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Digital geological mapping
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<h2 id="traditional-geological-mapping">Traditional geological mapping</h2> <p><a href="/facts/Geological_map/HhK3dQ87">Geological mapping</a> is an interpretive process involving multiple types of information, from analytical data to personal observation, all synthesized and recorded by the <a href="/facts/Geologist/vGc0tBHB">geologist</a>. Geologic observations have traditionally been recorded on paper, whether on standardized note cards, in a <a href="/facts/Notebook/o3xQHHn3">notebook</a>, or on a <a href="/facts/Map/KxQX4B2U">map</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="mapping-in-the-digital-era">Mapping in the digital era</h2> <p>In the 21st century, computer technology and software are becoming portable and powerful enough to take on some of the more mundane tasks a geologist must perform <a href="/facts/Field_work/w66x8LQq">in the field</a>, such as precisely locating oneself with a <a href="/facts/GPS/DKVLnzF3">GPS</a> unit, displaying multiple images (<a href="/facts/Map/KxQX4B2U">maps</a>, <a href="/facts/Satellite_images/V8LQh7jI">satellite images</a>, <a href="/facts/Aerial_photography/Sp9D0crM">aerial photography</a>, etc.), plotting <a href="/facts/Strike_and_dip/2rpJ542n">strike and dip</a> symbols, and color-coding different physical characteristics of a <a href="/facts/Lithology/WLIJXzGj">lithology</a> or contact type (e.g., <a href="/facts/Unconformity/yed5Tqdw">unconformity</a>) between rock <a href="/facts/Stratum/w5D4VAwa">strata</a>. Additionally, computers can now perform some tasks that were difficult to accomplish in the field, for example, <a href="/facts/Handwriting_recognition/RgdyWtDQ">handwriting</a> or <a href="/facts/Speech_recognition/z7S7Pgk6">voice recognition</a> and <a href="/facts/Annotating/dGfVSUKc">annotating</a> photographs on the spot.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Digital_mapping/KRd1GyUm">Digital mapping</a> has positive and negative effects on the mapping process;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> only an assessment of its impact on a geological mapping project as a whole shows whether it provides a net benefit. With the use of computers in the field, the recording of <a href="/facts/Observations/NTodmzCo">observations</a> and basic <a href="/facts/Data_management/Cykeqxc7">data management</a> changes dramatically. The use of digital mapping also affects when <a href="/facts/Data_analysis/CNtARxLW">data analysis</a> occurs in the mapping process, but does not greatly affect the process itself.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> </p> <h3>Advantages</h3> <ul><li>Data entered by a <a href="/facts/Geologist/vGc0tBHB">geologist</a> may have fewer errors than data transcribed by a <a href="/facts/Data_entry_clerk/I96FDDbA">data entry clerk</a>.</li> <li>Data entry by geologists in the field may take less total time than subsequent data entry in the office, potentially reducing the overall time needed to complete a project.</li> <li>The spatial extent of real world objects and their <a href="/facts/Attribute_(computing)/EpQSmn02">attributes</a> can be entered directly into a <a href="/facts/Database/VYcpkevb">database</a> with <a href="/facts/Geographic_information_system/PoP1kVoa">geographic information system</a> (<a href="/facts/GIS/PoP1kVoa">GIS</a>) capability. Features can be automatically color-coded and symbolized based on set criteria.</li> <li>Multiple <a href="/facts/Map/KxQX4B2U">maps</a> and imagery (<a href="/facts/Geophysical/ywVQ1sAQ">geophysical</a> maps, <a href="/facts/Satellite_images/V8LQh7jI">satellite images</a>, <a href="/facts/Orthophoto/hVucWyEE">orthophotos</a>, etc.) can easily be carried and displayed on-screen.</li> <li>Geologists may upload each other's data files for the next day's <a href="/facts/Field_work/w66x8LQq">field work</a> as reference.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Data_analysis/CNtARxLW">Data analysis</a> may start immediately after returning from the field, since the database has already been populated.</li> <li>Data can be constrained by dictionaries and dropdown menus to ensure that data are recorded systematically and that mandatory data are not forgotten</li> <li>Labour-saving tools and functionality can be provided in the field e.g. structure contours on the fly, and 3D visualisation</li> <li>Systems can be wirelessly connected to other digital field equipment (such as digital cameras and <a href="/facts/Sensor_web/yPBJjxPF">sensor webs</a>)</li></ul> <h3>Disadvantages</h3> <ul><li>Computers and related items (extra batteries, stylus, cameras, etc.) must be carried <a href="/facts/Field_work/w66x8LQq">in the field</a>.</li> <li>Field data entry into the computer may take longer than physically writing on paper, possibly resulting in longer field programs.</li> <li>Data entered by multiple geologists may contain more inconsistencies than data entered by one person, making the <a href="/facts/Database/VYcpkevb">database</a> more difficult to <a href="/facts/Information_retrieval/MFSmpeNw">query</a>.</li> <li>Written <a href="/facts/Descriptions/X2AGERdY">descriptions</a> convey to the reader detailed information through <a href="/facts/Imagery_(literature)/RPEVF6kX">imagery</a> that may not be communicated by the same data in <a href="/facts/Parsing/nRKB01S3">parsed</a> format.</li> <li>Geologists may be inclined to shorten text descriptions because they are difficult to enter (either by <a href="/facts/Handwriting_recognition/RgdyWtDQ">handwriting</a> or <a href="/facts/Speech_recognition/z7S7Pgk6">voice recognition</a>), resulting in loss of data.</li> <li>There are no original, hardcopy field maps or notes to <a href="/facts/Archive/BgCG3dxa">archive</a>. Paper is a more stable medium than digital format.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="educational-and-scientific-uses">Educational and scientific uses</h2> <p>Some universities and <a href="/facts/Secondary_education/Cpsxkx3v">secondary educators</a> are integrating digital geological mapping into class work.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> For example, The GeoPad project <a href="http://geopad.org">[1]</a> describes the combination of technology, teaching field geology, and geological mapping in programs such as <a href="/facts/Bowling_Green_State_University/VDoKlLDx">Bowling Green State University</a>’s geology field camp.<a href="http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/geology/page58461.html">[2]</a> At Urbino University (Italy) it:Università di Urbino, Field Digital Mapping Techniques are integrated in Earth and Environmental Sciences courses since 2006 <a href="http://www.uniurb.it/ISDA/Eolieweb/index.html">[3]</a> <a href="http://www.uniurb.it/ISDA/sanbartolo/intro.html">[4]</a>. The MapTeach program is designed to provide hands-on digital mapping for middle and high school students.<a href="http://www.mapteach.org/">[5]</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090625010412/http://www.mapteach.org/">Archived</a> 2009-06-25 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a> The SPLINT <a href="http://www.le.ac.uk/geography/splint/">[6]</a> project in the UK is using the BGS field mapping system as part of their teaching curriculum </p><p>Digital mapping technology can be applied to traditional geological mapping, <a href="/facts/Reconnaissance/WbBwMhqs">reconnaissance</a> mapping, and <a href="/facts/Surveying/qchGcnRC">surveying</a> of geologic features. At international digital field data capture (DFDC) meetings, major geological surveys (e.g., <a href="/facts/British_Geological_Survey/0YmacsLo">British Geological Survey</a> and <a href="/facts/Geological_Survey_of_Canada/CdvpcAmH">Geological Survey of Canada</a>) discuss how to harness and develop the technology.<a href="http://www.bgs.ac.uk/science/dfdc/home.html">[7]</a> Many other geological surveys and private companies are also designing systems to conduct scientific and <a href="/facts/Applied_science/13h5uYCH">applied</a> geological mapping of, for example, <a href="/facts/Geothermal_springs/YrzFykH1">geothermal springs</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> and mine sites.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="equipment">Equipment</h2> <p>The initial cost of digital geologic computing and supporting equipment may be significant. In addition, equipment and software must be replaced occasionally due to damage, loss, and obsolescence. Products moving through the market are quickly discontinued as technology and consumer interests evolve. A product that works well for digital mapping may not be available for purchase the following year; however, testing multiple brands and generations of equipment and software is prohibitively expensive.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p> <h3>Common essential features</h3> <p>Some features of digital mapping equipment are common to both survey or reconnaissance mapping and “traditional” comprehensive mapping. The capture of less data-intensive reconnaissance mapping or survey data in the field can be accomplished by less robust databases and GIS programs, and hardware with a smaller screen size.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p> <ul><li>Devices and software are intuitive to learn and easy to use</li> <li>Rugged, as typically defined by military standards (<a href="/facts/MIL-STD-810/LawWk73z">MIL-STD-810</a>) and <a href="/facts/Ingress_protection_rating/aF22ekzS">ingress protection ratings</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Waterproof/xAmUoTUG">Waterproof</a></li> <li>Screen is easy to read in bright sunlight and on gray sky days</li> <li>Removable static <a href="/facts/Memory_cards/Rwy2lKS2">memory cards</a> can be used to back up data</li> <li>Memory on board is recoverable</li> <li>Real-time and <a href="/facts/Differential_GPS/qBGqMBqo">post-processing differential correction</a> for <a href="/facts/GPS/DKVLnzF3">GPS</a> locations</li> <li>Portable battery with at least 9 hours of life at near constant use</li> <li>Can change batteries in the field</li> <li>Batteries should have no “<a href="/facts/Battery_memory/gGzfYlPE">memory</a>,” such as with <a href="/facts/NiCd/JTbx4bcB">NiCd</a></li> <li>Chargeable by unconventional power sources (generators, solar, etc.)</li> <li>Wireless real-time link to GPS or built-in GPS</li> <li>Wireless real-time link from computer to camera and other <a href="/facts/Peripherals/3lEBPE14">peripherals</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/USB_port/XcIKWLyg">USB port</a>(s)</li></ul> <h3>Features essential to capture traditional geologic observations</h3> <p>Hardware and software only recently (in 2000) became available that can satisfy most of the criteria necessary for digitally capturing "traditional" mapping data. </p> <ul><li>Screen about 5 in × 7 in (130 mm × 180 mm)—compact but large enough to see map features. In 2009, some traditional mapping is conducted on <a href="/facts/Personal_digital_assistant/fLTT1Uqy">PDAs</a>.</li> <li>Lightweight—ideally less than 3 lbs.</li> <li>Transcription to digital text from handwriting and voice recognition.</li> <li>Can store paragraphs of data (text fields).</li> <li>Can store complex <a href="/facts/Relational_database/pEKGmJLy">relational database</a> with drop-down lists.</li> <li>Operating system and hardware are compatible with a robust <a href="/facts/GIS/PoP1kVoa">GIS</a> program.</li> <li>At least 512 MB memory.</li></ul> <h3>Technology</h3> <h4>History</h4> <table><tbody><tr><th>Year(s) available</th><th>Field system name</th><th>Base software</th><th>Hardware used</th><th>Reference</th></tr><tr><td>1989–1992</td><td>MERLIN</td><td>BGS Custom</td><td>EPSON EHT400E Handheld computer</td></tr><tr><td>1991-1999?</td><td>FIELDLOG</td><td><a href="/facts/AutoCAD/c83IAlgP">AutoCAD</a>, Fieldworker</td><td><a href="/facts/Apple_Newton/wU1h4FBj">Apple Newton</a> PDA</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><p><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a></p></td></tr><tr><td>1998–2000</td><td>G-Map</td><td>Esri Arc-View</td><td>PC & Web Based</td><td>Eni-Temars</td></tr><tr><td>2000–Present</td><td>GeoEditor</td><td>Esri Arc-View</td><td>PC</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>2001?–2002?</td><td>GeoLink</td><td>Geolink</td><td>unknown</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>2002–2010</td><td>MIDAS</td><td>ESRI's ArcPAD and BGS bespoke database</td><td>iPAQ PDAs</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>2002–Present</td><td>Geopad</td><td>ESRI's ArcGIS, Microsoft OneNote, etc.</td><td>Rugged Tablet PCs and Tablet PCs</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>2004–Present</td><td>Geomapper</td><td>ESRI's ArcGIS</td><td>Rugged Tablet PCs and Tablet PCs</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>2004–2008</td><td>Map IT (not longer available)</td><td>Map IT</td><td>Ruggedized Tablet PC</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a><p><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a href="http://www.uniurb.it/ISDA/MAPIT/">[8]</a></p><p><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a></p></td></tr><tr><td>2006–2008</td><td>Geologic Data Assistant (GDA)</td><td>customized ArcPad 6.0.3 (<a href="/facts/Environmental_Systems_Research_Institute/FP8cJykD">ESRI</a>)</td><td>Ruggedized PDA</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>2001–2010</td><td>ArcPad</td><td><a href="/facts/Environmental_Systems_Research_Institute/FP8cJykD">ESRI</a>'s ArcPad</td><td>Ruggedized PDA or Tablet PC</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>2002?–2010</td><td>GeoMapper</td><td>PenMap <a href="http://www.Penmap.com">[9]</a></td><td>Ruggedized PDA or Tablet PC</td><td><p><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a></p><p><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a></p></td></tr><tr><td>2006?–2010</td><td>SAIC GeoRover</td><td>Extension for <a href="/facts/Environmental_Systems_Research_Institute/FP8cJykD">ESRI</a>'s <a href="/facts/ArcGIS/pYPJ9GD5">ArcGIS</a></td><td>Ruggedized PDA or Tablet PC</td><td><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111126225710/http://www.esri.com/industries/defense/pdfs/georover.pdf">[10]</a></td></tr><tr><td>2003–2010</td><td>GAFAG GeoRover (name protected in Europe)</td><td>Mobile geological information system</td><td>Ruggedized PDA, Tablet PC, Desktop PC, Laptop</td><td><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110719030556/http://www.gaf.de/sites/default/files/content/portfolio_software_gaf_product/GeoRover/GeoRover_0.pdf">[11]</a></td></tr><tr><td>2000?–2010</td><td>BGS-SIGMAmobile <a href="http://www.bgs.ac.uk/science/3dmodelling/sigma.html">[12]</a></td><td>Customized <a href="/facts/ArcGIS/pYPJ9GD5">ArcGIS</a>, <a href="/facts/MS_Access/1tID4rKM">MS Access</a>, InfiNotes</td><td>Ruggedized Tablet PC</td><td><a href="http://www.bgs.ac.uk/science/3dmodelling/sigma.html">[13]</a><p><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a></p></td></tr><tr><td>2008–Present</td><td>BeeGIS</td><td>Built on top of uDig <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100902041742/http://jgrass.wiki.software.bz.it/jgrass/BeeGIS">[14]</a></td><td>Tablet PC (ruggized or not), Desktop PC, Laptop (Win, Mac or Linux Systems)</td><td><a href="http://www.beegis.org/">[15]</a><p><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a></p></td></tr><tr><td>2011–Present</td><td>FieldMove <a href="http://www.mve.com/software/fieldmove/">[16]</a></td><td>Midland Valley's Move</td><td>Tablet PC (ruggized or not), Desktop PC, Laptop (Windows XP or later)</td><td><p><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a></p></td></tr><tr><td>??-Present</td><td>QField</td><td>QGIS</td><td>Tablet or Smartphone</td><td><a href="https://qfield.org/">https://qfield.org/</a></td></tr><tr><td>?? - Present</td><td>Mergin Maps</td><td>QGIS</td><td>Tablet, Smartphone, Desktop PC, Laptop</td><td><a href="https://merginmaps.com/">https://merginmaps.com/</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <h4>Software</h4> <p>Since every geological mapping project covers an area with unique <a href="/facts/Lithologies/WLIJXzGj">lithologies</a> and complexities, and every geologist has a unique style of mapping, no software is perfect for digital geological mapping out of the box. The geologist can choose to either modify their mapping style to the available software, or modify the software to their mapping style, which may require extensive programming. As of 2009<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_geological_mapping&action=edit">[update]</a>, available geological mapping software requires some degree of customization for a given geological mapping project. Some digital-mapping geologists/programmers have chosen to highly customize or extend ESRI's <a href="/facts/ArcGIS/pYPJ9GD5">ArcGIS</a> instead. At digital field data capture meetings such as at the British Geological Survey in 2002 <a href="http://www.bgs.ac.uk/science/dfdc/abstracts.html">[17]</a> some organisations agreed to share development experiences, and some software systems are now available to download for free. </p> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Bowling_Green_State_University/VDoKlLDx">Bowling Green State University</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081010123828/http://personal.bgsu.edu/~conasch/Digital_Mapping/Digital_Mapping_Home.htm">digital geologic mapping</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.dggs.dnr.state.ak.us/pubs/pubs?reqtype=citation&ID=17821">Digital geologic mapping program</a> at the <a href="http://www.dggs.dnr.state.ak.us/">Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys (DGGS)</a></li> <li><a href="https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Info/dmt/">Proceedings</a> of Digital Mapping Techniques workshop</li> <li>The System for Integrated Geoscience Mapping (SIGMA) <a href="http://www.bgs.ac.uk/science/3dmodelling/sigma.html">[18]</a> within the Earth and Planetary Observation and Monitoring Team] <a href="http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/technologies_epo.html">[19]</a> of the British Geological Survey</li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080828074812/http://www.geo.ku.edu/programs/tectonics/digitalmapping/mappingwebpage.html">[20]</a> - Digital Geologic Mapping at the University of Kansas Geology</li> <li><a href="http://geopad.org/">Geopad Project</a> - Information Technology for Field Science Education and Research</li></ul> <p>Richardson Geological Consulting </p> <ul><li><a href="http://richardson-geoscience.com/">GIS Mapping</a> - GIS mapping information for mineral exploration</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Kramer, John (2000). "Digital Mapping Systems for Field Data Collection". Digital Mapping Techniques '00 -- Workshop Proceedings. U.S. Geological Survey. Open-File Report 00-325. <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2000/of00-325/kramer.html" target="_blank">https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2000/of00-325/kramer.html</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Barnes, John; Lisle, Richard (2004). Basic Geological Mapping. Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. 1–204. ISBN 978-0-470-84986-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) <a href="978-0-470-84986-6" target="_blank">978-0-470-84986-6</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Sprinkel, Douglas; Brown, Kent (2008), "Using digital technology in the field" (PDF), Survey Notes, 40 (1): 1–2 <a href="http://geology.utah.gov/surveynotes/snt40-1.pdf" target="_blank">http://geology.utah.gov/surveynotes/snt40-1.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>McCaffrey, K.; Jones, R.; Holdsworth, R.; Wilson, R.; Clegg, P.; Imber, J.; Holliman, N.; Trinks, I. 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