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Z3 (computer)
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<h2 id="design-and-development">Design and development</h2> <p>Zuse designed the <a href="/facts/Z1_(computer)/LDe34zlW">Z1</a> in 1935 to 1936 and built it from 1936 to 1938. The Z1 was wholly mechanical and only worked for a few minutes at a time at most. <a href="/facts/Helmut_Schreyer/TuWKz5xc">Helmut Schreyer</a> advised Zuse to use a different technology. As a doctoral student at the <a href="/facts/Technische_Hochschule/oC7RuQDg">Technische Hochschule</a> in Charlottenburg (now <a href="/facts/Technische_Universit%C3%A4t_Berlin/Ao7c79ru">Technische Universität Berlin</a>) in 1937 he worked on the implementation of Boolean operations and (in today's terminology) <a href="/facts/Flip-flop_(electronics)/vA99xjM7">flip-flops</a> on the basis of <a href="/facts/Vacuum_tube/VHd1BNLq">vacuum tubes</a>. In 1938, Schreyer demonstrated a circuit on this basis to a small audience, and explained his vision of an electronic computing machine – but since the largest operational electronic devices contained far fewer tubes this was considered practically infeasible.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> In that year when presenting the plan for a computer with 2,000 electron tubes, Zuse and Schreyer, who was an assistant at Wilhelm Stäblein's [de] Telecommunication Institute at <a href="/facts/Technische_Universit%C3%A4t_Berlin/Ao7c79ru">Technische Universität Berlin</a>, were discouraged by members of the institute who knew about the problems with electron tube technology.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a>: 113, 152 Zuse later recalled: "They smiled at us in 1939, when we wanted to build electronic machines ... We said: The electronic machine is great, but first the <a href="/facts/Electronic_component/F3NBVv4Q">components</a> have to be developed."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a>: 102 In 1940, Zuse and Schreyer managed to arrange a meeting at the <a href="/facts/Oberkommando_der_Wehrmacht/Xu8MfWl7">Oberkommando der Wehrmacht</a> (OKW) to discuss a potential project for developing an electronic computer, but when they estimated a duration of two or three years, the proposal was rejected.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a>: 115 </p><p>Zuse decided to implement the next design based on relays. The realization of the <a href="/facts/Z2_(computer)/fmrzzY6I">Z2</a> was helped financially by Kurt Pannke, who manufactured small calculating machines. The Z2 was completed and presented to an audience of the <i>Deutsche Versuchsanstalt für Luftfahrt</i> ("German Laboratory for Aviation") in 1940 in Berlin-Adlershof. Zuse was lucky – this presentation was one of the few instances where the Z2 actually worked and could convince the DVL to partly finance the next design.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p><p>In 1941, improving on the basic Z2 machine, he built the Z3 in a highly secret project of the German government.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> Joseph Jennissen (1905–1977),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> member of the "Research-Leadership" (<i>Forschungsführung</i>) in the <a href="/facts/Air_Ministry_(Germany)/06Khssnl">Reich Air Ministry</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> acted as a government supervisor for orders of the ministry to Zuse's company <i>ZUSE Apparatebau</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> A further intermediary between Zuse and the Reich Air Ministry was the aerodynamicist <a href="/facts/Herbert_A._Wagner/gzt26Y1U">Herbert A. Wagner</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> </p> <p>The Z3 was completed in 1941 and was faster and far more reliable than the Z1 and Z2. The Z3 <a href="/facts/Floating-point_arithmetic/eIckahxe">floating-point arithmetic</a> was improved over that of the Z1 in that it implemented exception handling "using just a few relays", the exceptional values (plus infinity, minus infinity and undefined) could be generated and passed through operations. It further added a square root instruction. </p><p>The Z3, like its predecessors, stored its program on an external punched tape, thus no rewiring was necessary to change programs. However, it did not have conditional branching found in later universal computers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a>: 7 </p><p>On 12 May 1941, the Z3 was presented to an audience of scientists including the professors Alfred Teichmann and Curt Schmieden<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> of the <i>Deutsche Versuchsanstalt für Luftfahrt</i> ("German Laboratory for Aviation") in <a href="/facts/Berlin/pMTIRNXK">Berlin</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> today known as the <a href="/facts/German_Aerospace_Center/nIeKtKqd">German Aerospace Center</a> in <a href="/facts/Cologne/U2qmyGga">Cologne</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p><p>Zuse moved on to the <a href="/facts/Z4_(computer)/RNjK5G7f">Z4</a> design, which he completed in a bunker in the <a href="/facts/Harz/NWFcnNhd">Harz</a> mountains, alongside <a href="/facts/Wernher_von_Braun/pzhbJTCj">Wernher von Braun</a>'s ballistic missile development. When World War II ended, Zuse retreated to <a href="/facts/Hinterstein/XkAvbv36">Hinterstein</a> in the Alps with the Z4, where he remained for several years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="instruction-set">Instruction set</h2> <p>The Z3 operated as a <a href="/facts/Stack_machine/IBtk4NRA">stack machine</a> with a stack of two registers, R1 and R2. The first load operation in a program would load the contents of a memory location into R1; the next load operation would load the contents of a memory location into R2. Arithmetic instructions would operate on the contents of R1 and R2, leaving the result in R1, and clearing R2; the next load operation would load into R2. A store operation would store the contents of R1 into a memory location, and clear R1; the next load operation would load the contents of a memory location into R1.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a>: 8 </p><p>A read keyboard operation would read a number from the keyboard into R1 and clear R2. A display instruction would display the contents of R1 and clear R2; the next load instruction would load into R2.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a>: 8 </p> <h2 id="z3-as-a-universal-turing-machine">Z3 as a universal Turing machine</h2> <p>It was possible to construct loops on the Z3, but there was no <a href="/facts/Conditional_branch/obBGrnor">conditional branch</a> instruction. Nevertheless, the Z3 was <a href="/facts/Turing-complete/73goop44">Turing-complete</a> – how to implement a universal <a href="/facts/Turing_machine/ojCtglYu">Turing machine</a> on the Z3 was shown in 1998 by <a href="/facts/Ra%C3%BAl_Rojas/cXUEBK6g">Raúl Rojas</a>. He proposed that the tape program would have to be long enough to execute every possible path through both sides of every branch. It would compute all possible answers, but the unneeded results would be canceled out (a kind of <a href="/facts/Speculative_execution/AkA84o5n">speculative execution</a>). Rojas concludes, "We can therefore say that, from an abstract theoretical perspective, the computing model of the Z3 is equivalent to the computing model of today's computers. From a practical perspective, and in the way the Z3 was really programmed, it was not equivalent to modern computers."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> </p><p>This seeming limitation belies the fact that the Z3 provided a <i>practical</i> <a href="/facts/Instruction_set/8p8vwUeE">instruction set</a> for the typical engineering applications of the 1940s. Mindful of the existing hardware restrictions, Zuse's main goal at the time was to have a workable device to facilitate his work as a <a href="/facts/Civil_engineer/RjIFIjNe">civil engineer</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="relation-to-other-work">Relation to other work</h2> <p>The success of Zuse's Z3 is often attributed to its use of the simple binary system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a>: 21 This was invented roughly three centuries earlier by <a href="/facts/Gottfried_Leibniz/cTc2er83">Gottfried Leibniz</a>; <a href="/facts/Boole/fWJT2rek">Boole</a> later used it to develop his <a href="/facts/Boolean_algebra_(logic)/VkCToAmg">Boolean algebra</a>. Zuse was inspired by <a href="/facts/David_Hilbert/1vhlHn4b">Hilbert</a>'s and <a href="/facts/Wilhelm_Ackermann/8bPlUHSE">Ackermann</a>'s book on elementary mathematical logic <i><a href="/facts/Principles_of_Mathematical_Logic/6aE7xxCF">Principles of Mathematical Logic</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a>: 113, 152 In 1937, <a href="/facts/Claude_Shannon/EremsCws">Claude Shannon</a> <a href="/facts/A_Symbolic_Analysis_of_Relay_and_Switching_Circuits/z9RnfSPD">introduced</a> the idea of mapping Boolean algebra onto electronic relays in a seminal work on <a href="/facts/Digital_circuit/vWgfC29C">digital circuit</a> design. Zuse, however, did not know of Shannon's work and developed the groundwork independently<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a>: 149 for his first computer <a href="/facts/Z1_(computer)/LDe34zlW">Z1</a>, which he designed and built from 1935 to 1938. </p><p>Zuse's coworker Helmut Schreyer built an electronic digital experimental model of a computer using 100 vacuum tubes<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> in 1942, but it was lost at the end of the war. </p><p>An <a href="/facts/Analog_computer/3NhYoCML">analog computer</a> was built by the rocket scientist <a href="/facts/Helmut_H%C3%B6lzer/La48KMu5">Helmut Hölzer</a> in 1942 at the <a href="/facts/Peenem%C3%BCnde_Army_Research_Center/XxHJnu5p">Peenemünde Army Research Center</a> to simulate<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> <a href="/facts/V-2_rocket/8WHk8jsw">V-2 rocket</a> trajectories.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Colossus_computer/pbkHLPwp">Colossus</a> (1943),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> built by <a href="/facts/Tommy_Flowers/0NDMVlNN">Tommy Flowers</a>, and the <a href="/facts/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_computer/JJg9kmv3">Atanasoff–Berry computer</a> (1942) used <a href="/facts/Thermionic_valve/VHd1BNLq">thermionic valves (vacuum tubes)</a> and binary representation of numbers. Programming was by means of re-plugging patch panels and setting switches. </p><p>The <a href="/facts/ENIAC/EcfmM1Y0">ENIAC</a> computer, completed after the war, used <a href="/facts/Vacuum_tubes/VHd1BNLq">vacuum tubes</a> to implement switches and used decimal representation for numbers. Until 1948 programming was, as with Colossus, by patch leads and switches.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Manchester_Baby/tpkAwQnc">Manchester Baby</a> of 1948 along with the <a href="/facts/Manchester_Mark_1/S8wpt6U5">Manchester Mark 1</a> and <a href="/facts/EDSAC/nyK6xJ7B">EDSAC</a> both of 1949 were the world's earliest working computers that stored program instructions and data in the same space. In this they implemented the <a href="/facts/Von_Neumann_architecture/te0yulFa">stored-program concept</a> which is frequently (but erroneously) attributed to <a href="/facts/First_Draft_of_a_Report_on_the_EDVAC/CQBHmxoe">a 1945 paper</a> by <a href="/facts/John_von_Neumann/aUk6urof">John von Neumann</a> and colleagues.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> Von Neumann is said to have given due credit to <a href="/facts/Alan_Turing/klov9b6g">Alan Turing</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> and the concept had actually been mentioned earlier by Konrad Zuse himself, in a 1936 patent application (that was rejected).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> Konrad Zuse himself remembered in his memoirs: "During the war it would have barely been possible to build efficient stored program devices anyway."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Friedrich_L._Bauer/JlesFToV">Friedrich L. Bauer</a> later wrote: "His visionary ideas (live programs) which were only to be published years afterwards aimed at the right practical direction but were never implemented by him."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="specifications">Specifications</h2> <ul><li>Average calculation speed: addition – 0.8 seconds, multiplication – 3 seconds<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a></li> <li>Arithmetic unit: Binary <a href="/facts/Floating-point/eIckahxe">floating-point</a>, 22-bit, add, subtract, multiply, divide, square root<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a></li> <li>Data memory: 64 22-bit words<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a></li> <li>Program memory: Punched celluloid tape<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a></li> <li>Input: Decimal floating-point numbers<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a></li> <li>Output: Decimal floating-point numbers<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a></li> <li>Input and Output was facilitated by a terminal, with a special keyboard for input and a row of lamps to show results<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a></li> <li>Elements: Around 2,000 relays (1,400 for the memory)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a></li> <li>Frequency: 5–10 hertz<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a></li> <li>Power consumption: Around 4,000 <a href="/facts/Watt/VK8oqRrm">watts</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a></li> <li>Weight: Around 1 tonne (2,200 lb)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="modern-reconstructions">Modern reconstructions</h2> <p>A modern reconstruction directed by <a href="/facts/Ra%C3%BAl_Rojas/cXUEBK6g">Raúl Rojas</a> and <a href="/facts/Horst_Zuse/UgpPaebI">Horst Zuse</a> started in 1997 and finished in 2003. It is now in the Konrad Zuse Museum in Hünfeld, Germany.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> Memory was halved to 32 words. Power consumption is about 400 W, and weight is about 30 kilograms (66 lb).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> </p><p>In 2008, Horst Zuse started a reconstruction of the Z3 by himself.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> It was presented in 2010 in the Konrad Zuse Museum in Hünfeld.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/History_of_computing_hardware/83xXSmuW">History of computing hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Reverse_Polish_notation/a6rDoJ7X">Reverse Polish notation</a> (RPN)</li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Ra%C3%BAl_Rojas/cXUEBK6g">Rojas, Raúl</a>; Darius, Frank; Göktekin, Cüneyt; Heyne, Georg (2005-08-22). "The reconstruction of Konrad Zuse's Z3". <i><a href="/facts/IEEE_Annals_of_the_History_of_Computing/SBnAgwVR">IEEE Annals of the History of Computing</a></i>. 27 (3): 23–32. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2Fmahc.2005.48">10.1109/mahc.2005.48</a>. <a href="/facts/EISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">eISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1934-1547">1934-1547</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1058-6180">1058-6180</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16288658">16288658</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Ra%C3%BAl_Rojas/cXUEBK6g">Rojas, Raúl</a> (Spring 2006) [2005-05-12]. <a href="http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/CCS/res/res37.htm#c">"The Zuse Computers"</a>. <i><a href="/facts/Resurrection_-_The_Bulletin_of_the_Computer_Conservation_Society/yLjzcx99">Resurrection - The Bulletin of the Computer Conservation Society</a></i> (edited transscript of speech). Vol. 37. Computing Before Computers seminar, Science Museum: <a href="/facts/Computer_Conservation_Society/yLjzcx99">Computer Conservation Society</a> (CCS). <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0958-7403">0958-7403</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220625103304/http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/CCS/res/res37.htm#c">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-06-25. Retrieved 2008-07-26.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Zuse Z3. <ul><li><a href="http://www.horst-zuse.homepage.t-online.de/Konrad_Zuse_index_english_html/rechner_z3.html">Z3 page at Horst Zuse's website</a></li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071210232351/http://www.epemag.com/zuse/default.htm#index">The Life and Work of Konrad Zuse</a></li> <li><a href="http://purl.umn.edu/60298">Paul E. Ceruzzi Collection on Konrad Zuse (CBI 219)</a>. <a href="/facts/Charles_Babbage_Institute/7CbplQuX">Charles Babbage Institute</a>, University of Minnesota. Collection contains published reports, articles, product literature, and other materials.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>"A Computer Pioneer Rediscovered, 50 Years On". The New York Times. 1994-04-20. Archived from the original on 2016-11-04. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161104051054/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/20/news/20iht-zuse.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20161104051054/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/20/news/20iht-zuse.html</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Morelli, Marcello (2001). Dalle calcolatrici ai computer degli anni Cinquanta (in Italian). FrancoAngeli. p. 177. ISBN 978-8-84642879-0. Retrieved 2014-08-05. <a href="978-8-84642879-0" target="_blank">978-8-84642879-0</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Weiss, Eric A. (Summer 1996). "Konrad Zuse Obituary". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 18 (2): 3–4. doi:10.1109/mahc.1996.489747. ISSN 1058-6180. <a href="/wiki/IEEE_Annals_of_the_History_of_Computing" target="_blank">/wiki/IEEE_Annals_of_the_History_of_Computing</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Borchers, Detlef Henning [in German] (2016-05-12). "Vor 75 Jahren: Computer Z3 wird vorgeführt" [75 years ago: Computer Z3 is demonstrated]. heise online (in German). Retrieved 2018-05-13. <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detlef_Henning_Borchers" target="_blank">https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detlef_Henning_Borchers</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Ceruzzi, Paul E. (1983). "2. Computers in Germany". Reckoners: The Prehistory of The Digital Computer, From Relays to the Stored Program Concept, 1935–1945. Greenwood Press. pp. 21, 30, 32–39. ISBN 0-313-23382-9. Retrieved 2018-11-03. <a href="0-313-23382-9" target="_blank">0-313-23382-9</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Weiss, Eric A. (Summer 1996). "Konrad Zuse Obituary". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 18 (2): 3–4. doi:10.1109/mahc.1996.489747. ISSN 1058-6180. <a href="/wiki/IEEE_Annals_of_the_History_of_Computing" target="_blank">/wiki/IEEE_Annals_of_the_History_of_Computing</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Borchers, Detlef Henning [in German] (2016-05-12). "Vor 75 Jahren: Computer Z3 wird vorgeführt" [75 years ago: Computer Z3 is demonstrated]. heise online (in German). Retrieved 2018-05-13. <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detlef_Henning_Borchers" target="_blank">https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detlef_Henning_Borchers</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Zuse, Konrad (2013). The Computer – My Life. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 64. ISBN 978-3-66202931-2. (NB. This is a translation of the original German title Der Computer – Mein Lebenswerk.) <a href="978-3-66202931-2" target="_blank">978-3-66202931-2</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Ceruzzi, Paul E. (1983). "2. Computers in Germany". Reckoners: The Prehistory of The Digital Computer, From Relays to the Stored Program Concept, 1935–1945. Greenwood Press. pp. 21, 30, 32–39. ISBN 0-313-23382-9. Retrieved 2018-11-03. <a href="0-313-23382-9" target="_blank">0-313-23382-9</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>It could solve problems like systems of linear equations and their determinants, quadratic equations and Eigenvalues (for wing flutter).[8][9] <a href="/wiki/Wing_flutter" target="_blank">/wiki/Wing_flutter</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>German: Programm für die Berechnung einer komplexen Matrix[10] <a href="/wiki/German_language" target="_blank">/wiki/German_language</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Hohn, Hans-Willy [in German] (1998). Kognitive Strukturen und Steuerungsprobleme der Forschung. Kernphysik und Informatik im Vergleich (in German). Schriften des Max-Planck-Instituts für Gesellschaftsforschung Köln. pp. 148–149. ISBN 978-3-593-36102-4. <a href="978-3-593-36102-4" target="_blank">978-3-593-36102-4</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>"Z3 Computer (1938–1941)". www.computermuseum.li. Archived from the original on 2008-06-17. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080617234903/http://www.computermuseum.li/Testpage/Z3-Computer-1939.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20080617234903/http://www.computermuseum.li/Testpage/Z3-Computer-1939.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Ceruzzi, Paul E. (1983). "2. Computers in Germany". Reckoners: The Prehistory of The Digital Computer, From Relays to the Stored Program Concept, 1935–1945. Greenwood Press. pp. 21, 30, 32–39. ISBN 0-313-23382-9. Retrieved 2018-11-03. <a href="0-313-23382-9" target="_blank">0-313-23382-9</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Rojas, Raúl (1997-09-05). "How to Make Zuse's Z3 a Universal Computer" (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 20 (3) (published July–September 1998): 51–54. doi:10.1109/85.707574. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-12-09. Retrieved 2022-07-02. (8 pages) <a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Rojas" target="_blank">/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Rojas</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>"Konrad Zuse Biography". RTD Net. From various sides Konrad Zuse was awarded with the title "Inventor of the computer". <a href="http://www.rtd-net.de/Zuse.html" target="_blank">http://www.rtd-net.de/Zuse.html</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>"Konrad Zuse". The German Way. The Konrad-Zuse-Zentrum für Informationstechnik Berlin (ZIB), founded in 1986, is a working memorial to the German inventor of the computer. <a href="https://www.german-way.com/notable-people/featured-bios/konrad-zuse/" target="_blank">https://www.german-way.com/notable-people/featured-bios/konrad-zuse/</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>von Leszczynski, Ulrike (2010-06-27). "Z like Zuse: German inventor of the computer". Monsters & Critics. Archived from the original on 2013-05-22. he [Zuse] built the world's first computer in Berlin <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130522022610/http://www.monstersandcritics.com/tech/features/article_1566782.php/Z-like-Zuse-German-inventor-of-the-computer" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20130522022610/http://www.monstersandcritics.com/tech/features/article_1566782.php/Z-like-Zuse-German-inventor-of-the-computer</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Bellis, Mary (2017-07-31). "Konrad Zuse and the Invention of the Modern Computer". Zuse earned the semi-official title of "inventor of the modern computer" for his series of automatic calculators, which he invented to help him with his lengthy engineering calculations. <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/konrad-zuse-modern-computer-4078237" target="_blank">https://www.thoughtco.com/konrad-zuse-modern-computer-4078237</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Lippe, Wolfram-Manfred [at Wikidata] (2010) [2007]. "Kapitel 14 – Die ersten programmierbaren Rechner" [The first programmable computers] (PDF). Die Geschichte der Rechenautomaten [The history of calculating machines] (in German). doi:10.1007/978-3-642-36193-7_6 (inactive 2025-01-02). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-19. Retrieved 2010-06-21.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2025 (link) [1] (NB. This script was published in December 2013 in a three-volume book series "Geschichte der Rechenautomaten": "Von der Himmelsscheibe von Nebra bis zu den ersten Rechenmaschinen", "Von mechanischen Chiffriergeräten bis zu den ersten programmierbaren Rechnern" and "Von der Entwicklung der Hardware bis zum WWW" by Springer Vieweg, but abandoned when a lot of the content was found to have been plagiarized from other sources including Wikipedia.[2][3][4]) <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q102176548" target="_blank">https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q102176548</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Hellige, Hans Dieter, ed. (2004). Geschichten der Informatik. Visionen, Paradigmen, Leitmotive (in German). Berlin: Springer. pp. 102, 113, 115, 152. ISBN 978-3-540-00217-8. p. 102: Man hat 1939 über uns gelächelt, als wir elektronische Geräte bauen wollten. […] Wir sagten uns damals: Die elektronische Maschine ist wunderbar, aber erst müssen ihre Bauelemente entwickelt werden. <a href="978-3-540-00217-8" target="_blank">978-3-540-00217-8</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Hellige, Hans Dieter, ed. (2004). Geschichten der Informatik. Visionen, Paradigmen, Leitmotive (in German). Berlin: Springer. pp. 102, 113, 115, 152. ISBN 978-3-540-00217-8. p. 102: Man hat 1939 über uns gelächelt, als wir elektronische Geräte bauen wollten. […] Wir sagten uns damals: Die elektronische Maschine ist wunderbar, aber erst müssen ihre Bauelemente entwickelt werden. <a href="978-3-540-00217-8" target="_blank">978-3-540-00217-8</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Hellige, Hans Dieter, ed. (2004). Geschichten der Informatik. Visionen, Paradigmen, Leitmotive (in German). Berlin: Springer. pp. 102, 113, 115, 152. ISBN 978-3-540-00217-8. p. 102: Man hat 1939 über uns gelächelt, als wir elektronische Geräte bauen wollten. […] Wir sagten uns damals: Die elektronische Maschine ist wunderbar, aber erst müssen ihre Bauelemente entwickelt werden. <a href="978-3-540-00217-8" target="_blank">978-3-540-00217-8</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Lippe, Wolfram-Manfred [at Wikidata] (2010) [2007]. "Kapitel 14 – Die ersten programmierbaren Rechner" [The first programmable computers] (PDF). Die Geschichte der Rechenautomaten [The history of calculating machines] (in German). doi:10.1007/978-3-642-36193-7_6 (inactive 2025-01-02). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-19. Retrieved 2010-06-21.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2025 (link) [1] (NB. This script was published in December 2013 in a three-volume book series "Geschichte der Rechenautomaten": "Von der Himmelsscheibe von Nebra bis zu den ersten Rechenmaschinen", "Von mechanischen Chiffriergeräten bis zu den ersten programmierbaren Rechnern" and "Von der Entwicklung der Hardware bis zum WWW" by Springer Vieweg, but abandoned when a lot of the content was found to have been plagiarized from other sources including Wikipedia.[2][3][4]) <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q102176548" target="_blank">https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q102176548</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>"New perspectives, computer concepts", June Jamrich Parsons, Dan Oja. Cengage Learning, 2007. ISBN 978-1-4239-0610-0. Retrieved 2010-03-14. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VVVVkm9G5jgC&dq=konrad+zuse%2C+nazi&pg=PA489" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=VVVVkm9G5jgC&dq=konrad+zuse%2C+nazi&pg=PA489</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Alexander Kauther, Paul Wirtz: Der Einzelkämpfer Dorner. Grin Verlag Gmbh, 2013, ISBN 3-656-04860-6 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Maier, Helmut [in German] (2007). Forschung als Waffe (in German). Wallstein Verlag [de]. p. 847. ISBN 978-3-8353-0109-2. <a href="978-3-8353-0109-2" target="_blank">978-3-8353-0109-2</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>"1977-compilation by Zuse of people in contact to his computers from 1935 to 1945" (in German). Archived from the original on 2011-09-28. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110928123346/http://www.zib.de/zuse/Inhalt/Texte/Chrono/60er/Html/0315/0315.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20110928123346/http://www.zib.de/zuse/Inhalt/Texte/Chrono/60er/Html/0315/0315.html</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Herbert Bruderer, ETH Zurich (2010). "Konrad Zuse und die ETH Zürich" (PDF) (in German). ETH Zurich. doi:10.3929/ethz-a-006313025. Retrieved 2023-12-04. <a href="/wiki/ETH_Zurich" target="_blank">/wiki/ETH_Zurich</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Rojas, Raúl (April–June 1997). "Konrad Zuse's Legacy: The Architecture of the Z1 and Z3" (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 19 (2): 5–16 [7–8]. doi:10.1109/85.586067. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-07-03. Retrieved 2022-07-03. (12 pages) <a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Rojas" target="_blank">/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Rojas</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>"An einem 12. Mai" (in German). Deutsches Historisches Museum (German Historical Museum). Archived from the original on 2013-05-30. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130530040033/http://www.dhm.de/gaeste/luise/tagesfakten/tf05/0512.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20130530040033/http://www.dhm.de/gaeste/luise/tagesfakten/tf05/0512.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>"Technische Universität Berlin – Rechenhilfe für Ingenieure" (in German). Technische Universität Berlin. Archived from the original on 2009-02-13. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090213222711/http://www2.tu-berlin.de/alumni/parTU/00dez/zuse.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20090213222711/http://www2.tu-berlin.de/alumni/parTU/00dez/zuse.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>"Die Geschichte des DLR-Standorts Berlin-Adlershof" (in German). German Aerospace Center. 1941. <a href="https://www.dlr.de/de/das-dlr/ueber-uns/geschichte-des-dlr/die-geschichte-des-dlr-standorts-berlin-adlershof" target="_blank">https://www.dlr.de/de/das-dlr/ueber-uns/geschichte-des-dlr/die-geschichte-des-dlr-standorts-berlin-adlershof</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Campbell-Kelly, Martin (1995-12-21). "Obituary: Konrad Zuse". The Independent. Archived from the original on 2022-05-07. Retrieved 2021-05-11. <a href="/wiki/Martin_Campbell-Kelly" target="_blank">/wiki/Martin_Campbell-Kelly</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Rojas, Raúl (April–June 1997). "Konrad Zuse's Legacy: The Architecture of the Z1 and Z3" (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 19 (2): 5–16 [7–8]. doi:10.1109/85.586067. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-07-03. Retrieved 2022-07-03. (12 pages) <a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Rojas" target="_blank">/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Rojas</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Rojas, Raúl (April–June 1997). "Konrad Zuse's Legacy: The Architecture of the Z1 and Z3" (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 19 (2): 5–16 [7–8]. doi:10.1109/85.586067. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-07-03. Retrieved 2022-07-03. (12 pages) <a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Rojas" target="_blank">/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Rojas</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Rojas, Raúl (1997-09-05). "How to Make Zuse's Z3 a Universal Computer" (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 20 (3) (published July–September 1998): 51–54. doi:10.1109/85.707574. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-12-09. Retrieved 2022-07-02. (8 pages) <a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Rojas" target="_blank">/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Rojas</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Zuse, Konrad (1987-10-02). "My First Computer and First Thoughts About Data Processing". history.computer.org. Computer Pioneers – Konrad Zuse. Retrieved 2018-05-14. Search for 1941; ["Computer Design-Past, Present, Future", talk in Lund/Sweden, 1987-10-02, previously unpublished.] <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" target="_blank">/wiki/Konrad_Zuse</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Ceruzzi, Paul E. (1983). "2. Computers in Germany". Reckoners: The Prehistory of The Digital Computer, From Relays to the Stored Program Concept, 1935–1945. Greenwood Press. pp. 21, 30, 32–39. ISBN 0-313-23382-9. Retrieved 2018-11-03. <a href="0-313-23382-9" target="_blank">0-313-23382-9</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Hellige, Hans Dieter, ed. (2004). Geschichten der Informatik. Visionen, Paradigmen, Leitmotive (in German). Berlin: Springer. pp. 102, 113, 115, 152. ISBN 978-3-540-00217-8. p. 102: Man hat 1939 über uns gelächelt, als wir elektronische Geräte bauen wollten. […] Wir sagten uns damals: Die elektronische Maschine ist wunderbar, aber erst müssen ihre Bauelemente entwickelt werden. <a href="978-3-540-00217-8" target="_blank">978-3-540-00217-8</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Hohn, Hans-Willy [in German] (1998). Kognitive Strukturen und Steuerungsprobleme der Forschung. Kernphysik und Informatik im Vergleich (in German). Schriften des Max-Planck-Instituts für Gesellschaftsforschung Köln. pp. 148–149. ISBN 978-3-593-36102-4. <a href="978-3-593-36102-4" target="_blank">978-3-593-36102-4</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>"Helmut Schreyer" at the University of Berlin <a href="http://www.nue.tu-berlin.de/menue/geschichte/historische_persoenlichkeiten/schreyer" target="_blank">http://www.nue.tu-berlin.de/menue/geschichte/historische_persoenlichkeiten/schreyer</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>H. Otto Hirschler, 87, Aided Space Program <a href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9405E5DF1531F93AA35751C0A9679C8B63" target="_blank">https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9405E5DF1531F93AA35751C0A9679C8B63</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Neufeld, Michael J. (2013). The Rocket and the Reich: Peenemünde and the Coming of the Ballistic Missile Era. 3.1 (2 ed.). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books / The Smithsonian Institution. p. 138. ISBN 987-1-58834-467-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ignored ISBN errors (link) <a href="987-1-58834-467-0" target="_blank">987-1-58834-467-0</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Ulmann, Bernd [in German] (2013). Analog Computing. Walter de Gruyter. p. 38. ISBN 978-3-48675518-3. <a href="978-3-48675518-3" target="_blank">978-3-48675518-3</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Neufeld, Michael J. (1995). The Rocket and the Reich: Peenemünde and the Coming of the Ballistic Missile Era. New York: The Free Press, Simon & Schuster Inc. / The Smithsonian Institution. p. 106. ISBN 0-02-922895-6. LCCN 94-30088. <a href="0-02-922895-6" target="_blank">0-02-922895-6</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>Tomayko, James E. (1985). "Helmut Hoelzer's Fully Electronic Analog Computer". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 7 (3): 227–240. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1985.10025. S2CID 15986944. <a href="/wiki/IEEE_Annals_of_the_History_of_Computing" target="_blank">/wiki/IEEE_Annals_of_the_History_of_Computing</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Randell, Brian (1972). Meltzer, Bernard; Michie, Donald (eds.). On Alan Turing and the Origins of Digital Computers (PDF). Seventh Annual Machine Intelligence Workshop. Machine Intelligence. Vol. 7. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0-85224-234-4. <a href="0-85224-234-4" target="_blank">0-85224-234-4</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Copeland, Brian Jack, ed. (2006). Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-284055-4. <a href="978-0-19-284055-4" target="_blank">978-0-19-284055-4</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>Haigh, Thomas (2016). ENIAC in action: making and remaking the modern computer. Mark Priestley, Crispin Rope. Cambridge, Massachusetts; London: MIT Press. pp. 113–114. ISBN 978-0-262-03398-5. OCLC 952615433. <a href="978-0-262-03398-5" target="_blank">978-0-262-03398-5</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>Cruz, Frank (2013-11-09). "Programming the ENIAC". Programming the ENIAC. Columbia University. Retrieved 2016-05-16. <a href="http://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/eniac.html" target="_blank">http://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/eniac.html</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>von Neumann, John (1945). "First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-10-16. Retrieved 2014-03-24. <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" target="_blank">/wiki/John_von_Neumann</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>"Stored-program concept". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2014-03-24. <a href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/567553/stored-program-concept" target="_blank">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/567553/stored-program-concept</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Randell, Brian (1972). Meltzer, Bernard; Michie, Donald (eds.). On Alan Turing and the Origins of Digital Computers (PDF). Seventh Annual Machine Intelligence Workshop. Machine Intelligence. Vol. 7. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0-85224-234-4. <a href="0-85224-234-4" target="_blank">0-85224-234-4</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Copeland, Brian Jack (2006-06-09). "The Modern History of Computing". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2023-09-07. <a href="/wiki/Brian_Jack_Copeland" target="_blank">/wiki/Brian_Jack_Copeland</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Williams, Frederic Calland; Kilburn, Tom (1948-09-25). "Electronic Digital Computers". Nature. 162 (4117): 487. Bibcode:1948Natur.162..487W. doi:10.1038/162487a0. S2CID 4110351. <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Calland_Williams" target="_blank">/wiki/Frederic_Calland_Williams</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Faber, Susanne (2000), Konrad Zuses Bemühungen um die Patentanmeldung der Z3 (in German) <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>Zuse, Konrad (2010). Der Computer – Mein Lebenswerk (in German) (5 ed.). Berlin, Germany: Springer. p. 78. ISBN 978-3-64212095-4. Während des Krieges wäre es freilich ohnehin kaum möglich gewesen, leistungsfähige Geräte mit Speicherprogrammen zu bauen. (NB. An English translation exists.) <a href="978-3-64212095-4" target="_blank">978-3-64212095-4</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>Bauer, Friedrich Ludwig (April 1998). "Wer erfand den von-Neumann-Rechner?" [Who invented the von Neumann computer?]. Informatik Spektrum (in German). 21 (2). Heidelberg, Germany: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag [de]: 84–88. doi:10.1007/s002870050091. ISSN 0170-6012. S2CID 28380924. [Zuses] erst Jahre später publizierten visionären Ideen (Lebendige Rechenpläne) zielten in die richtige praktische Richtung, wurden von ihm aber nie verwirklicht. [[Zuse's] visionary ideas (Living programs) which were only to be published years afterwards aimed at the right practical direction but were never implemented by him.] <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Ludwig_Bauer" target="_blank">/wiki/Friedrich_Ludwig_Bauer</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>Zuse, Horst (2006). "Anmerkungen zum John von Neumann Rechner" [Annotation on the John von Neumann computer] (PDF) (in German). p. 9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-03-11. Retrieved 2022-09-18. (18 pages) <a href="/wiki/Horst_Zuse" target="_blank">/wiki/Horst_Zuse</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>Morelli, Marcello (2001). Dalle calcolatrici ai computer degli anni Cinquanta (in Italian). FrancoAngeli. p. 177. ISBN 978-8-84642879-0. Retrieved 2014-08-05. <a href="978-8-84642879-0" target="_blank">978-8-84642879-0</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>Morelli, Marcello (2001). Dalle calcolatrici ai computer degli anni Cinquanta (in Italian). FrancoAngeli. p. 177. ISBN 978-8-84642879-0. Retrieved 2014-08-05. <a href="978-8-84642879-0" target="_blank">978-8-84642879-0</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:63"><p>Morelli, Marcello (2001). Dalle calcolatrici ai computer degli anni Cinquanta (in Italian). FrancoAngeli. p. 177. ISBN 978-8-84642879-0. Retrieved 2014-08-05. <a href="978-8-84642879-0" target="_blank">978-8-84642879-0</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:64"><p>Morelli, Marcello (2001). Dalle calcolatrici ai computer degli anni Cinquanta (in Italian). FrancoAngeli. p. 177. ISBN 978-8-84642879-0. Retrieved 2014-08-05. <a href="978-8-84642879-0" target="_blank">978-8-84642879-0</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:65"><p>Morelli, Marcello (2001). Dalle calcolatrici ai computer degli anni Cinquanta (in Italian). FrancoAngeli. p. 177. ISBN 978-8-84642879-0. Retrieved 2014-08-05. <a href="978-8-84642879-0" target="_blank">978-8-84642879-0</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:66"><p>Morelli, Marcello (2001). Dalle calcolatrici ai computer degli anni Cinquanta (in Italian). FrancoAngeli. p. 177. ISBN 978-8-84642879-0. Retrieved 2014-08-05. <a href="978-8-84642879-0" target="_blank">978-8-84642879-0</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:67"><p>Lippe, Wolfram-Manfred [at Wikidata] (2010) [2007]. "Kapitel 14 – Die ersten programmierbaren Rechner" [The first programmable computers] (PDF). Die Geschichte der Rechenautomaten [The history of calculating machines] (in German). doi:10.1007/978-3-642-36193-7_6 (inactive 2025-01-02). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-19. Retrieved 2010-06-21.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2025 (link) [1] (NB. This script was published in December 2013 in a three-volume book series "Geschichte der Rechenautomaten": "Von der Himmelsscheibe von Nebra bis zu den ersten Rechenmaschinen", "Von mechanischen Chiffriergeräten bis zu den ersten programmierbaren Rechnern" and "Von der Entwicklung der Hardware bis zum WWW" by Springer Vieweg, but abandoned when a lot of the content was found to have been plagiarized from other sources including Wikipedia.[2][3][4]) <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q102176548" target="_blank">https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q102176548</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:68"><p>Lippe, Wolfram-Manfred [at Wikidata] (2010) [2007]. "Kapitel 14 – Die ersten programmierbaren Rechner" [The first programmable computers] (PDF). Die Geschichte der Rechenautomaten [The history of calculating machines] (in German). doi:10.1007/978-3-642-36193-7_6 (inactive 2025-01-02). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-19. Retrieved 2010-06-21.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2025 (link) [1] (NB. This script was published in December 2013 in a three-volume book series "Geschichte der Rechenautomaten": "Von der Himmelsscheibe von Nebra bis zu den ersten Rechenmaschinen", "Von mechanischen Chiffriergeräten bis zu den ersten programmierbaren Rechnern" and "Von der Entwicklung der Hardware bis zum WWW" by Springer Vieweg, but abandoned when a lot of the content was found to have been plagiarized from other sources including Wikipedia.[2][3][4]) <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q102176548" target="_blank">https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q102176548</a> <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:69"><p>Morelli, Marcello (2001). Dalle calcolatrici ai computer degli anni Cinquanta (in Italian). FrancoAngeli. p. 177. ISBN 978-8-84642879-0. Retrieved 2014-08-05. <a href="978-8-84642879-0" target="_blank">978-8-84642879-0</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:70"><p>Morelli, Marcello (2001). Dalle calcolatrici ai computer degli anni Cinquanta (in Italian). FrancoAngeli. p. 177. ISBN 978-8-84642879-0. Retrieved 2014-08-05. <a href="978-8-84642879-0" target="_blank">978-8-84642879-0</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:71"><p>Morelli, Marcello (2001). Dalle calcolatrici ai computer degli anni Cinquanta (in Italian). FrancoAngeli. p. 177. ISBN 978-8-84642879-0. Retrieved 2014-08-05. <a href="978-8-84642879-0" target="_blank">978-8-84642879-0</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:72"><p>Rojas, Raúl. "Reconstruction of Konrad Zuse's Z3 Computer". dcis.inf.fu-berlin.de. <a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Rojas" target="_blank">/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Rojas</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:73"><p>"Reconstructing the calculating machine Z3". Konrad Zuse Internet Archive. <a href="http://zuse.zib.de/reconstructionZ3" target="_blank">http://zuse.zib.de/reconstructionZ3</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:74"><p>"Z3-Nachbau-2001" [Z3 replica 2001]. www.horst-zuse.homepage.t-online.de (in German). <a href="http://www.horst-zuse.homepage.t-online.de/z3-nachbau-2001.html" target="_blank">http://www.horst-zuse.homepage.t-online.de/z3-nachbau-2001.html</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:75"><p>Zuse, Horst (2013). "Reconstruction of Konrad Zuse's Z3". In Arthur Tatnall; Tilly Blyth; Roger Johnson (eds.). Making the History of Computing Relevant. IFIP WG 9.7 International Conference, HC 2013. IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology. Vol. 416. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 287–296. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-41650-7_26. ISBN 978-3-64241649-1. <a href="978-3-64241649-1" target="_blank">978-3-64241649-1</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:76"><p>Zwernemann-Blech, Irene. "Events during Zuse Year 2010". www.horst-zuse.homepage.t-online.de. Retrieved 2018-11-03. <a href="http://www.horst-zuse.homepage.t-online.de/horst-zuse-zuse-jahr-2010-html/english/veranstaltung.html" target="_blank">http://www.horst-zuse.homepage.t-online.de/horst-zuse-zuse-jahr-2010-html/english/veranstaltung.html</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:77"><p>"Z3-Präsentationen" [Z3 – Presentations]. www.horst-zuse.homepage.t-online.de (in German). Retrieved 2018-11-03. <a href="http://www.horst-zuse.homepage.t-online.de/horst-zuse-z3-html/z3-vermarktung.html" target="_blank">http://www.horst-zuse.homepage.t-online.de/horst-zuse-z3-html/z3-vermarktung.html</a> <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>