it was estimated that there were 200 <a href="/facts/1000000000_(number)/Ij1fl5Q7">billion</a> <a href="/facts/Barrel_(unit)/7hzeJzwT">barrels</a> of recoverable oil reserves hosted in rifts. <a href="/facts/Source_rock/4GHJwIYJ">Source rocks</a> are often developed within the sediments filling the active rift (<a href="/facts/Tectonostratigraphy/LhelJ2jS">syn-rift</a>), forming either in a lacustrine environment or in a restricted marine environment, although not all rifts contain such sequences. <a href="/facts/Petroleum_reservoir/wYoSQmGN">Reservoir rocks</a> may be developed in pre-rift, syn-rift and post-rift sequences. </p><p>Effective regional seals may be present within the post-rift sequence if <a href="/facts/Mudstone/KWLvUash">mudstones</a> or <a href="/facts/Evaporite/vNW8fcEy">evaporites</a> are deposited. Just over half of estimated oil reserves are found associated with rifts containing marine syn-rift and post-rift sequences, just under a quarter in rifts with a non-marine syn-rift and post-rift, and an eighth in non-marine syn-rift with a marine post-rift.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="examples">Examples</h2> <ul><li>The <a href="/facts/Asunci%C3%B3n_Rift/gouHxj9c">Asunción Rift</a> in Eastern Paraguay</li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Canadian_Arctic_Rift_System/5ekdGLF7">Canadian Arctic Rift System</a> in northern <a href="/facts/North_America/djNjCQIl">North America</a></li> <li>The <a href="/facts/East_African_Rift/o82Q47Uc">East African Rift</a></li> <li>The <a href="/facts/West_and_Central_African_Rift_System/S1EDhE52">West and Central African Rift System</a></li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Red_Sea_Rift/93sHEDf1">Red Sea Rift</a></li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Gulf_of_California/6Da8barh">Gulf of California</a></li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Baikal_Rift_Zone/057GVdo8">Baikal Rift Zone</a>, the bottom of <a href="/facts/Lake_Baikal/ndjtNeJ7">Lake Baikal</a> is the deepest continental rift on the earth.</li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Gulf_of_Suez_Rift/1acV3HKI">Gulf of Suez Rift</a></li> <li>Throughout the <a href="/facts/Basin_and_Range_Province/r8d1aXV4">Basin and Range Province</a> in North America</li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Rio_Grande_Rift/fxNCItmb">Rio Grande Rift</a> in the southwestern US</li> <li>The rift zone that contains the <a href="/facts/Gulf_of_Corinth/gK9xzYmc">Gulf of Corinth</a> in <a href="/facts/Greece/lqHw8bTB">Greece</a></li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Reelfoot_Rift/JmEqhBmo">Reelfoot Rift</a>, an ancient buried failed rift underlying the <a href="/facts/New_Madrid_Seismic_Zone/JmEqhBmo">New Madrid Seismic Zone</a> in the <a href="/facts/Mississippi_embayment/3xAy1Xwp">Mississippi embayment</a></li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Rhine_Rift/PeQ4GDAp">Rhine Rift</a>, in southwestern Germany, known as the <a href="/facts/Upper_Rhine_valley/TFl7JoPf">Upper Rhine valley</a>, part of the <a href="/facts/European_Cenozoic_Rift_System/1B9dzkgN">European Cenozoic Rift System</a></li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Taup%C5%8D_Volcanic_Zone/076aCbh4">Taupō Volcanic Zone</a> in the <a href="/facts/North_Island/RUGtJJev">North Island</a> of <a href="/facts/New_Zealand/4mpSlJdg">New Zealand</a></li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Oslo_Graben/Mw3E44oj">Oslo Graben</a> in <a href="/facts/Norway/wlDRKRTR">Norway</a></li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Ottawa-Bonnechere_Graben/sPCKj6Nm">Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben</a> in Ontario and Quebec</li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Northern_Cordilleran_Volcanic_Province/YD1CPN8M">Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province</a> in <a href="/facts/British_Columbia/Ty3e3g1Q">British Columbia</a>, <a href="/facts/Yukon/JAGCCGCW">Yukon</a> and <a href="/facts/Alaska/LlDNr2uR">Alaska</a></li> <li>The <a href="/facts/West_Antarctic_Rift_System/k8r1XzKj">West Antarctic Rift System</a> in <a href="/facts/Antarctica/bEM5Lem5">Antarctica</a></li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Midcontinent_Rift_System/dNYaupzw">Midcontinent Rift System</a>, a late <a href="/facts/Precambrian/zjF3N3Rx">Precambrian</a> rift in central North America</li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Central_Lowlands/qDq51LNn">Midland Valley</a> in Scotland</li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Fundy_Basin/uWKY1QT5">Fundy Basin</a>, a <a href="/facts/Triassic/r6CNxKXC">Triassic</a> rift basin in southeastern Canada</li> <li>The Cambay, Kachchh, and Narmada rifts<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> in northwestern <a href="/facts/Deccan_Traps/HdvPLMuQ">Deccan volcanic province</a> of India<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul> <li>Geology portal</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Rift_zone/Cs5gLJ3o">Rift zone</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Wilson_Cycle/x4jxecM6">Wilson Cycle</a></li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rifts. <ul><li>Bally, A.W.; Snelson, S. (1980). "Realms of subsidence". <i>Canadian Society for Petroleum Geology Memoir</i>. 6: 9–94.</li> <li>Kingston, D.R.; Dishroon, C.P.; Williams, P.A. (December 1983). <a href="http://www.monografias.com/trabajos-pdf4/global-basin-classification-system/global-basin-classification-system.pdf">"Global Basin Classification System"</a> (PDF). <i><a href="/facts/American_Association_of_Petroleum_Geologists/FWEB4Wf9">AAPG Bulletin</a></i>. 67 (12): 2175–2193. Retrieved 2017-06-23.</li> <li>Klemme, H.D (1980). "Petroleum Basins - Classifications and Characteristics". <i><a href="/facts/Journal_of_Petroleum_Geology/mIusx3BA">Journal of Petroleum Geology</a></i>. 3 (2): 187–207. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980JPetG...3..187K">1980JPetG...3..187K</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1747-5457.1980.tb00982.x">10.1111/j.1747-5457.1980.tb00982.x</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Rift valley: definition and geologic significance, Giacomo Corti, The Ethiopian Rift Valley <a href="http://ethiopianrift.igg.cnr.it/rift%20valley%20significance.htm" target="_blank">http://ethiopianrift.igg.cnr.it/rift%20valley%20significance.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Decompressional Melting During Extension of Continental Lithosphere, Jolante van Wijk, MantlePlumes.org <a href="http://www.mantleplumes.org/VM_DecompressMelt.html" target="_blank">http://www.mantleplumes.org/VM_DecompressMelt.html</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Plate Tectonics: Lecture 2, Geology Department at University of Leicester <a href="http://www.le.ac.uk/geology/art/gl209/lecture4/lecture4.html" target="_blank">http://www.le.ac.uk/geology/art/gl209/lecture4/lecture4.html</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Leeder, M.R.; Gawthorpe, R.L. (1987). "Sedimentary models for extensional tilt-block/half-graben basins" (PDF). In Coward, M.P.; Dewey, J.F.; Hancock, P.L. (eds.). Continental Extensional Tectonics. Geological Society, Special Publications. Vol. 28. pp. 139–152. ISBN 9780632016051. <a href="9780632016051" target="_blank">9780632016051</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Ebinger, C.J.; Jackson J.A.; Foster A.N.; Hayward N.J. (1999). "Extensional basin geometry and the elastic lithosphere". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A. 357 (1753): 741–765. Bibcode:1999RSPTA.357..741E. doi:10.1098/rsta.1999.0351. S2CID 91719117. <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society_A" target="_blank">/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society_A</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Younes, A.I.; McClay K. (2002). "Development of Accommodation Zones in the Gulf of Suez-Red Sea Rift, Egypt". AAPG Bulletin. 86 (6): 1003–1026. doi:10.1306/61EEDC10-173E-11D7-8645000102C1865D. Retrieved 29 October 2012. <a href="http://aapgbull.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/86/6/1003" target="_blank">http://aapgbull.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/86/6/1003</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Green, Paul F.; Japsen, Peter; Chalmers, James A.; Bonow, Johan M.; Duddy, Ian R. (2018). "Post-breakup burial and exhumation of passive continental margins: Seven propositions to inform geodynamic models". Gondwana Research. 53: 58–81. Bibcode:2018GondR..53...58G. doi:10.1016/j.gr.2017.03.007. <a href="/wiki/Gondwana_Research" target="_blank">/wiki/Gondwana_Research</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Green, Paul F.; Japsen, Peter; Chalmers, James A.; Bonow, Johan M.; Duddy, Ian R. (2018). "Post-breakup burial and exhumation of passive continental margins: Seven propositions to inform geodynamic models". Gondwana Research. 53: 58–81. Bibcode:2018GondR..53...58G. doi:10.1016/j.gr.2017.03.007. <a href="/wiki/Gondwana_Research" target="_blank">/wiki/Gondwana_Research</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Withjack, M.O.; Schlische R.W.; Olsen P.E. (2002). "Rift-basin structure and its influence on sedimentary systems" (PDF). In Renaut R.W. & Ashley G.M. (ed.). Sedimentation in Continental Rifts. Special Publications. Vol. 73. Society for Sedimentary Geology. Retrieved 28 October 2012. <a href="http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~schlisch/A33_2002_SEPM_rifts.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~schlisch/A33_2002_SEPM_rifts.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Withjack, M.O.; Schlische R.W.; Olsen P.E. (2002). "Rift-basin structure and its influence on sedimentary systems" (PDF). In Renaut R.W. & Ashley G.M. (ed.). Sedimentation in Continental Rifts. Special Publications. Vol. 73. Society for Sedimentary Geology. Retrieved 28 October 2012. <a href="http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~schlisch/A33_2002_SEPM_rifts.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~schlisch/A33_2002_SEPM_rifts.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Zheng, Y.-F.; Chen, R.-X. (2017). "Regional metamorphism at extreme conditions: Implications for orogeny at convergent plate margins". Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 145: 46–73. Bibcode:2017JAESc.145...46Z. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2017.03.009. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jseaes.2017.03.009" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jseaes.2017.03.009</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>McKenzie, D. (1978). "Some remarks on the development of sedimentary basins" (PDF). Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 40 (1): 25–32. Bibcode:1978E&PSL..40...25M. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.459.4779. doi:10.1016/0012-821x(78)90071-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2014. Retrieved 25 October 2012. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140301085415/http://www.earth.ox.ac.uk/~tony/watts/downloads/McKenzie_1978_Basins.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20140301085415/http://www.earth.ox.ac.uk/~tony/watts/downloads/McKenzie_1978_Basins.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Kusznir, N.J.; Roberts A.M.; Morley C.K. (1995). "Forward and reverse modelling of rift basin formation". In Lambiase J.J. (ed.). Hydrocarbon habitat in rift basins. Special Publications. Vol. 80. London: Geological Society. pp. 33–56. ISBN 9781897799154. Retrieved 25 October 2012. <a href="9781897799154" target="_blank">9781897799154</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Nøttvedt, A.; Gabrielsen R.H.; Steel R.J. (1995). 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