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Gallium compounds
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<h2 id="aqueous-chemistry">Aqueous chemistry</h2> <p>Strong acids dissolve gallium, forming gallium(III) salts such as <a href="/facts/Gallium(III)_nitrate/hEbg3BqY">Ga(NO3)3</a> (gallium nitrate). <a href="/facts/Aqueous/eRNr3MH2">Aqueous</a> solutions of gallium(III) salts contain the hydrated gallium ion, [Ga(H2O)6]3+.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a>: 1033 <a href="/facts/Gallium(III)_hydroxide/kmXTFHQq">Gallium(III) hydroxide</a>, Ga(OH)3, may be precipitated from gallium(III) solutions by adding <a href="/facts/Ammonia/MtLtJFtz">ammonia</a>. Dehydrating Ga(OH)3 at 100 °C produces gallium oxide hydroxide, GaO(OH).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a>: 140–141 </p><p>Alkaline <a href="/facts/Hydroxide/zW0wxpWD">hydroxide</a> solutions dissolve gallium, forming <i>gallate</i> salts (not to be confused with identically named <a href="/facts/Gallic_acid/PJLYqGrG">gallic acid</a> salts) containing the Ga(OH)−4 anion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a>: 1033 <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> Gallium hydroxide, which is <a href="/facts/Amphoteric/2UrXEsyl">amphoteric</a>, also dissolves in alkali to form gallate salts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a>: 141 Although earlier work suggested Ga(OH)3−6 as another possible gallate anion,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> it was not found in later work.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="oxides-and-chalcogenides">Oxides and chalcogenides</h2> <p>Gallium reacts with the <a href="/facts/Chalcogen/nXLGmnqL">chalcogens</a> only at relatively high temperatures. At room temperature, gallium metal is not reactive with air and water because it forms a <a href="/facts/Passivation_(chemistry)/tPADJj5G">passive</a>, protective <a href="/facts/Oxide/DXtoVe1C">oxide</a> layer. At higher temperatures, however, it reacts with atmospheric <a href="/facts/Oxygen/acyn6o8r">oxygen</a> to form <a href="/facts/Gallium(III)_oxide/PnUPcUVc">gallium(III) oxide</a>, Ga2O3.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> Reducing Ga2O3 with elemental gallium in vacuum at 500 °C to 700 °C yields the dark brown <a href="/facts/Gallium(I)_oxide/FFXWQLJv">gallium(I) oxide</a>, Ga2O.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a>: 285 Ga2O is a very strong <a href="/facts/Reducing_agent/CtfSGVXC">reducing agent</a>, capable of reducing <a href="/facts/Sulfuric_acid/Wom6fymJ">H2SO4</a> to <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_sulfide/UbCqjMMk">H2S</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a>: 207 It disproportionates at 800 °C back to gallium and Ga2O3.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Gallium(III)_sulfide/5nbbBja2">Gallium(III) sulfide</a>, Ga2S3, has 3 possible crystal modifications.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a>: 104 It can be made by the reaction of gallium with <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_sulfide/UbCqjMMk">hydrogen sulfide</a> (H2S) at 950 °C.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a>: 162 Alternatively, Ga(OH)3 can be used at 747 °C:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> </p> 2 Ga(OH)3 + 3 H2S → Ga2S3 + 6 H2O <p>Reacting a mixture of alkali metal carbonates and Ga2O3 with H2S leads to the formation of <i>thiogallates</i> containing the [Ga2S4]2− anion. Strong acids decompose these salts, releasing H2S in the process.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a>: 104–105 The mercury salt, HgGa2S4, can be used as a <a href="/facts/Phosphor/vTLjrGDE">phosphor</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p><p>Gallium also forms sulfides in lower oxidation states, such as <a href="/facts/Gallium(II)_sulfide/CtqKUsSv">gallium(II) sulfide</a> and the green gallium(I) sulfide, the latter of which is produced from the former by heating to 1000 °C under a stream of nitrogen.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a>: 94 </p><p>The other binary chalcogenides, Ga2Se3 and Ga2Te3, have the <a href="/facts/Zincblende_(crystal_structure)/92Co7BKM">zincblende</a> structure. They are all semiconductors but are easily <a href="/facts/Hydrolysis/JTvwIHPs">hydrolysed</a> and have limited utility.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a>: 104 </p> <h2 id="nitrides-and-pnictides">Nitrides and pnictides</h2> <p>Gallium reacts with ammonia at 1050 °C to form <a href="/facts/Gallium_nitride/lmwUt4nk">gallium nitride</a>, GaN. Gallium also forms binary compounds with <a href="/facts/Phosphorus/27xCeIqs">phosphorus</a>, <a href="/facts/Arsenic/k1c4f44D">arsenic</a>, and <a href="/facts/Antimony/YsA7lVgT">antimony</a>: <a href="/facts/Gallium_phosphide/DAFg8pfj">gallium phosphide</a> (GaP), <a href="/facts/Gallium_arsenide/BakLFjpp">gallium arsenide</a> (GaAs), and <a href="/facts/Gallium_antimonide/Aj8NgVKa">gallium antimonide</a> (GaSb). These compounds have the same structure as <a href="/facts/Zinc_sulfide/K8l5AF3K">ZnS</a>, and have important <a href="/facts/Semiconductor/zFf3mGTE">semiconducting</a> properties.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a>: 1034 GaP, GaAs, and GaSb can be synthesized by the direct reaction of gallium with elemental phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a>: 99 They exhibit higher electrical conductivity than GaN.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a>: 101 GaP can also be synthesized by reacting Ga2O with phosphorus at low temperatures.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p><p>Gallium forms ternary <a href="/facts/Nitride/9vkrCbJ4">nitrides</a>; for example:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a>: 99 </p> Li3Ga + N2 → Li3GaN2 <p>Similar compounds with phosphorus and arsenic are possible: Li3GaP2 and Li3GaAs2. These compounds are easily hydrolyzed by dilute <a href="/facts/Acid/FySU18n1">acids</a> and water.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a>: 101 </p> <h2 id="halides">Halides</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Gallium_halides/Xq1t5sJ2">Gallium halides</a></p> <p>Gallium(III) oxide reacts with <a href="/facts/Halogenation/vYrGVWcJ">fluorinating agents</a> such as <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_fluoride/XfQxlqR6">HF</a> or <a href="/facts/Fluorine/YUV0Fb8m">F2</a> to form <a href="/facts/Gallium(III)_fluoride/0n0XBkc6">gallium(III) fluoride</a>, GaF3. It is an ionic compound strongly insoluble in water. However, it dissolves in <a href="/facts/Hydrofluoric_acid/wdXqu4bE">hydrofluoric acid</a>, in which it forms an <a href="/facts/Adduct/vBpTmotm">adduct</a> with water, GaF3·3H2O. Attempting to dehydrate this adduct forms GaF2OH·<i>n</i>H2O. The adduct reacts with ammonia to form GaF3·3NH3, which can then be heated to form anhydrous GaF3.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a>: 128–129 </p><p><a href="/facts/Gallium_trichloride/gMs76FbG">Gallium trichloride</a> is formed by the reaction of gallium metal with <a href="/facts/Chlorine/y27UwYBM">chlorine</a> gas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> Unlike the trifluoride, gallium(III) chloride exists as dimeric molecules, Ga2Cl6, with a melting point of 78 °C. Equivalent compounds are formed with bromine and iodine, <a href="/facts/Gallium(III)_bromide/1mgumVDH">Ga2Br6</a> and <a href="/facts/Gallium(III)_iodide/R8QogIwa">Ga2I6</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a>: 133 </p><p>Like the other group 13 trihalides, gallium(III) halides are <a href="/facts/Lewis_acid/qlLqRvg2">Lewis acids</a>, reacting as halide acceptors with alkali metal halides to form salts containing GaX−4 anions, where X is a halogen. They also react with <a href="/facts/Haloalkane/Enb7LQqt">alkyl halides</a> to form <a href="/facts/Carbocation/vIggUxTh">carbocations</a> and GaX−4.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a>: 136–137 </p><p>When heated to a high temperature, gallium(III) halides react with elemental gallium to form the respective gallium(I) halides. For example, GaCl3 reacts with Ga to form GaCl: </p> 2 Ga + GaCl3 ⇌ 3 GaCl (g) <p>At lower temperatures, the equilibrium shifts toward the left and GaCl disproportionates back to elemental gallium and GaCl3. GaCl can also be produced by reacting Ga with HCl at 950 °C; the product can be condensed as a red solid.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a>: 1036 </p><p>Gallium(I) compounds can be stabilized by forming adducts with Lewis acids. For example: </p> GaCl + AlCl3 → Ga+[AlCl4]− <p>The so-called "gallium(II) halides", GaX2, are actually adducts of gallium(I) halides with the respective gallium(III) halides, having the structure Ga+[GaX4]−. For example:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a>: 1036 <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> </p> GaCl + GaCl3 → Ga+[GaCl4]− <h2 id="hydrides">Hydrides</h2> <p>Like <a href="/facts/Aluminium/7wmR8jYE">aluminium</a>, gallium also forms a <a href="/facts/Hydride/v2rlBGMg">hydride</a>, GaH3, known as <i><a href="/facts/Gallane/Qe4912xs">gallane</a></i>, which may be produced by reacting lithium gallanate (LiGaH4) with <a href="/facts/Gallium(III)_chloride/gMs76FbG">gallium(III) chloride</a> at −30 °C:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a>: 1031 </p> 3 LiGaH4 + GaCl3 → 3 LiCl + 4 GaH3 <p>In the presence of <a href="/facts/Dimethyl_ether/XSo4RBvc">dimethyl ether</a> as solvent, GaH3 polymerizes to (GaH3)<i>n</i>. If no solvent is used, the dimer Ga2H6 (<i><a href="/facts/Digallane/Mnn9azCN">digallane</a></i>) is formed as a gas. Its structure is similar to <a href="/facts/Diborane/k7egwbPf">diborane</a>, having two hydrogen atoms bridging the two gallium centers,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a>: 1031 unlike α-<a href="/facts/Aluminium_hydride/fprkHPdh">AlH3</a> in which aluminium has a coordination number of 6.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a>: 1008 </p><p>Gallane is unstable above −10 °C, decomposing to elemental gallium and <a href="/facts/Hydrogen/BoYHjl0J">hydrogen</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="organogallium-compounds">Organogallium compounds</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Organogallium_chemistry/IMf5V6y1">Organogallium chemistry</a></p> <p>Organogallium compounds are of similar reactivity to <a href="/facts/Organoindium_chemistry/bGh2jTpj">organoindium</a> compounds, less reactive than <a href="/facts/Organoaluminium_chemistry/GM0K5eKE">organoaluminium</a> compounds, but more reactive than <a href="/facts/Thallium/v35pGMJB">organothallium</a> compounds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> Alkylgalliums are monomeric. <a href="/facts/Lewis_acid/qlLqRvg2">Lewis acidity</a> decreases in the order Al > Ga > In and as a result organogallium compounds do not form bridged dimers as organoaluminium compounds do. Organogallium compounds are also less reactive than organoaluminium compounds. They do form stable peroxides.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> These alkylgalliums are liquids at room temperature, having low melting points, and are quite mobile and flammable. Triphenylgallium is monomeric in solution, but its crystals form chain structures due to weak intermolecluar Ga···C interactions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> </p><p>Gallium trichloride is a common starting reagent for the formation of organogallium compounds, such as in <a href="/facts/Carbometalation/PPA3WdMv">carbogallation</a> reactions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> Gallium trichloride reacts with <a href="/facts/Lithium/7vXX6BWA">lithium</a> cyclopentadienide in <a href="/facts/Diethyl_ether/Ep20vEdj">diethyl ether</a> to form the trigonal planar gallium cyclopentadienyl complex GaCp3. Gallium(I) forms complexes with <a href="/facts/Arene/S5lpGPsm">arene</a> ligands such as <a href="/facts/Hexamethylbenzene/IX3rWv20">hexamethylbenzene</a>. Because this ligand is quite bulky, the structure of the [Ga(η6-C6Me6)]+ is that of a <a href="/facts/Half_sandwich_compound/vu6MyRNq">half-sandwich</a>. Less bulky ligands such as <a href="/facts/Mesitylene/4JCRbj1Y">mesitylene</a> allow two ligands to be attached to the central gallium atom in a bent sandwich structure. <a href="/facts/Benzene/Fguue7nr">Benzene</a> is even less bulky and allows the formation of dimers: an example is [Ga(η6-C6H6)2] [GaCl4]·3C6H6.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Organogallium_chemistry/IMf5V6y1">Organogallium chemistry</a></li> <li>Category:Gallium compounds</li> <li><a href="/facts/Aluminium_compounds/aqweHquc">Aluminium compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Indium_compounds/zRq3stVb">Indium compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Germanium_compounds/kdBEY7xU">Germanium compounds</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 240 <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; Holleman, Arnold Frederick (2001). Inorganic chemistry. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-352651-9. <a href="978-0-12-352651-9" target="_blank">978-0-12-352651-9</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Downs, Anthony John (1993). Chemistry of aluminium, gallium, indium, and thallium. Springer. ISBN 978-0-7514-0103-5. <a href="978-0-7514-0103-5" target="_blank">978-0-7514-0103-5</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Eagleson, Mary, ed. (1994). Concise encyclopedia chemistry. Walter de Gruyter. p. 438. ISBN 978-3-11-011451-5. <a href="978-3-11-011451-5" target="_blank">978-3-11-011451-5</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; Holleman, Arnold Frederick (2001). Inorganic chemistry. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-352651-9. <a href="978-0-12-352651-9" target="_blank">978-0-12-352651-9</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Sipos, P. L.; Megyes, T. N.; Berkesi, O. (2008). "The Structure of Gallium in Strongly Alkaline, Highly Concentrated Gallate Solutions—a Raman and 71Ga-NMR Spectroscopic Study". J Solution Chem. 37 (10): 1411–1418. doi:10.1007/s10953-008-9314-y. S2CID 95723025. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Downs, Anthony John (1993). Chemistry of aluminium, gallium, indium, and thallium. Springer. ISBN 978-0-7514-0103-5. <a href="978-0-7514-0103-5" target="_blank">978-0-7514-0103-5</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Hampson, N. A. (1971). Harold Reginald Thirsk (ed.). Electrochemistry—Volume 3: Specialist periodical report. Great Britain: Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-85186-027-5. <a href="978-0-85186-027-5" target="_blank">978-0-85186-027-5</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Sipos, P. L.; Megyes, T. N.; Berkesi, O. (2008). "The Structure of Gallium in Strongly Alkaline, Highly Concentrated Gallate Solutions—a Raman and 71Ga-NMR Spectroscopic Study". J Solution Chem. 37 (10): 1411–1418. doi:10.1007/s10953-008-9314-y. S2CID 95723025. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Eagleson, Mary, ed. (1994). Concise encyclopedia chemistry. Walter de Gruyter. p. 438. ISBN 978-3-11-011451-5. <a href="978-3-11-011451-5" target="_blank">978-3-11-011451-5</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Downs, Anthony John (1993). Chemistry of aluminium, gallium, indium, and thallium. Springer. ISBN 978-0-7514-0103-5. <a href="978-0-7514-0103-5" target="_blank">978-0-7514-0103-5</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Downs, Anthony John (1993). Chemistry of aluminium, gallium, indium, and thallium. Springer. ISBN 978-0-7514-0103-5. <a href="978-0-7514-0103-5" target="_blank">978-0-7514-0103-5</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Greenwood, N. N. (1962). Harry Julius Emeléus; Alan G. Sharpe (eds.). Advances in inorganic chemistry and radiochemistry. Vol. 5. Academic Press. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-12-023605-3. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="978-0-12-023605-3" target="_blank">978-0-12-023605-3</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Greenwood, N. N. (1962). Harry Julius Emeléus; Alan G. Sharpe (eds.). Advances in inorganic chemistry and radiochemistry. Vol. 5. Academic Press. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-12-023605-3. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="978-0-12-023605-3" target="_blank">978-0-12-023605-3</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Downs, Anthony John (1993). Chemistry of aluminium, gallium, indium, and thallium. Springer. ISBN 978-0-7514-0103-5. <a href="978-0-7514-0103-5" target="_blank">978-0-7514-0103-5</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Madelung, Otfried (2004). Semiconductors: data handbook (3rd ed.). Birkhäuser. pp. 276–277. ISBN 978-3-540-40488-0. <a href="978-3-540-40488-0" target="_blank">978-3-540-40488-0</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Greenwood, N. N. (1962). Harry Julius Emeléus; Alan G. Sharpe (eds.). Advances in inorganic chemistry and radiochemistry. Vol. 5. Academic Press. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-12-023605-3. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="978-0-12-023605-3" target="_blank">978-0-12-023605-3</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Krausbauer, L.; Nitsche, R.; Wild, P. (1965). "Mercury gallium sulfide, HgGa2S4, a new phosphor". Physica. 31 (1): 113–121. Bibcode:1965Phy....31..113K. doi:10.1016/0031-8914(65)90110-2. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Greenwood, N. N. (1962). Harry Julius Emeléus; Alan G. Sharpe (eds.). Advances in inorganic chemistry and radiochemistry. Vol. 5. Academic Press. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-12-023605-3. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="978-0-12-023605-3" target="_blank">978-0-12-023605-3</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Greenwood, N. N. (1962). Harry Julius Emeléus; Alan G. Sharpe (eds.). Advances in inorganic chemistry and radiochemistry. Vol. 5. Academic Press. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-12-023605-3. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="978-0-12-023605-3" target="_blank">978-0-12-023605-3</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; Holleman, Arnold Frederick (2001). Inorganic chemistry. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-352651-9. <a href="978-0-12-352651-9" target="_blank">978-0-12-352651-9</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Greenwood, N. N. (1962). Harry Julius Emeléus; Alan G. Sharpe (eds.). Advances in inorganic chemistry and radiochemistry. Vol. 5. Academic Press. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-12-023605-3. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="978-0-12-023605-3" target="_blank">978-0-12-023605-3</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Greenwood, N. N. (1962). Harry Julius Emeléus; Alan G. Sharpe (eds.). Advances in inorganic chemistry and radiochemistry. Vol. 5. Academic Press. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-12-023605-3. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="978-0-12-023605-3" target="_blank">978-0-12-023605-3</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Michelle Davidson (2006). Inorganic Chemistry. Lotus Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-81-89093-39-6. <a href="978-81-89093-39-6" target="_blank">978-81-89093-39-6</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Greenwood, N. N. (1962). Harry Julius Emeléus; Alan G. Sharpe (eds.). Advances in inorganic chemistry and radiochemistry. Vol. 5. Academic Press. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-12-023605-3. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="978-0-12-023605-3" target="_blank">978-0-12-023605-3</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Greenwood, N. N. (1962). Harry Julius Emeléus; Alan G. Sharpe (eds.). Advances in inorganic chemistry and radiochemistry. Vol. 5. Academic Press. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-12-023605-3. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="978-0-12-023605-3" target="_blank">978-0-12-023605-3</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Downs, Anthony John (1993). Chemistry of aluminium, gallium, indium, and thallium. Springer. ISBN 978-0-7514-0103-5. <a href="978-0-7514-0103-5" target="_blank">978-0-7514-0103-5</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Eagleson, Mary, ed. (1994). Concise encyclopedia chemistry. Walter de Gruyter. p. 438. ISBN 978-3-11-011451-5. <a href="978-3-11-011451-5" target="_blank">978-3-11-011451-5</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Downs, Anthony John (1993). Chemistry of aluminium, gallium, indium, and thallium. Springer. ISBN 978-0-7514-0103-5. <a href="978-0-7514-0103-5" target="_blank">978-0-7514-0103-5</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Downs, Anthony John (1993). Chemistry of aluminium, gallium, indium, and thallium. Springer. ISBN 978-0-7514-0103-5. <a href="978-0-7514-0103-5" target="_blank">978-0-7514-0103-5</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; Holleman, Arnold Frederick (2001). Inorganic chemistry. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-352651-9. <a href="978-0-12-352651-9" target="_blank">978-0-12-352651-9</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Eagleson, Mary, ed. (1994). Concise encyclopedia chemistry. Walter de Gruyter. p. 438. ISBN 978-3-11-011451-5. <a href="978-3-11-011451-5" target="_blank">978-3-11-011451-5</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; Holleman, Arnold Frederick (2001). Inorganic chemistry. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-352651-9. <a href="978-0-12-352651-9" target="_blank">978-0-12-352651-9</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Arora, Amit (2005). Text Book Of Inorganic Chemistry. Discovery Publishing House. pp. 389–399. ISBN 978-81-8356-013-9. <a href="978-81-8356-013-9" target="_blank">978-81-8356-013-9</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; Holleman, Arnold Frederick (2001). Inorganic chemistry. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-352651-9. <a href="978-0-12-352651-9" target="_blank">978-0-12-352651-9</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; Holleman, Arnold Frederick (2001). Inorganic chemistry. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-352651-9. <a href="978-0-12-352651-9" target="_blank">978-0-12-352651-9</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; Holleman, Arnold Frederick (2001). Inorganic chemistry. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-352651-9. <a href="978-0-12-352651-9" target="_blank">978-0-12-352651-9</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Downs, Anthony J.; Pulham, Colin R. (1994). Sykes, A. G. (ed.). Advances in Inorganic Chemistry. Vol. 41. Academic Press. pp. 198–199. ISBN 978-0-12-023641-1. <a href="978-0-12-023641-1" target="_blank">978-0-12-023641-1</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Greenwoood and Earnshaw, pp. 262–5 <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Uhl, W. and Halvagar, M. R.; et al. (2009). "Reducing Ga-H and Ga-C Bonds in Close Proximity to Oxidizing Peroxo Groups: Conflicting Properties in Single Molecules". Chemistry: A European Journal. 15 (42): 11298–11306. doi:10.1002/chem.200900746. PMID 19780106.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Greenwoood and Earnshaw, pp. 262–5 <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Amemiya, Ryo (2005). "GaCl3 in Organic Synthesis". European Journal of Organic Chemistry. 2005 (24): 5145–5150. doi:10.1002/ejoc.200500512. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Greenwoood and Earnshaw, pp. 262–5 <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>