Dinosaur

<h2 id="definition">Definition</h2>
Under <a href="/facts/Phylogenetic_nomenclature/VSzWng0P">phylogenetic nomenclature</a>, dinosaurs are usually defined as the group consisting of the <a href="/facts/Most_recent_common_ancestor/Cbg1YLCV">most recent common ancestor</a> (MRCA) of <a href="/facts/Triceratops/TQCHrWwS">Triceratops</a> and <a href="/facts/Bird/RJF6zwLP">modern birds</a> (Neornithes), and all its descendants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2">2</a> It has also been suggested that Dinosauria be defined with respect to the MRCA of <a href="/facts/Megalosaurus/7Jtw1cYc">Megalosaurus</a> and <a href="/facts/Iguanodon/f4WBtpbX">Iguanodon</a>, because these were two of the three genera cited by Richard Owen when he recognized the Dinosauria.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a> Both definitions cover the same known genera: Dinosauria = <a href="/facts/Ornithischia/g1SAFJvB">Ornithischia</a> + <a href="/facts/Saurischia/6DNGvpdt">Saurischia</a>. This includes major groups such as <a href="/facts/Ankylosauria/lXPkLf0e">ankylosaurians</a> (armored herbivorous quadrupeds), <a href="/facts/Stegosauria/vLTt2MS1">stegosaurians</a> (plated herbivorous quadrupeds), <a href="/facts/Ceratopsia/dQ1v7zFC">ceratopsians</a> (bipedal or quadrupedal herbivores with <a href="/facts/Neck_frill/o0jU0qQ0">neck frills</a>), <a href="/facts/Pachycephalosauria/RJAwMtDx">pachycephalosaurians</a> (bipedal herbivores with thick skulls), <a href="/facts/Ornithopoda/HpWlQsXI">ornithopods</a> (bipedal or quadrupedal herbivores including "<a href="/facts/Hadrosauridae/v4t7JSPB">duck-bills</a>"), <a href="/facts/Theropoda/KUzy1Ef7">theropods</a> (mostly bipedal carnivores and birds), and <a href="/facts/Sauropodomorpha/7DBPqQGD">sauropodomorphs</a> (mostly large herbivorous quadrupeds with long necks and tails).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a>
Birds are the sole surviving dinosaurs. In traditional <a href="/facts/Taxonomy_(biology)/Qkg8wuyw">taxonomy</a>, birds were considered a separate <a href="/facts/Class_(biology)/a7MrgFu3">class</a> that had evolved from dinosaurs, a distinct <a href="/facts/Superorder/GKLJvIpt">superorder</a>. However, most contemporary paleontologists reject the traditional style of classification based on anatomical similarity, in favor of <a href="/facts/Phylogenetics/bw4rsovt">phylogenetic</a> taxonomy based on deduced ancestry, in which each group is defined as all descendants of a given founding genus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a> Birds belong to the dinosaur subgroup <a href="/facts/Maniraptora/X0NxnsBy">Maniraptora</a>, which are <a href="/facts/Coelurosauria/X8HRbjJI">coelurosaurs</a>, which are theropods, which are saurischians.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a>
Research by Matthew G. Baron, <a href="/facts/David_B._Norman/J7AgKFBA">David B. Norman</a>, and Paul M. Barrett in 2017 suggested a radical revision of dinosaurian systematics. Phylogenetic analysis by Baron et al. recovered the Ornithischia as being closer to the Theropoda than the Sauropodomorpha, as opposed to the traditional union of theropods with sauropodomorphs. This would cause sauropods and kin to fall outside traditional dinosaurs, so they re-defined Dinosauria as the last common ancestor of Triceratops horridus, <a href="/facts/House_sparrow/RzGnVWQC">Passer domesticus</a> and <a href="/facts/Diplodocus/qnkupk9E">Diplodocus carnegii</a>, and all of its descendants, to ensure that sauropods and kin remain included as dinosaurs. They also resurrected the clade <a href="/facts/Ornithoscelida/tYFQkzP4">Ornithoscelida</a> to refer to the group containing Ornithischia and Theropoda.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a>

<h3>General description</h3>

Using one of the above definitions, dinosaurs can be generally described as <a href="/facts/Archosaur/Urd4MHfp">archosaurs</a> with <a href="/facts/Terrestrial_locomotion/HR8wosRh">hind limbs held erect beneath the body</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> Other prehistoric animals, including <a href="/facts/Pterosaur/YNQwa1ru">pterosaurs</a>, <a href="/facts/Mosasaur/73YAcKXd">mosasaurs</a>, <a href="/facts/Ichthyosaur/fBNIIJaJ">ichthyosaurs</a>, <a href="/facts/Plesiosauria/Tbfbj8kH">plesiosaurs</a>, and <a href="/facts/Dimetrodon/FPj5khDk">Dimetrodon</a>, while often popularly conceived of as dinosaurs, are not taxonomically classified as dinosaurs. Pterosaurs are distantly related to dinosaurs, being members of the clade <a href="/facts/Avemetatarsalia/L7xHcl10">Ornithodira</a>. The other groups mentioned are, like dinosaurs and pterosaurs, members of <a href="/facts/Sauropsida/70F7LGbt">Sauropsida</a> (the reptile and bird clade), except Dimetrodon (which is a <a href="/facts/Synapsid/uzYVtB0F">synapsid</a>). None of them had the erect hind limb posture characteristic of true dinosaurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a>
Dinosaurs were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates of the <a href="/facts/Mesozoic/yYsvXGPa">Mesozoic</a> <a href="/facts/Era/3H0fTQrK">Era</a>, especially the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Other groups of animals were restricted in size and niches; <a href="/facts/Mammal/phSwTzBo">mammals</a>, for example, rarely exceeded the size of a domestic cat and were generally rodent-sized carnivores of small prey.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> Dinosaurs have always been recognized as an extremely varied group: over 900 non-avian dinosaur genera have been confidently identified (2018) with 1124 species (2016). Estimates put the total number of dinosaur genera preserved in the fossil record at 1850, nearly 75% still undiscovered,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> and the number that ever existed (in or out of the fossil record) at 3,400.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> A 2016 estimate put the number of dinosaur species living in the Mesozoic at 1,543–2,468,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> compared to the number of modern-day birds (avian dinosaurs) at 10,806 species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a>
Extinct dinosaurs, as well as modern birds, include genera that are herbivorous and others carnivorous, including seed-eaters, fish-eaters, insectivores, and omnivores. While dinosaurs were ancestrally bipedal (as are all modern birds), some evolved into quadrupeds, and others, such as <a href="/facts/Anchisaurus/oJExmgKg">Anchisaurus</a> and Iguanodon, could walk as easily on two or four legs. Cranial modifications like horns and crests are common dinosaurian traits, and some extinct species had bony armor. Although the best-known genera are remarkable for their large size, many Mesozoic dinosaurs were human-sized or smaller, and modern birds are generally small in size. Dinosaurs today inhabit every continent, and fossils show that they had achieved global distribution by the <a href="/facts/Early_Jurassic/atwEBpDz">Early Jurassic</a> epoch at latest.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a> Modern birds inhabit most available habitats, from terrestrial to marine, and there is evidence that some non-avian dinosaurs (such as <a href="/facts/Microraptor/GxbTYaxr">Microraptor</a>) could fly or at least glide, and others, such as <a href="/facts/Spinosauridae/tSVdMTgf">spinosaurids</a>, had <a href="/facts/Semiaquatic/6JHes4oC">semiaquatic</a> habits.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a>

<h3>Distinguishing anatomical features</h3>
While recent discoveries have made it more difficult to present a universally agreed-upon list of their distinguishing features, nearly all dinosaurs discovered so far share certain modifications to the ancestral archosaurian skeleton, or are clearly descendants of older dinosaurs showing these modifications. Although some later groups of dinosaurs featured further modified versions of these traits, they are considered typical for Dinosauria; the earliest dinosaurs had them and passed them on to their descendants. Such modifications, originating in the most recent common ancestor of a certain taxonomic group, are called the <a href="/facts/Synapomorphy_and_apomorphy/t21GWRl1">synapomorphies</a> of such a group.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a>

A detailed assessment of archosaur interrelations by <a href="/facts/Sterling_Nesbitt/XF7vSQvg">Sterling Nesbitt</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a> confirmed or found the following twelve unambiguous synapomorphies, some previously known:

<ul><li>In the <a href="/facts/Skull/A9Wp63Np">skull</a>, a supratemporal fossa (excavation) is present in front of the <a href="/facts/Skull/A9Wp63Np">supratemporal fenestra</a>, the main opening in the rear skull roof</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Epipophyses/3TrI08HI">Epipophyses</a>, obliquely backward-pointing processes on the rear top corners of the anterior (front) neck <a href="/facts/Vertebra/qAdLhD5H">vertebrae</a> behind the <a href="/facts/Atlas_(anatomy)/rdfMDmBH">atlas</a> and <a href="/facts/Axis_(anatomy)/nk9516No">axis</a>, the first two neck vertebrae</li>
<li>Apex of a deltopectoral crest (a projection on which the <a href="/facts/Clavipectoral_triangle/lulzsVjp">deltopectoral</a> muscles attach) located at or more than 30% down the length of the <a href="/facts/Humerus/9h0R2GuY">humerus</a> (upper arm bone)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Radius_(bone)/TstRh60d">Radius</a>, a lower arm bone, shorter than 80% of humerus length</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Fourth_trochanter/GplWu8nR">Fourth trochanter</a> (projection where the <a href="/facts/Caudofemoralis/I4h3jdyf">caudofemoralis</a> muscle attaches on the inner rear shaft) on the <a href="/facts/Femur/uVyTwj4l">femur</a> (thigh bone) is a sharp flange</li>
<li>Fourth trochanter asymmetrical, with distal, lower, margin forming a steeper angle to the shaft</li>
<li>On the <a href="/facts/Talus_bone/7FJvAwcv">astragalus</a> and <a href="/facts/Calcaneus/WWuVbuuN">calcaneum</a>, upper ankle bones, the proximal articular facet, the top connecting surface, for the <a href="/facts/Fibula/pKXdd5nM">fibula</a> occupies less than 30% of the transverse width of the element</li>
<li>Exoccipitals (bones at the back of the skull) do not meet along the midline on the floor of the endocranial cavity, the inner space of the braincase</li>
<li>In the pelvis, the proximal articular surfaces of the <a href="/facts/Ischium/hfj1UDwx">ischium</a> with the <a href="/facts/Ilium_(bone)/4zEB7NX0">ilium</a> and the <a href="/facts/Pubis_(bone)/4gU0dgIy">pubis</a> are separated by a large concave surface (on the upper side of the ischium a part of the open hip joint is located between the contacts with the pubic bone and the ilium)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Cnemial_crest/St1bVtPg">Cnemial crest</a> on the <a href="/facts/Tibia/YXQ0F48L">tibia</a> (protruding part of the top surface of the shinbone) arcs anterolaterally (curves to the front and the outer side)</li>
<li>Distinct proximodistally oriented (vertical) ridge present on the posterior face of the distal end of the tibia (the rear surface of the lower end of the shinbone)</li>
<li>Concave articular surface for the fibula of the calcaneum (the top surface of the calcaneum, where it touches the fibula, has a hollow profile)</li></ul>
Nesbitt found a number of further potential synapomorphies and discounted a number of synapomorphies previously suggested. Some of these are also present in <a href="/facts/Silesauridae/2AeSXbrb">silesaurids</a>, which Nesbitt recovered as a sister group to Dinosauria, including a large anterior trochanter, metatarsals II and IV of subequal length, reduced contact between ischium and pubis, the presence of a cnemial crest on the tibia and of an ascending process on the astragalus, and many others.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a>

A variety of other skeletal features are shared by dinosaurs. However, because they either are common to other groups of archosaurs or were not present in all early dinosaurs, these features are not considered to be synapomorphies. For example, as <a href="/facts/Diapsid/IFjPsvGt">diapsids</a>, dinosaurs ancestrally had two pairs of <a href="/facts/Infratemporal_fenestra/F3WRzwbM">Infratemporal fenestrae</a> (openings in the skull behind the eyes), and as members of the diapsid group Archosauria, had additional openings in the <a href="/facts/Antorbital_fenestra/usgwSpRp">snout</a> and lower jaw.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> Additionally, several characteristics once thought to be synapomorphies are now known to have appeared before dinosaurs, or were absent in the earliest dinosaurs and independently evolved by different dinosaur groups. These include an elongated <a href="/facts/Scapula/CTHFHgx4">scapula</a>, or shoulder blade; a <a href="/facts/Sacrum/CTFnjSm0">sacrum</a> composed of three or more fused vertebrae (three are found in some other archosaurs, but only two are found in <a href="/facts/Herrerasaurus/XL1MArIW">Herrerasaurus</a>);<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> and a perforate <a href="/facts/Acetabulum/Qmro7ff7">acetabulum</a>, or hip socket, with a hole at the center of its inside surface (closed in <a href="/facts/Saturnalia_tupiniquim/og606njz">Saturnalia tupiniquim</a>, for example).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> Another difficulty of determining distinctly dinosaurian features is that early dinosaurs and other archosaurs from the <a href="/facts/Late_Triassic/TazKYWQN">Late Triassic</a> epoch are often poorly known and were similar in many ways; these animals have sometimes been misidentified in the literature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a>
Dinosaurs stand with their hind limbs erect in a manner similar to <a href="/facts/Evolution_of_mammals/KYQdXLwX">most modern mammals</a>, but distinct from most other reptiles, whose limbs sprawl out to either side.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a> This posture is due to the development of a laterally facing recess in the pelvis (usually an open socket) and a corresponding inwardly facing distinct head on the femur.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a> Their erect posture enabled early dinosaurs to breathe easily while moving, which likely permitted stamina and activity levels that <a href="/facts/Carrier%2527s_constraint/8mxbuAIu">surpassed those of "sprawling" reptiles</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a> Erect limbs probably also helped support the <a href="/facts/Evolution/Hj0qAaBk">evolution</a> of large size by reducing bending stresses on limbs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> Some non-dinosaurian archosaurs, including <a href="/facts/Rauisuchia/yNTQuCSI">rauisuchians</a>, also had erect limbs but achieved this by a "pillar-erect" configuration of the hip joint, where instead of having a projection from the femur insert on a socket on the hip, the <a href="/facts/Ilium_(bone)/4zEB7NX0">upper pelvic bone</a> was rotated to form an overhanging shelf.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a>

<h2 id="history-of-study">History of study</h2>
Further information: <a href="/facts/History_of_paleontology/Ey06mdQD">History of paleontology</a>
<h3>Pre-scientific history</h3>
Dinosaur fossils have been known for millennia, although their true nature was not recognized. The Chinese considered them to be <a href="/facts/Chinese_dragon/0FXRjPxV">dragon</a> bones and documented them as such. For example, <a href="/facts/Chronicles_of_Huayang/yfAkncmm">Huayang Guo Zhi</a> (華陽國志), a <a href="/facts/Gazetteer/sb5TooQl">gazetteer</a> compiled by <a href="/facts/Chang_Qu/MMpFk5HF">Chang Qu</a> (常璩) during the <a href="/facts/Jin_dynasty_(266%25E2%2580%2593420)/prdhqA8X">Western Jin Dynasty</a> (265–316), reported the discovery of dragon bones at Wucheng in <a href="/facts/Sichuan/e65P53aD">Sichuan</a> Province.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> Villagers in central <a href="/facts/China/lTjIXY5p">China</a> have long unearthed fossilized "dragon bones" for use in <a href="/facts/Traditional_Chinese_medicine/51rSRXua">traditional medicines</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> In <a href="/facts/Europe/DTAtrKfh">Europe</a>, dinosaur fossils were generally believed to be the remains of <a href="/facts/Giant/7TmXoTgt">giants</a> and other <a href="/facts/Bible/SqkRTKCh">biblical</a> creatures.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a>

<h3>Early dinosaur research</h3>

Scholarly descriptions of what would now be recognized as dinosaur bones first appeared in the late 17th century in England. Part of a bone, now known to have been the femur of a <a href="/facts/Megalosaurus/7Jtw1cYc">Megalosaurus</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a> was recovered from a limestone quarry at <a href="/facts/Cornwell%2c_Oxfordshire/r3NXV1gr">Cornwell</a> near <a href="/facts/Chipping_Norton/DfjyIVDS">Chipping Norton</a>, Oxfordshire, in 1676. The fragment was sent to <a href="/facts/Robert_Plot/Cs0rX8D8">Robert Plot</a>, Professor of Chemistry at the <a href="/facts/University_of_Oxford/ExVVQL6V">University of Oxford</a> and first curator of the <a href="/facts/Ashmolean_Museum/zRl83sQY">Ashmolean Museum</a>, who published a description in his The Natural History of Oxford-shire (1677).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a> He correctly identified the bone as the lower extremity of the femur of a large animal, and recognized that it was too large to belong to any known species. He therefore concluded it to be the femur of a huge human, perhaps a <a href="/facts/Titan_(mythology)/f4I9rqnT">Titan</a> or another type of giant featured in legends.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a> <a href="/facts/Edward_Lhuyd/a3FUtsQH">Edward Lhuyd</a>, a friend of <a href="/facts/Isaac_Newton/4L7gTncN">Sir Isaac Newton</a>, published Lithophylacii Britannici ichnographia (1699), the first scientific treatment of what would now be recognized as a dinosaur. In it he described and named a sauropod <a href="/facts/Tooth/Wc6IqwVf">tooth</a>, "<a href="/facts/Rutellum/5pswCPdu">Rutellum impicatum</a>",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> that had been found in Caswell, near <a href="/facts/Witney/Bq1rxoby">Witney</a>, Oxfordshire.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a>

Between 1815 and 1824, the Rev <a href="/facts/William_Buckland/r72jWhR0">William Buckland</a>, the first Reader of Geology at the University of Oxford, collected more fossilized bones of Megalosaurus and became the first person to describe a non-avian dinosaur in a <a href="/facts/Scientific_journal/A4Slzknw">scientific journal</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a> The second non-avian dinosaur genus to be identified, <a href="/facts/Iguanodon/f4WBtpbX">Iguanodon</a>, was purportedly discovered in 1822 by <a href="/facts/Mary_Ann_Mantell/Ip1xRmYX">Mary Ann Mantell</a>, the wife of English geologist <a href="/facts/Gideon_Mantell/Lburf7XF">Gideon Mantell</a>, though this is disputed and some historians say Gideon had acquired remains years earlier. Gideon Mantell recognized similarities between his fossils and the bones of modern <a href="/facts/Iguana/k88C7GhM">iguanas</a> and published his findings in 1825.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a>
The study of these "great fossil lizards" soon became of great interest to European and American scientists, and in 1842 the English paleontologist Sir Richard Owen coined the term "dinosaur", using it to refer to the "distinct tribe or sub-order of Saurian Reptiles" that were then being recognized in England and around the world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a> The term is derived from <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greek_language/LIK7NlUh">Ancient Greek</a> δεινός (deinos) 'terrible, potent or fearfully great' and σαῦρος (sauros) 'lizard or reptile'.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a> Though the taxonomic name has often been interpreted as a reference to dinosaurs' teeth, claws, and other fearsome characteristics, Owen intended it also to evoke their size and majesty.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a> Owen recognized that the remains that had been found so far, Iguanodon, Megalosaurus and <a href="/facts/Hylaeosaurus/2LGNUCKt">Hylaeosaurus</a>, shared distinctive features, and so decided to present them as a distinct taxonomic group. As clarified by British geologist and historian Hugh Torrens, Owen had given a presentation about fossil reptiles to the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1841, but reports of the time show that Owen did not mention the word "dinosaur", nor recognize dinosaurs as a distinct group of reptiles in his address. He introduced the Dinosauria only in the revised text version of his talk published in April 1842.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a> With the backing of <a href="/facts/Albert%2c_Prince_Consort/R2QynoEy">Prince Albert</a>, the husband of <a href="/facts/Queen_Victoria/CgxSlQ4g">Queen Victoria</a>, Owen established the <a href="/facts/Natural_History_Museum%2c_London/SWrrNn0K">Natural History Museum, London</a>, to display the national collection of dinosaur fossils and other biological and geological exhibits.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a>

<h3>Discoveries in North America</h3>

In 1858, <a href="/facts/William_Parker_Foulke/gvXuzIEd">William Parker Foulke</a> discovered the first known American dinosaur, in <a href="/facts/Marl/xm7XVXde">marl</a> pits in the small town of <a href="/facts/Haddonfield%2c_New_Jersey/RbkAdzkD">Haddonfield, New Jersey</a>. (Although fossils had been found before, their nature had not been correctly discerned.) The creature was named <a href="/facts/Hadrosaurus/pYY3KuMc">Hadrosaurus foulkii</a>. It was an extremely important find: Hadrosaurus was one of the first nearly complete dinosaur skeletons found (<a href="/facts/Iguanodon/f4WBtpbX">the first</a> was in 1834, in <a href="/facts/Maidstone/JCeVFKbq">Maidstone, England</a>), and it was clearly a bipedal creature. This was a revolutionary discovery as, until that point, most scientists had believed dinosaurs walked on four feet, like other lizards. Foulke's discoveries sparked a wave of interests in dinosaurs in the United States, known as dinosaur mania.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a>
Dinosaur mania was exemplified by the fierce rivalry between <a href="/facts/Edward_Drinker_Cope/Wup4Ic7k">Edward Drinker Cope</a> and <a href="/facts/Othniel_Charles_Marsh/TBr5FRvk">Othniel Charles Marsh</a>, both of whom raced to be the first to find new dinosaurs in what came to be known as the <a href="/facts/Bone_Wars/mYIh9CLc">Bone Wars</a>. This fight between the two scientists lasted for over 30 years, ending in 1897 when Cope died after spending his entire fortune on the dinosaur hunt. Many valuable dinosaur specimens were damaged or destroyed due to the pair's rough methods: for example, their diggers often used <a href="/facts/Dynamite/WQ06BcGK">dynamite</a> to unearth bones. Modern paleontologists would find such methods crude and unacceptable, since blasting easily destroys fossil and stratigraphic evidence. Despite their unrefined methods, the contributions of Cope and Marsh to paleontology were vast: Marsh unearthed 86 new species of dinosaur and Cope discovered 56, a total of 142 new species. Cope's collection is now at the <a href="/facts/American_Museum_of_Natural_History/q5tYv7px">American Museum of Natural History</a> in New York City, while Marsh's is at the <a href="/facts/Peabody_Museum_of_Natural_History/a1wwYsra">Peabody Museum of Natural History</a> at <a href="/facts/Yale_University/KUdS6jt1">Yale University</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a>

<h3>"Dinosaur renaissance" and beyond</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Dinosaur_renaissance/Q3LKBtSW">Dinosaur renaissance</a>
<a href="/facts/World_War_II/2efV5L1U">World War II</a> caused a pause in palaeontological research; after the war, research attention was also diverted increasingly to fossil mammals rather than dinosaurs, which were seen as sluggish and cold-blooded.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a> At the end of the 1960s, however, the field of dinosaur research experienced a surge in activity that remains ongoing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a> Several seminal studies led to this activity. First, <a href="/facts/John_Ostrom/sQ7EUSmo">John Ostrom</a> discovered the bird-like <a href="/facts/Dromaeosauridae/mLeNBfBQ">dromaeosaurid</a> theropod <a href="/facts/Deinonychus/9zG2MVMC">Deinonychus</a> and described it in 1969. Its anatomy indicated that it was an active predator that was likely warm-blooded, in marked contrast to the then-prevailing image of dinosaurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a> Concurrently, <a href="/facts/Robert_T._Bakker/A94QjX6G">Robert T. Bakker</a> published a series of studies that likewise argued for active lifestyles in dinosaurs based on anatomical and ecological evidence (see § Physiology),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a> which were subsequently summarized in his 1986 book <a href="/facts/The_Dinosaur_Heresies/nBqSKweJ">The Dinosaur Heresies</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a>

New revelations were supported by an increase in dinosaur discoveries. Major new dinosaur discoveries have been made by paleontologists working in previously unexplored regions, including India, South America, Madagascar, Antarctica, and most significantly China. Across theropods, sauropodomorphs, and ornithischians, the number of named genera began to increase exponentially in the 1990s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> In 2008 over 30 new species of dinosaurs were named each year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a> At least sauropodomorphs experienced a further increase in the number of named species in the 2010s, with an average of 9.3 new species having been named each year between 2009 and 2020. As a consequence, more sauropodomorphs were named between 1990 and 2020 than in all previous years combined.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a> These new localities also led to improvements in overall specimen quality, with new species being increasingly named not on scrappy fossils but on more complete skeletons, sometimes from multiple individuals. Better specimens also led to new species being invalidated less frequently.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a> Asian localities have produced the most complete theropod specimens,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a> while North American localities have produced the most complete sauropodomorph specimens.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a>
Prior to the dinosaur renaissance, dinosaurs were mostly classified using the traditional rank-based system of <a href="/facts/Linnaean_taxonomy/DLdJDy2F">Linnaean taxonomy</a>. The renaissance was also accompanied by the increasingly widespread application of <a href="/facts/Cladistics/JasKVABk">cladistics</a>, a more objective method of classification based on ancestry and shared traits, which has proved tremendously useful in the study of dinosaur systematics and evolution. Cladistic analysis, among other techniques, helps to compensate for an often incomplete and fragmentary fossil record.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a> Reference books summarizing the state of dinosaur research, such as <a href="/facts/David_B._Weishampel/j6GTWKnC">David B. Weishampel</a> and colleagues' <a href="/facts/The_Dinosauria/rkYqjaS8">The Dinosauria</a>, made knowledge more accessible<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a> and spurred further interest in dinosaur research. The release of the first and second editions of The Dinosauria in 1990 and 2004, and of a review paper by <a href="/facts/Paul_Sereno/fl7hhbAw">Paul Sereno</a> in 1998, were accompanied by increases in the number of published <a href="/facts/Phylogenetic_tree/f5vVEpeY">phylogenetic trees</a> for dinosaurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a>

<h3>Soft tissue and molecular preservation</h3>

Dinosaur fossils are not limited to bones, but also include imprints or mineralized remains of skin coverings, organs, and other tissues. Of these, skin coverings based on <a href="/facts/Keratin/tBh0bY47">keratin</a> proteins are most easily preserved because of their <a href="/facts/Cross-link/zeQ9hEAA">cross-linked</a>, <a href="/facts/Hydrophobe/Ifya0CXQ">hydrophobic</a> molecular structure.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a> Fossils of keratin-based skin coverings or bony skin coverings are known from most major groups of dinosaurs. Dinosaur fossils with scaly skin impressions have been found since the 19th century. <a href="/facts/Samuel_Beckles/pcJbIMyB">Samuel Beckles</a> discovered a sauropod forelimb with preserved skin in 1852 that was incorrectly attributed to a crocodile; it was correctly attributed by Marsh in 1888 and subject to further study by <a href="/facts/Reginald_Hooley/Vt8vft3l">Reginald Hooley</a> in 1917.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a> Among ornithischians, in 1884 Jacob Wortman found skin impressions on the first known specimen of <a href="/facts/Edmontosaurus_annectens/UpImYmnV">Edmontosaurus annectens</a>, which were largely destroyed during the specimen's excavation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a> Owen and Hooley subsequently described skin impressions of <a href="/facts/Hypsilophodon/6twlTd5o">Hypsilophodon</a> and Iguanodon in 1885 and 1917.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a> Since then, scale impressions have been most frequently found among hadrosaurids, where the impressions are known from nearly the entire body across multiple specimens.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a>

Starting from the 1990s, major discoveries of exceptionally preserved fossils in deposits known as conservation <a href="/facts/Lagerst%25C3%25A4tte/ByI7PT8h">Lagerstätten</a> contributed to research on dinosaur soft tissues.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a> Chiefly among these were the rocks that produced the <a href="/facts/Jehol_Biota/YmjQMeWc">Jehol</a> (Early Cretaceous) and <a href="/facts/Yanliao_Biota/40nwPSq6">Yanliao</a> (Mid-to-Late Jurassic) <a href="/facts/Biota_(ecology)/cl4X36GB">biotas</a> of northeastern China, from which hundreds of dinosaur specimens bearing impressions of feather-like structures (both closely related to birds and otherwise, see § Origin of birds) have been described by <a href="/facts/Xu_Xing_(paleontologist)/nP0Gxqmy">Xing Xu</a> and colleagues.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a> In living reptiles and mammals, pigment-storing cellular structures known as <a href="/facts/Melanosome/Tex4u7uq">melanosomes</a> are partially responsible for producing colouration.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a> Both chemical traces of <a href="/facts/Melanin/QtGsXAm4">melanin</a> and characteristically shaped melanosomes have been reported from feathers and scales of Jehol and Yanliao dinosaurs, including both theropods and ornithischians.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a> This has enabled multiple full-body reconstructions of <a href="/facts/Dinosaur_colouration/LpSX4hLV">dinosaur colouration</a>, such as for <a href="/facts/Sinosauropteryx/sly5ILDe">Sinosauropteryx</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a> and <a href="/facts/Psittacosaurus/5aVNWT85">Psittacosaurus</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a> by Jakob Vinther and colleagues, and similar techniques have also been extended to dinosaur fossils from other localities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a> (However, some researchers have also suggested that fossilized melanosomes represent bacterial remains.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a>) Stomach contents in some Jehol and Yanliao dinosaurs closely related to birds have also provided indirect indications of diet and digestive system anatomy (e.g., <a href="/facts/Crop_(anatomy)/apM1PvqM">crops</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a> More concrete evidence of internal anatomy has been reported in <a href="/facts/Scipionyx/dF7unn0g">Scipionyx</a> from the <a href="/facts/Pietraroja_Plattenkalk/2GBux3Xh">Pietraroja Plattenkalk</a> of Italy. It preserves portions of the intestines, colon, liver, muscles, and windpipe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a>

Concurrently, a line of work led by <a href="/facts/Mary_Higby_Schweitzer/pNfsVWj4">Mary Higby Schweitzer</a>, <a href="/facts/Jack_Horner_(paleontologist)/YfVGy8Be">Jack Horner</a>, and colleagues reported various occurrences of preserved soft tissues and proteins within dinosaur bone fossils. Various mineralized structures that likely represented <a href="/facts/Red_blood_cell/Kggpq8Jh">red blood cells</a> and <a href="/facts/Collagen/KsyAb72K">collagen</a> fibres had been found by Schweitzer and others in <a href="/facts/Tyrannosauridae/6Dm2ljv7">tyrannosaurid</a> bones as early as 1991.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a> However, in 2005, Schweitzer and colleagues reported that a femur of <a href="/facts/Tyrannosaurus/HQw1cywX">Tyrannosaurus</a> preserved soft, flexible tissue within, including <a href="/facts/Blood_vessel/FG3GjPNW">blood vessels</a>, <a href="/facts/Osteon/fTFx9XDA">bone matrix</a>, and connective tissue (bone fibers) that had retained their microscopic structure.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a> This discovery suggested that original soft tissues could be preserved over geological time,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a> with multiple mechanisms having been proposed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a> Later, in 2009, Schweitzer and colleagues reported that a <a href="/facts/Brachylophosaurus/g4ausFWb">Brachylophosaurus</a> femur preserved similar microstructures, and <a href="/facts/Immunohistochemistry/knPpmAFf">immunohistochemical</a> techniques (based on <a href="/facts/Antibody/MX8pdTdP">antibody</a> binding) demonstrated the presence of proteins such as collagen, <a href="/facts/Elastin/9S2w5thw">elastin</a>, and <a href="/facts/Laminin/JTn5vrM4">laminin</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a> Both specimens yielded collagen protein sequences that were viable for <a href="/facts/Molecular_phylogenetics/FysplHP5">molecular phylogenetic analyses</a>, which grouped them with birds as would be expected.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a> The extraction of fragmentary DNA has also been reported for both of these fossils,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a> along with a specimen of <a href="/facts/Hypacrosaurus/BeeBEEva">Hypacrosaurus</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108">108</a> In 2015, Sergio Bertazzo and colleagues reported the preservation of collagen fibres and red blood cells in eight Cretaceous dinosaur specimens that did not show any signs of exceptional preservation, indicating that soft tissue may be preserved more commonly than previously thought.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109">109</a> Suggestions that these structures represent bacterial <a href="/facts/Biofilm/zg93x2w4">biofilms</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110">110</a> have been rejected,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111">111</a> but cross-contamination remains a possibility that is difficult to detect.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112">112</a>

<h2 id="evolutionary-history">Evolutionary history</h2>
<h3>Origins and early evolution</h3>

Dinosaurs diverged from their archosaur ancestors during the Middle to Late Triassic epochs, roughly 20 million years after the devastating <a href="/facts/Permian%25E2%2580%2593Triassic_extinction_event/d8kI8Mfn">Permian–Triassic extinction event</a> wiped out an estimated 96% of all marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species approximately 252 million years ago.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113">113</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114">114</a> The oldest dinosaur fossils known from substantial remains date to the <a href="/facts/Carnian/DV9VJ0o3">Carnian</a> epoch of the Triassic period and have been found primarily in the <a href="/facts/Ischigualasto_Formation/srj6DQB7">Ischigualasto</a> and <a href="/facts/Santa_Maria_Formation/PfbJXUuv">Santa Maria Formations</a> of Argentina and Brazil, and the <a href="/facts/Pebbly_Arkose_Formation/s6npG4Uv">Pebbly Arkose Formation</a> of Zimbabwe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115">115</a>
The Ischigualasto Formation (<a href="/facts/Radiometric_dating/bDFjdPqV">radiometrically dated</a> at 231–230 million years old<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116">116</a>) has produced the early saurischian <a href="/facts/Eoraptor/xwqThHMS">Eoraptor</a>, originally considered a member of the <a href="/facts/Herrerasauridae/mzHIFXRA">Herrerasauridae</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117">117</a> but now considered to be an early sauropodomorph, along with the herrerasaurids Herrerasaurus and <a href="/facts/Sanjuansaurus/x8SY4PNC">Sanjuansaurus</a>, and the sauropodomorphs <a href="/facts/Chromogisaurus/03wEnMPY">Chromogisaurus</a>, <a href="/facts/Eodromaeus/v4ckLITw">Eodromaeus</a>, and <a href="/facts/Panphagia/U0WVbVCX">Panphagia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118">118</a> Eoraptor's likely resemblance to the <a href="/facts/Common_descent/bwEgMu7F">common ancestor</a> of all dinosaurs suggests that the first dinosaurs would have been small, bipedal <a href="/facts/Predation/JEGdrX3f">predators</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119">119</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120">120</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121">121</a> The Santa Maria Formation (radiometrically dated to be older, at 233.23 million years old<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122">122</a>) has produced the herrerasaurids <a href="/facts/Gnathovorax/AmVChnHC">Gnathovorax</a> and <a href="/facts/Staurikosaurus/rTN3BWfN">Staurikosaurus</a>, along with the sauropodomorphs <a href="/facts/Bagualosaurus/LJ9eyyoh">Bagualosaurus</a>, <a href="/facts/Buriolestes/dCzEcAYS">Buriolestes</a>, <a href="/facts/Guaibasaurus/R4ygjPBw">Guaibasaurus</a>, <a href="/facts/Macrocollum/gxUuyn9V">Macrocollum</a>, <a href="/facts/Nhandumirim/LKqQDGKH">Nhandumirim</a>, <a href="/facts/Pampadromaeus/ugB58psz">Pampadromaeus</a>, Saturnalia, and <a href="/facts/Unaysaurus/enPwndV0">Unaysaurus</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123">123</a> The Pebbly Arkose Formation, which is of uncertain age but was likely comparable to the other two, has produced the sauropodomorph <a href="/facts/Mbiresaurus/pxGLjAwx">Mbiresaurus</a>, along with an unnamed herrerasaurid.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124">124</a>
Less well-preserved remains of the sauropodomorphs <a href="/facts/Jaklapallisaurus/HdF1fatA">Jaklapallisaurus</a> and <a href="/facts/Nambalia/yf8YFpq2">Nambalia</a>, along with the early saurischian <a href="/facts/Alwalkeria/243W29ug">Alwalkeria</a>, are known from the <a href="/facts/Upper_Maleri_Formation/LD6gLWmf">Upper Maleri</a> and <a href="/facts/Lower_Maleri_Formation/3fzxXyUq">Lower Maleri Formations</a> of India.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125">125</a> The Carnian-aged <a href="/facts/Cha%25C3%25B1ares_Formation/yWJwWAup">Chañares Formation</a> of Argentina preserves primitive, dinosaur-like ornithodirans such as <a href="/facts/Lagosuchus/pI9J6CPs">Lagosuchus</a> and <a href="/facts/Lagerpeton/BUXwVkbH">Lagerpeton</a> in <a href="/facts/Argentina/aFSA5bAk">Argentina</a>, making it another important site for understanding dinosaur evolution. These ornithodirans support the model of early dinosaurs as small, bipedal predators.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126">126</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127">127</a> Dinosaurs may have appeared as early as the <a href="/facts/Anisian/ck89Rqhu">Anisian</a> epoch of the Triassic, approximately 243 million years ago, which is the age of <a href="/facts/Nyasasaurus/VMEKN4TH">Nyasasaurus</a> from the <a href="/facts/Manda_Formation/1mmJcFHt">Manda Formation</a> of Tanzania. However, its known fossils are too fragmentary to identify it as a dinosaur or only a close relative.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128">128</a> The referral of the Manda Formation to the Anisian is also uncertain. Regardless, dinosaurs existed alongside non-dinosaurian ornithodirans for a period of time, with estimates ranging from 5–10 million years<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129">129</a> to 21 million years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130">130</a>
When dinosaurs appeared, they were not the dominant terrestrial animals. The terrestrial habitats were occupied by various types of <a href="/facts/Archosauromorpha/8SXBa7y1">archosauromorphs</a> and <a href="/facts/Therapsid/P4ERDjA2">therapsids</a>, like <a href="/facts/Cynodont/8Trvx14s">cynodonts</a> and <a href="/facts/Rhynchosaur/zG659kMo">rhynchosaurs</a>. Their main competitors were the <a href="/facts/Pseudosuchians/NBGrNAxx">pseudosuchians</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Aetosaur/TlmQTyeg">aetosaurs</a>, <a href="/facts/Ornithosuchidae/kdrHK2lj">ornithosuchids</a> and rauisuchians, which were more successful than the dinosaurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131">131</a> Most of these other animals became extinct in the Triassic, in one of two events. First, at about 215 million years ago, a variety of <a href="/facts/Basal_(phylogenetics)/JQPQXpYg">basal</a> archosauromorphs, including the <a href="/facts/Protorosauria/mXatjaKr">protorosaurs</a>, became extinct. This was followed by the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event (about 201 million years ago), that saw the end of most of the other groups of early archosaurs, like aetosaurs, ornithosuchids, <a href="/facts/Phytosaur/BUUoxqhm">phytosaurs</a>, and rauisuchians. Rhynchosaurs and <a href="/facts/Dicynodont/dLcplJmI">dicynodonts</a> survived (at least in some areas) at least as late as early –mid <a href="/facts/Norian/MtxaHnyD">Norian</a> and late Norian or earliest <a href="/facts/Rhaetian/n7W4IUYz">Rhaetian</a> <a href="/facts/Stage_(stratigraphy)/6HActMK7">stages</a>, respectively,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132">132</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133">133</a> and the exact date of their <a href="/facts/Extinction/24p5NP2q">extinction</a> is uncertain. These losses left behind a land fauna of <a href="/facts/Crocodylomorpha/clPyHg6D">crocodylomorphs</a>, dinosaurs, mammals, pterosaurians, and <a href="/facts/Turtle/X0ImnxYt">turtles</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134">134</a> The first few lines of early dinosaurs <a href="/facts/Adaptive_radiation/NdoH2o1f">diversified</a> through the Carnian and Norian stages of the Triassic, possibly by occupying the niches of the groups that became extinct.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135">135</a> Also notably, there was a heightened rate of extinction during the <a href="/facts/Carnian_pluvial_episode/FLJswrhr">Carnian pluvial event</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136">136</a>

<h3>Evolution and paleobiogeography</h3>

Dinosaur evolution after the Triassic followed changes in vegetation and the location of continents. In the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic, the continents were connected as the single landmass <a href="/facts/Pangaea/VGruHKJj">Pangaea</a>, and there was a worldwide dinosaur fauna mostly composed of <a href="/facts/Coelophysoidea/GreSH28I">coelophysoid</a> carnivores and early sauropodomorph herbivores.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137">137</a> <a href="/facts/Gymnosperm/lzcpfbUK">Gymnosperm</a> plants (particularly <a href="/facts/Pinophyta/vDUgqxCx">conifers</a>), a potential food source, <a href="/facts/Evolutionary_radiation/DDc0R6GS">radiated</a> in the Late Triassic. Early sauropodomorphs did not have sophisticated mechanisms for processing food in the mouth, and so must have employed other means of breaking down food farther along the digestive tract.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138">138</a> The general homogeneity of dinosaurian faunas continued into the Middle and Late Jurassic, where most localities had predators consisting of <a href="/facts/Ceratosauria/1tK9tzVV">ceratosaurians</a>, <a href="/facts/Megalosauroidea/vN0JzGxU">megalosauroids</a>, and <a href="/facts/Allosauroidea/vGvDu5y0">allosauroids</a>, and herbivores consisting of stegosaurian ornithischians and large sauropods. Examples of this include the <a href="/facts/Morrison_Formation/N0SLjMe0">Morrison Formation</a> of <a href="/facts/North_America/djNjCQIl">North America</a> and <a href="/facts/Tendaguru_Formation/QmDfqkzt">Tendaguru Beds</a> of Tanzania. Dinosaurs in China show some differences, with specialized <a href="/facts/Metriacanthosauridae/IyLHHuQr">metriacanthosaurid</a> theropods and unusual, long-necked sauropods like <a href="/facts/Mamenchisaurus/CKvWySPK">Mamenchisaurus</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139">139</a> Ankylosaurians and ornithopods were also becoming more common, but primitive sauropodomorphs had become extinct. Conifers and <a href="/facts/Pteridophyte/8sa9P2TA">pteridophytes</a> were the most common plants. Sauropods, like earlier sauropodomorphs, were not oral processors, but ornithischians were evolving various means of dealing with food in the mouth, including potential <a href="/facts/Cheek/e5RsgcIL">cheek</a>-like organs to keep food in the mouth, and jaw motions to grind food.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140">140</a> Another notable evolutionary event of the Jurassic was the appearance of true birds, descended from maniraptoran coelurosaurians.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141">141</a>
By the <a href="/facts/Early_Cretaceous/5uWEJGYC">Early Cretaceous</a> and the ongoing breakup of Pangaea, dinosaurs were becoming strongly differentiated by landmass. The earliest part of this time saw the spread of ankylosaurians, <a href="/facts/Iguanodontia/Uqdv6aq3">iguanodontians</a>, and <a href="/facts/Brachiosauridae/oF1A3GsE">brachiosaurids</a> through Europe, North America, and northern <a href="/facts/Africa/XkqQUP9s">Africa</a>. These were later supplemented or replaced in Africa by large spinosaurid and <a href="/facts/Carcharodontosauridae/aIbjVut0">carcharodontosaurid</a> theropods, and <a href="/facts/Rebbachisauridae/PdCeUyps">rebbachisaurid</a> and <a href="/facts/Titanosauria/QzkgrcQR">titanosaurian</a> sauropods, also found in <a href="/facts/South_America/PhrFEMk7">South America</a>. In <a href="/facts/Asia/4IToYrrQ">Asia</a>, maniraptoran coelurosaurians like dromaeosaurids, <a href="/facts/Troodontidae/TXa3nahN">troodontids</a>, and <a href="/facts/Oviraptorosauria/C6puS7KW">oviraptorosaurians</a> became the common theropods, and <a href="/facts/Ankylosauridae/RsePQquY">ankylosaurids</a> and early ceratopsians like Psittacosaurus became important herbivores. Meanwhile, <a href="/facts/Australia/qLHpbppq">Australia</a> was home to a fauna of basal ankylosaurians, <a href="/facts/Hypsilophodont/fJCCNJY6">hypsilophodonts</a>, and iguanodontians.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142">142</a> The stegosaurians appear to have gone extinct at some point in the late Early Cretaceous or early <a href="/facts/Late_Cretaceous/pcHa4fBg">Late Cretaceous</a>. A major change in the Early Cretaceous, which would be amplified in the Late Cretaceous, was the evolution of <a href="/facts/Flowering_plant/E5eGYIvY">flowering plants</a>. At the same time, several groups of dinosaurian herbivores evolved more sophisticated ways to orally process food. Ceratopsians developed a method of slicing with teeth stacked on each other in batteries, and iguanodontians refined a method of grinding with <a href="/facts/Dinosaur_tooth/TYlaCvUS">dental batteries</a>, taken to its extreme in hadrosaurids.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143">143</a> Some sauropods also evolved tooth batteries, best exemplified by the rebbachisaurid <a href="/facts/Nigersaurus/7bv2H04q">Nigersaurus</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144">144</a>
There were three general dinosaur faunas in the Late Cretaceous. In the northern continents of North America and Asia, the major theropods were tyrannosaurids and various types of smaller maniraptoran theropods, with a predominantly ornithischian herbivore assemblage of hadrosaurids, ceratopsians, ankylosaurids, and pachycephalosaurians. In the southern continents that had made up the now-splitting supercontinent <a href="/facts/Gondwana/zqbAvsnY">Gondwana</a>, <a href="/facts/Abelisauridae/nvdLVChd">abelisaurids</a> were the common theropods, and titanosaurian sauropods the common herbivores. Finally, in Europe, dromaeosaurids, <a href="/facts/Rhabdodontidae/DpCLYwW8">rhabdodontid</a> iguanodontians, <a href="/facts/Nodosauridae/SjMEQugE">nodosaurid</a> ankylosaurians, and titanosaurian sauropods were prevalent.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145">145</a> Flowering plants were greatly radiating,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146">146</a> with the first grasses appearing by the end of the Cretaceous.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147">147</a> Grinding hadrosaurids and shearing ceratopsians became very diverse across North America and Asia. Theropods were also radiating as herbivores or <a href="/facts/Omnivore/b8zcsuJF">omnivores</a>, with <a href="/facts/Therizinosauria/0nRMf3uj">therizinosaurians</a> and <a href="/facts/Ornithomimosauria/dLSQzAYl">ornithomimosaurians</a> becoming common.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148">148</a>
The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which occurred approximately 66 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous, caused the extinction of all dinosaur groups except for the neornithine birds. Some other diapsid groups, including <a href="/facts/Crocodilia/G4LbxJs6">crocodilians</a>, <a href="/facts/Dyrosauridae/evDb3744">dyrosaurs</a>, <a href="/facts/Sebecosuchia/D1hMzKrX">sebecosuchians</a>, turtles, <a href="/facts/Lizard/VPCpCwjT">lizards</a>, <a href="/facts/Snake/YhA2gcn0">snakes</a>, <a href="/facts/Rhynchocephalia/WftNntW9">sphenodontians</a>, and <a href="/facts/Choristodera/rTolEzdL">choristoderans</a>, also survived the event.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149">149</a>
The surviving lineages of neornithine birds, including the ancestors of modern <a href="/facts/Ratite/sH93ejKd">ratites</a>, <a href="/facts/Fowl/zePmLrup">ducks and chickens</a>, and a variety of <a href="/facts/Charadriiformes/N6EARGqd">waterbirds</a>, diversified rapidly at the beginning of the <a href="/facts/Paleogene/CNsEpdA4">Paleogene</a> period, entering <a href="/facts/Ecological_niche/YnhNkL2e">ecological niches</a> left vacant by the extinction of Mesozoic dinosaur groups such as the arboreal <a href="/facts/Enantiornithine/kuC8WyFS">enantiornithines</a>, aquatic <a href="/facts/Hesperornithine/DSYcMYYr">hesperornithines</a>, and even the larger terrestrial theropods (in the form of <a href="/facts/Gastornis/6HLFhjGo">Gastornis</a>, <a href="/facts/Eogruidae/dk7ouroV">eogruiids</a>, <a href="/facts/Bathornithids/SJaVMC9J">bathornithids</a>, ratites, <a href="/facts/Geranoididae/mYktsHxL">geranoidids</a>, <a href="/facts/Mihirung/o2oLQXIW">mihirungs</a>, and "<a href="/facts/Terror_bird/2veIN92B">terror birds</a>"). It is often stated that mammals out-competed the neornithines for dominance of most terrestrial niches but many of these groups co-existed with rich mammalian faunas for most of the <a href="/facts/Cenozoic/yFslcz6n">Cenozoic</a> Era.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:150" href="#fn:150">150</a> Terror birds and bathornithids occupied carnivorous guilds alongside predatory mammals,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:151" href="#fn:151">151</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:152" href="#fn:152">152</a> and ratites are still fairly successful as midsized herbivores; eogruiids similarly lasted from the <a href="/facts/Eocene/EYgI8Uco">Eocene</a> to <a href="/facts/Pliocene/MjcIVQ86">Pliocene</a>, becoming extinct only very recently after over 20 million years of co-existence with many mammal groups.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:153" href="#fn:153">153</a>

<h2 id="classification">Classification</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Dinosaur_classification/6YvajuAc">Dinosaur classification</a>

Dinosaurs belong to a group known as archosaurs, which also includes modern crocodilians. Within the archosaur group, dinosaurs are differentiated most noticeably by their gait. Dinosaur legs extend directly beneath the body, whereas the legs of lizards and crocodilians sprawl out to either side.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:154" href="#fn:154">154</a>
Collectively, dinosaurs as a clade are divided into two primary branches, Saurischia and Ornithischia. Saurischia includes those taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with birds than with Ornithischia, while Ornithischia includes all <a href="/facts/Taxon/caQC1e87">taxa</a> sharing a more recent common ancestor with Triceratops than with Saurischia. Anatomically, these two groups can be distinguished most noticeably by their <a href="/facts/Pelvis/8Fq9z3TY">pelvic</a> structure. Early saurischians—"lizard-hipped", from the <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greek/LIK7NlUh">Greek</a> sauros (σαῦρος) meaning "lizard" and ischion (ἰσχίον) meaning "hip joint"—retained the hip structure of their ancestors, with a pubis bone directed <a href="/facts/Anatomical_terms_of_location/IpJ1fq2f">cranially</a>, or forward.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:155" href="#fn:155">155</a> This basic form was modified by rotating the pubis backward to varying degrees in several groups (Herrerasaurus,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:156" href="#fn:156">156</a> therizinosauroids,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:157" href="#fn:157">157</a> dromaeosaurids,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:158" href="#fn:158">158</a> and birds<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:159" href="#fn:159">159</a>). Saurischia includes the theropods (exclusively bipedal and with a wide variety of diets) and sauropodomorphs (long-necked herbivores which include advanced, quadrupedal groups).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:160" href="#fn:160">160</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:161" href="#fn:161">161</a>
By contrast, ornithischians—"bird-hipped", from the Greek ornitheios (ὀρνίθειος) meaning "of a bird" and ischion (ἰσχίον) meaning "hip joint"—had a pelvis that superficially resembled a bird's pelvis: the pubic bone was oriented caudally (rear-pointing). Unlike birds, the ornithischian pubis also usually had an additional forward-pointing process. Ornithischia includes a variety of species that were primarily herbivores.
Despite the terms "bird hip" (Ornithischia) and "lizard hip" (Saurischia), birds are not part of Ornithischia. Birds instead belong to Saurischia, the "lizard-hipped" dinosaurs—birds evolved from earlier dinosaurs with "lizard hips".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:162" href="#fn:162">162</a>

<h3>Taxonomy</h3>

The following is a simplified classification of dinosaur groups based on their evolutionary relationships, and those of the main dinosaur groups Theropoda, Sauropodomorpha and Ornithischia, compiled by Justin Tweet.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:163" href="#fn:163">163</a> Further details and other hypotheses of classification may be found on individual articles.

<ul><li>Dinosauria
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Ornithischia/g1SAFJvB">Ornithischia</a> ("bird-hipped"; diverse bipedal and quadrupedal herbivores)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Saphornithischia/g1SAFJvB">Saphornithischia</a> ("true" ornithischians)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Heterodontosauridae/URBX2qms">Heterodontosauridae</a> (small herbivores/omnivores with prominent <a href="/facts/Canine_tooth/p3mRABtg">canine-like teeth</a>)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Genasauria/3FxuFIjp">Genasauria</a> ("cheeked lizards")
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Thyreophora/QcgHBKbE">Thyreophora</a> (armored dinosaurs; bipeds and quadrupeds)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Eurypoda/QcgHBKbE">Eurypoda</a> (heavy, quadrupedal thyreophorans)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Stegosauria/vLTt2MS1">Stegosauria</a> (spikes and plates as primary armor)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Huayangosauridae/6SAJykXN">Huayangosauridae</a> (small stegosaurs with flank osteoderms and tail clubs)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Stegosauridae/wY55zIN9">Stegosauridae</a> (large stegosaurs)</li></ul></li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Ankylosauria/lXPkLf0e">Ankylosauria</a> (<a href="/facts/Scute/IeqbYure">scutes</a> as primary armor)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Parankylosauria/byQJdG53">Parankylosauria</a> (small, southern ankylosaurs with <a href="/facts/Macuahuitl/X8zWJeHg">macuahuitl</a>-like tails)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Nodosauridae/SjMEQugE">Nodosauridae</a> (mostly spiky, club-less ankylosaurs)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Ankylosauridae/RsePQquY">Ankylosauridae</a> (characterized by flat scutes)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Ankylosaurinae/6j7lP5gh">Ankylosaurinae</a> (club-tailed ankylosaurids)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Neornithischia/qabtbCPT">Neornithischia</a> ("new ornithischians")
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Pyrodontia/qabtbCPT">Pyrodontia</a> ("fire teeth")
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Thescelosauridae/jUqEevu1">Thescelosauridae</a> ("wondrous lizards")
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Orodrominae/F6F0CAo1">Orodrominae</a> (burrowers)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Thescelosaurinae/yIwUFtSx">Thescelosaurinae</a> (large thescelosaurids)</li></ul></li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Cerapoda/KQHUKcqj">Cerapoda</a> ("horned feet")
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Marginocephalia/qWoDcqul">Marginocephalia</a> (characterized by a cranial growth)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Pachycephalosauria/RJAwMtDx">Pachycephalosauria</a> (bipeds with domed or knobby growth on skulls)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Ceratopsia/dQ1v7zFC">Ceratopsia</a> (bipeds and quadrupeds; many had neck frills and horns)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Chaoyangsauridae/kuwbLzow">Chaoyangsauridae</a> (small, frill-less basal ceratopsians)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Neoceratopsia/dQ1v7zFC">Neoceratopsia</a> ("new ceratopsians")
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Leptoceratopsidae/keggzzpw">Leptoceratopsidae</a> (little to no frills, hornless, with robust jaws)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Protoceratopsidae/GQzfcmER">Protoceratopsidae</a> (basal ceratopsians with small frills and stubby horns)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Ceratopsoidea/dQ1v7zFC">Ceratopsoidea</a> (large-horned ceratopsians)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Ceratopsidae/H6zh5uAe">Ceratopsidae</a> (large, elaborately ornamented ceratopsians)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Chasmosaurinae/XV2Pux8E">Chasmosaurinae</a> (ceratopsids with enlarged brow horns)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Centrosaurinae/TA93Tgk5">Centrosaurinae</a> (ceratopsids mostly characterized by frill and nasal ornamentation)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Nasutoceratopsini/TA93Tgk5">Nasutoceratopsini</a> (centrosaurines with enlarged nasal cavities)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Centrosaurini/TA93Tgk5">Centrosaurini</a> (centrosaurines with enlarged nasal horns)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Pachyrhinosaurini/vf6ze7XD">Pachyrhinosaurini</a> (mostly had nasal bosses instead of horns)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Ornithopoda/HpWlQsXI">Ornithopoda</a> (various sizes; bipeds and quadrupeds; evolved a method of chewing using skull flexibility and numerous teeth)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Hypsilophodontidae/fJCCNJY6">Hypsilophodontidae</a> (small European neornithischians)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Iguanodontia/Uqdv6aq3">Iguanodontia</a> ("iguana teeth"; advanced ornithopods)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Rhabdodontomorpha/WGd6FjM3">Rhabdodontomorpha</a> (with distinctive dentition)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Tenontosauridae/WGd6FjM3">Tenontosauridae</a> (North American rhabdodontomorphs; bipeds and quadrupeds)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Rhabdodontidae/DpCLYwW8">Rhabdodontidae</a> (European rhabdodontomorphs)</li></ul></li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Euiguanodontia/Uqdv6aq3">Euiguanodontia</a> ("true iguanodonts")
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Elasmaria/DpFRV6hj">Elasmaria</a> (mostly southern ornithopods with mineralized plates along the ribs; may be thescelosaurids)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Dryomorpha/Uqdv6aq3">Dryomorpha</a> (<a href="/facts/Dryosaurus/3boFY4yN">Dryosaurus</a> and more advanced ornithopods)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Dryosauridae/UCjgx1gL">Dryosauridae</a> (mid-sized, small headed)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Ankylopollexia/w7EcjXJ3">Ankylopollexia</a> (early members mid-sized, stocky)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Styracosterna/w7EcjXJ3">Styracosterna</a> ("spiked <a href="/facts/Sternum/qIPMpyIz">sterna</a>")
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Hadrosauriformes/w7EcjXJ3">Hadrosauriformes</a> (ancestrally had a thumb spike; large quadrupedal herbivores, with teeth merged into dental batteries)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Hadrosauromorpha/sUv1Cbox">Hadrosauromorpha</a> (hadrosaurids and their closest relatives)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Hadrosauridae/v4t7JSPB">Hadrosauridae</a> ("duck-billed dinosaurs"; often with crests)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Saurolophinae/6bjxGDg9">Saurolophinae</a> (hadrosaurids with solid, small, no crests)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Brachylophosaurini/rBl1B6lL">Brachylophosaurini</a> (short-crested)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Kritosaurini/1LKmgQ6b">Kritosaurini</a> (enlarged, solid nasal crests)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Saurolophini/WX500L3M">Saurolophini</a> (small, spike-like crests)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Edmontosaurini/zA2Fzly5">Edmontosaurini</a> (flat-headed saurolophines)</li></ul></li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Lambeosaurinae/spWvHLLV">Lambeosaurinae</a> (hadrosaurids often with hollow crests)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Aralosaurini/spWvHLLV">Aralosaurini</a> (solid-crested)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Tsintaosaurini/jI88dTLj">Tsintaosaurini</a> (vertical, tube-like crests)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Parasaurolophini/lxzjzVgS">Parasaurolophini</a> (long, backwards-arcing crests)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Lambeosaurini/CQEStaUV">Lambeosaurini</a> (usually rounded crests)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Saurischia/6DNGvpdt">Saurischia</a>
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Herrerasauridae/mzHIFXRA">Herrerasauridae</a> (early bipedal carnivores)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Sauropodomorpha/7DBPqQGD">Sauropodomorpha</a> (herbivores with small heads, long necks, and long tails)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Unaysauridae/qsHxphKQ">Unaysauridae</a> (primitive, strictly bipedal "prosauropods")</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Plateosauria/L6F7evNM">Plateosauria</a> (diverse; bipeds and quadrupeds)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Massopoda/p4US5QoE">Massopoda</a> ("heavy feet")
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Massospondylidae/NoQbNAsW">Massospondylidae</a> (long-necked, primitive sauropodomorphs)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Riojasauridae/zFTLpSzk">Riojasauridae</a> (large, primitive sauropodomorphs)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Sauropodiformes/p4US5QoE">Sauropodiformes</a> (heavy, bipeds and quadrupeds)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Sauropoda/8Iqh2yEJ">Sauropoda</a> (very large and heavy; quadrupedal)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Lessemsauridae/YndFT9jM">Lessemsauridae</a> (gigantic yet lacking several weight-saving adaptations)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Gravisauria/dzHGUV44">Gravisauria</a> ("heavy lizards")
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Eusauropoda/m8Hdxaj6">Eusauropoda</a> ("true sauropods")
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Turiasauria/F00pjfKl">Turiasauria</a> (often large, widespread sauropods)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Neosauropoda/VKCTrnpb">Neosauropoda</a> ("new sauropods"; columnar limbs)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Diplodocoidea/E0LLLrM1">Diplodocoidea</a> (skulls and tails elongated; teeth typically narrow and pencil-like)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Rebbachisauridae/PdCeUyps">Rebbachisauridae</a> (short-necked, low-browsing diplodocoids often with high backs)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Flagellicaudata/5D8MPsH1">Flagellicaudata</a> (whip-tailed)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Dicraeosauridae/f1oW63DL">Dicraeosauridae</a> (small, short-necked diplodocoids with enlarged cervical and dorsal vertebrae)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Diplodocidae/mlAf9XxS">Diplodocidae</a> (extremely long-necked)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Apatosaurinae/oUxNQzFA">Apatosaurinae</a> (robust cervical vertebrae)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Diplodocinae/J00aPh4I">Diplodocinae</a> (long, thin necks)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Macronaria/hVUUq8XG">Macronaria</a> (boxy skulls; spoon- or pencil-shaped teeth)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Titanosauriformes/hVUUq8XG">Titanosauriformes</a> ("titan lizard forms")
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Brachiosauridae/oF1A3GsE">Brachiosauridae</a> (long-necked, long-armed macronarians)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Somphospondyli/YQz4Q3vs">Somphospondyli</a> ("porous vertebrae")
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Euhelopodidae/AWmKvnlv">Euhelopodidae</a> (stocky, mostly Asian)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Diamantinasauria/HGsb9BGy">Diamantinasauria</a> (horse-like skulls; restricted to the Southern Hemisphere; may be titanosaurs)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Titanosauria/QzkgrcQR">Titanosauria</a> (diverse; stocky, with wide hips; most common in the Late Cretaceous of southern continents)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Theropoda/KUzy1Ef7">Theropoda</a> (carnivorous)
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Neotheropoda/W0bvBAmu">Neotheropoda</a> ("new theropods")
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Coelophysoidea/GreSH28I">Coelophysoidea</a> (early theropods; includes <a href="/facts/Coelophysis/jKgnr3Gu">Coelophysis</a> and close relatives)</li>
<li>†"Dilophosaur-grade neotheropods" (larger kink-snouted dinosaurs)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Averostra/u9J6RhBV">Averostra</a> ("bird snouts")
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Ceratosauria/1tK9tzVV">Ceratosauria</a> (generally elaborately horned carnivores that existed from the Jurassic to Cretaceous periods, originally included Coelophysoidea)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Ceratosauridae/xPAzTADq">Ceratosauridae</a> (ceratosaurs with large teeth)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Abelisauroidea/DCaHbwLG">Abelisauroidea</a> (ceratosaurs exemplified by reduced arms and hands)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Abelisauridae/nvdLVChd">Abelisauridae</a> (large abelisauroids with short arms and oftentimes elaborate facial ornamentation)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Noasauridae/Y0GvhPX7">Noasauridae</a> (diverse, generally light theropods; may include several obscure taxa)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Elaphrosaurinae/Y0GvhPX7">Elaphrosaurinae</a> (bird-like; omnivorous as juveniles but herbivorous as adults)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Noasaurinae/Y0GvhPX7">Noasaurinae</a> (small carnivores)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Tetanurae/X7Tq6exH">Tetanurae</a> (stiff-tailed dinosaurs)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Megalosauroidea/vN0JzGxU">Megalosauroidea</a> (early group of large carnivores)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Piatnitzkysauridae/peh8PpqJ">Piatnitzkysauridae</a> (small basal megalosauroids endemic to the Americas)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Megalosauridae/WmlWjTbL">Megalosauridae</a> (large megalosauroids with powerful arms and hands)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Spinosauridae/tSVdMTgf">Spinosauridae</a> (crocodile-like, semiaquatic carnivores)</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Avetheropoda/DNK8rbhD">Avetheropoda</a> ("bird theropods")
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Carnosauria/yau5DVL8">Carnosauria</a> (large meat-eating dinosaurs; megalosauroids sometimes included)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Metriacanthosauridae/IyLHHuQr">Metriacanthosauridae</a> (primitive Asian allosauroids)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Allosauridae/8wu8p70X">Allosauridae</a> (<a href="/facts/Allosaurus/tV8XJreT">Allosaurus</a> and its very closest relatives)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Carcharodontosauridae/aIbjVut0">Carcharodontosauridae</a> (robust allosauroids; includes some of the largest purely terrestrial carnivores)</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Coelurosauria/X8HRbjJI">Coelurosauria</a> (feathered theropods, with a range of body sizes and niches)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Megaraptora/lyJ9jAl3">Megaraptora</a>? (theropods with large hand claws; potentially tyrannosauroids or neovenatorids)</li>
<li>†"Nexus of basal coelurosaurs" (used by Tweet to denote well-known taxa with unstable positions at the base of Coelurosauria)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Tyrannoraptora/P9vlSqnI">Tyrannoraptora</a> ("tyrant thieves")
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Tyrannosauroidea/sIUowTnq">Tyrannosauroidea</a> (mostly large, primitive coelurosaurs)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Proceratosauridae/pNy7H2lY">Proceratosauridae</a> (tyrannosauroids with head crests)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Tyrannosauridae/6Dm2ljv7">Tyrannosauridae</a> (<a href="/facts/Tyrannosaurus/HQw1cywX">Tyrannosaurus</a> and close relatives)</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Maniraptoriformes/5vm9Xez9">Maniraptoriformes</a> (bird-like dinosaurs)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Ornithomimosauria/dLSQzAYl">Ornithomimosauria</a> (small-headed, mostly toothless, omnivorous or possible herbivores)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Ornithomimidae/8jyWktbk">Ornithomimidae</a> (very ostrich-like dinosaurs)</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Maniraptora/X0NxnsBy">Maniraptora</a> (dinosaurs with pennaceous feathers)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Alvarezsauroidea/WNUSlH0w">Alvarezsauroidea</a> (small hunters with reduced forelimbs)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Alvarezsauridae/9SYHLNg8">Alvarezsauridae</a> (insectivores with only one enlarged digit)</li></ul></li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Therizinosauria/0nRMf3uj">Therizinosauria</a> (tall, long-necked theropods; omnivores and herbivores)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Therizinosauroidea/0nRMf3uj">Therizinosauroidea</a> (larger therizinosaurs)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Therizinosauridae/s4ASc0bT">Therizinosauridae</a> (sloth-like herbivores, often with enlarged claws)</li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Oviraptorosauria/C6puS7KW">Oviraptorosauria</a> (omnivorous, beaked dinosaurs)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Caudipteridae/zejDEcxy">Caudipteridae</a> (bird-like, basal oviraptorosaurs)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Caenagnathoidea/LmRkGfDc">Caenagnathoidea</a> (cassowary-like oviraptorosaurs)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Caenagnathidae/EvjD5dAN">Caenagnathidae</a> (toothless oviraptorosaurs known from North America and Asia)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Oviraptoridae/lhJLvvTb">Oviraptoridae</a> (characterized by two bony projections at the back of the mouth; exclusive to Asia)</li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Paraves/LB00ptV1">Paraves</a> (avialans and their closest relatives)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Scansoriopterygidae/KqPfqRka">Scansoriopterygidae</a> (small tree-climbing theropods with membranous wings)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Deinonychosauria/mSuUHxz8">Deinonychosauria</a> (toe-clawed dinosaurs; may not form a natural group)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Archaeopterygidae/dCrAgVeV">Archaeopterygidae</a> (small, winged theropods or primitive birds)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Troodontidae/TXa3nahN">Troodontidae</a> (omnivores; enlarged brain cavities)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Dromaeosauridae/mLeNBfBQ">Dromaeosauridae</a> ("raptors")
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Microraptoria/H9lKd8KY">Microraptoria</a> (characterized by large wings on both the arms and legs; may have been capable of powered flight)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Eudromaeosauria/6g3X1afY">Eudromaeosauria</a> (hunters with greatly enlarged sickle claws)</li></ul></li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Unenlagiidae/Yano6IgU">Unenlagiidae</a> (piscivores; may be dromaeosaurids)
<ul><li>†<a href="/facts/Halszkaraptorinae/clbxmpnp">Halszkaraptorinae</a> (duck-like; potentially semiaquatic)</li>
<li>†<a href="/facts/Unenlagiinae/aFt14Xr5">Unenlagiinae</a> (long-snouted)</li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Avialae/0296eLy8">Avialae</a> (modern birds and extinct relatives)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>
<h3>Timeline of major groups</h3>
Timeline of major dinosaur groups per Holtz (2007).

<h2 id="paleobiology">Paleobiology</h2>
Knowledge about dinosaurs is derived from a variety of fossil and non-fossil records, including fossilized bones, <a href="/facts/Feces/r9HDKB8G">feces</a>, <a href="/facts/Fossil_trackway/l6B0fCXB">trackways</a>, <a href="/facts/Gastrolith/UTwaaJIj">gastroliths</a>, <a href="/facts/Feather/sxbf96nF">feathers</a>, impressions of skin, <a href="/facts/Organ_(anatomy)/FUYsLaxz">internal organs</a> and other <a href="/facts/Soft_tissue/cHBwqLpP">soft tissues</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:164" href="#fn:164">164</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:165" href="#fn:165">165</a> Many fields of study contribute to our understanding of dinosaurs, including <a href="/facts/Physics/a7aH2y08">physics</a> (especially <a href="/facts/Biomechanics/H4qnnmu5">biomechanics</a>), <a href="/facts/Chemistry/SrNqkGVm">chemistry</a>, <a href="/facts/Biology/1M1ee3pB">biology</a>, and the <a href="/facts/Earth_science/rQsXCSbM">Earth sciences</a> (of which <a href="/facts/Paleontology/60n5yldd">paleontology</a> is a sub-discipline).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:166" href="#fn:166">166</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:167" href="#fn:167">167</a> Two topics of particular interest and study have been dinosaur size and behavior.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:168" href="#fn:168">168</a>

<h3>Size</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Dinosaur_size/anntYrSp">Dinosaur size</a>

Current evidence suggests that dinosaur average size varied through the Triassic, Early Jurassic, Late Jurassic and Cretaceous.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:169" href="#fn:169">169</a> Predatory theropod dinosaurs, which occupied most terrestrial carnivore niches during the Mesozoic, most often fall into the 100-to-1,000 kg (220-to-2,200 lb) category when sorted by estimated weight into categories based on <a href="/facts/Order_of_magnitude/cWzRP2dM">order of magnitude</a>, whereas <a href="/facts/Holocene/sppPgwW5">recent</a> predatory carnivoran mammals peak in the 10-to-100 kg (22-to-220 lb) category.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:170" href="#fn:170">170</a> The <a href="/facts/Mode_(statistics)/vq5tGp0G">mode</a> of Mesozoic dinosaur body masses is between 1 and 10 metric tons (1.1 and 11.0 short tons).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:171" href="#fn:171">171</a> This contrasts sharply with the average size of Cenozoic mammals, estimated by the <a href="/facts/National_Museum_of_Natural_History/nn6mUbfE">National Museum of Natural History</a> as about 2 to 5 kg (4.4 to 11.0 lb).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:172" href="#fn:172">172</a>
The sauropods were the largest and heaviest dinosaurs. For much of the dinosaur era, the smallest sauropods were larger than anything else in their habitat, and the largest was an order of magnitude more massive than anything else that has since walked the Earth. Giant prehistoric mammals such as <a href="/facts/Paraceratherium/cPJRQhpn">Paraceratherium</a> (the largest land mammal ever) were dwarfed by the giant sauropods, and only modern whales approach or surpass them in size.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:173" href="#fn:173">173</a> There are several proposed advantages for the large size of sauropods, including protection from predation, reduction of energy use, and longevity, but it may be that the most important advantage was dietary. Large animals are more efficient at digestion than small animals, because food spends more time in their digestive systems. This also permits them to subsist on food with lower nutritive value than smaller animals. Sauropod remains are mostly found in rock formations interpreted as dry or seasonally dry, and the ability to eat large quantities of low-nutrient browse would have been advantageous in such environments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:174" href="#fn:174">174</a>

<h4>Largest and smallest</h4>
Scientists will probably never be certain of the <a href="/facts/Largest_organisms/F3HjLlq7">largest and smallest dinosaurs</a> to have ever existed. This is because only a tiny percentage of animals were ever fossilized and most of these remain buried in the earth. Few non-avian dinosaur specimens that are recovered are complete skeletons, and impressions of skin and other soft tissues are rare. Rebuilding a complete skeleton by comparing the size and morphology of bones to those of similar, better-known species is an inexact art, and reconstructing the muscles and other organs of the living animal is, at best, a process of educated guesswork.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:175" href="#fn:175">175</a>

The tallest and heaviest dinosaur known from good skeletons is <a href="/facts/Giraffatitan/EVLY4YuF">Giraffatitan brancai</a> (previously classified as a species of <a href="/facts/Brachiosaurus/1ArBJ1V5">Brachiosaurus</a>). Its remains were discovered in Tanzania between 1907 and 1912. Bones from several similar-sized individuals were incorporated into the skeleton now mounted and on display at the <a href="/facts/Natural_History_Museum%2c_Berlin/BhHaRTHW">Museum für Naturkunde</a> in <a href="/facts/Berlin/pMTIRNXK">Berlin</a>;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:176" href="#fn:176">176</a> this mount is 12 meters (39 ft) tall and 21.8 to 22.5 meters (72 to 74 ft) long,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:177" href="#fn:177">177</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:178" href="#fn:178">178</a> and would have belonged to an animal that weighed between 30000 and 60000 kilograms (70000 and 130000 lb). The longest complete dinosaur is the 27 meters (89 ft) long Diplodocus, which was discovered in <a href="/facts/Wyoming/kuKmWryL">Wyoming</a> in the <a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a> and displayed in <a href="/facts/Pittsburgh/42yPHyS0">Pittsburgh</a>'s <a href="/facts/Carnegie_Museum_of_Natural_History/1pRyayoa">Carnegie Museum of Natural History</a> in 1907.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:179" href="#fn:179">179</a> The longest dinosaur known from good fossil material is <a href="/facts/Patagotitan/SQVT4o34">Patagotitan</a>: the skeleton mount in the American Museum of Natural History in <a href="/facts/New_York_City/YlyvFmVC">New York</a> is 37 meters (121 ft) long. The <a href="/facts/Museo_Carmen_Funes/3Pe7KzWB">Museo Municipal Carmen Funes</a> in <a href="/facts/Plaza_Huincul/dgQuPPTF">Plaza Huincul</a>, Argentina, has an <a href="/facts/Argentinosaurus/BhHKhnXB">Argentinosaurus</a> reconstructed skeleton mount that is 39.7 meters (130 ft) long.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:180" href="#fn:180">180</a>

There were larger dinosaurs, but knowledge of them is based entirely on a small number of fragmentary fossils. Most of the largest herbivorous specimens on record were discovered in the 1970s or later, and include the massive Argentinosaurus, which may have weighed 80000 to 100000 kilograms (88 to 110 short tons) and reached lengths of 30 to 40 meters (98 to 131 ft); some of the longest were the 33.5-meter (110 ft) long Diplodocus hallorum<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:181" href="#fn:181">181</a> (formerly Seismosaurus), the 33-to-34-meter (108 to 112 ft) long <a href="/facts/Supersaurus/0YL7lXtj">Supersaurus</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:182" href="#fn:182">182</a> and 37-meter (121 ft) long Patagotitan; and the tallest, the 18-meter (59 ft) tall <a href="/facts/Sauroposeidon/dWYxjBbf">Sauroposeidon</a>, which could have reached a sixth-floor window. There were a few dinosaurs that was considered either the heaviest and longest. The most famous one include <a href="/facts/Amphicoelias_fragillimus/IDxvpgQx">Amphicoelias fragillimus</a>, known only from a now lost partial vertebral <a href="/facts/Vertebra/qAdLhD5H">neural arch</a> described in 1878. Extrapolating from the illustration of this bone, the animal may have been 58 meters (190 ft) long and weighed 122400 kg (269800 lb).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:183" href="#fn:183">183</a> However, recent research have placed Amphicoelias from the long, gracile diplodocid to the shorter but much stockier rebbachisaurid. Now renamed as <a href="/facts/Maraapunisaurus/IDxvpgQx">Maraapunisaurus</a>, this sauropod now stands as much as 40 meters (130 ft) long and weigh as much as 120000 kg (260000 lb).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:184" href="#fn:184">184</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:185" href="#fn:185">185</a> Another contender of this title includes <a href="/facts/Bruhathkayosaurus/gx1Pk81P">Bruhathkayosaurus</a>, a controversial taxon that was recently confirmed to exist after archived photos were uncovered.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:186" href="#fn:186">186</a> Bruhathkayosaurus was a titanosaur and would have most likely weighed more than even Marrapunisaurus. Recent size estimates in 2023 have placed this sauropod reaching lengths of up to 44 m (144 ft) long and a colossal weight range of around 110000–170000 kg (240000–370000 lb), if these upper estimates up true, Bruhathkayosaurus would have rivaled the <a href="/facts/Blue_whale/CSlRTeCf">blue whale</a> and <a href="/facts/Perucetus_colossus/p3ddvLR4">Perucetus colossus</a> as one of the largest animals to have ever existed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:187" href="#fn:187">187</a>
The largest carnivorous dinosaur was <a href="/facts/Spinosaurus/IvsBfae8">Spinosaurus</a>, reaching a length of 12.6 to 18 meters (41 to 59 ft) and weighing 7 to 20.9 metric tons (7.7 to 23.0 short tons).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:188" href="#fn:188">188</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:189" href="#fn:189">189</a> Other large carnivorous theropods included <a href="/facts/Giganotosaurus/BNlEobvq">Giganotosaurus</a>, <a href="/facts/Carcharodontosaurus/hVqQPJSU">Carcharodontosaurus</a>, and Tyrannosaurus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:190" href="#fn:190">190</a> <a href="/facts/Therizinosaurus/arRYKIkn">Therizinosaurus</a> and <a href="/facts/Deinocheirus/hQH4UtLf">Deinocheirus</a> were among the tallest of the theropods. The largest ornithischian dinosaur was probably the hadrosaurid <a href="/facts/Shantungosaurus/J2rcrn13">Shantungosaurus giganteus</a> which measured 16.6 meters (54 ft).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:191" href="#fn:191">191</a> The largest individuals may have weighed as much as 16 metric tons (18 short tons).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:192" href="#fn:192">192</a>

The smallest dinosaur known is the <a href="/facts/Bee_hummingbird/CoxjXjKw">bee hummingbird</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:193" href="#fn:193">193</a> with a length of only 5 centimeters (2.0 in) and mass of around 1.8 g (0.063 oz).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:194" href="#fn:194">194</a> The smallest known non-<a href="/facts/Avialae/0296eLy8">avialan</a> dinosaurs were about the size of <a href="/facts/Pigeon/HXY1GUHj">pigeons</a> and were those theropods most closely related to birds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:195" href="#fn:195">195</a> For example, <a href="/facts/Anchiornis_huxleyi/XjsIebUD">Anchiornis huxleyi</a> is currently the smallest non-avialan dinosaur described from an adult specimen, with an estimated weight of 110 g (3.9 oz)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:196" href="#fn:196">196</a> and a total skeletal length of 34 centimeters (1.12 ft).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:197" href="#fn:197">197</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:198" href="#fn:198">198</a> The smallest herbivorous non-avialan dinosaurs included <a href="/facts/Microceratus/MDgLzGBp">Microceratus</a> and <a href="/facts/Wannanosaurus/l2dU9wjo">Wannanosaurus</a>, at about 60 centimeters (2.0 ft) long each.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:199" href="#fn:199">199</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:200" href="#fn:200">200</a>

<h3>Behavior</h3>

Many modern birds are highly social, often found living in flocks. There is general agreement that some behaviors that are common in birds, as well as in <a href="/facts/Crocodilian/G4LbxJs6">crocodilians</a> (closest living relatives of birds), were also common among extinct dinosaur groups. Interpretations of behavior in fossil species are generally based on the pose of skeletons and their <a href="/facts/Habitat_(ecology)/zo1DN2gA">habitat</a>, <a href="/facts/Computer_simulation/Re6o8vzN">computer simulations</a> of their biomechanics, and comparisons with modern animals in similar ecological niches.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:201" href="#fn:201">201</a>
The first potential evidence for <a href="/facts/Herd/czxLCvzS">herding</a> or <a href="/facts/Flocking_(behavior)/85glY8w2">flocking</a> as a widespread behavior common to many dinosaur groups in addition to birds was the 1878 discovery of 31 Iguanodon, ornithischians that were then thought to have perished together in <a href="/facts/Bernissart/s9RAVgDW">Bernissart</a>, <a href="/facts/Belgium/YKuMXP5j">Belgium</a>, after they fell into a deep, flooded <a href="/facts/Sinkhole/yrjCajL2">sinkhole</a> and drowned.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:202" href="#fn:202">202</a> Other mass-death sites have been discovered subsequently. Those, along with multiple trackways, suggest that gregarious behavior was common in many early dinosaur species. Trackways of hundreds or even thousands of herbivores indicate that duck-billed (hadrosaurids) may have moved in great herds, like the <a href="/facts/American_bison/PLIRhjkw">American bison</a> or the African <a href="/facts/Springbok/5oExV2fb">springbok</a>. Sauropod tracks document that these animals traveled in groups composed of several different species, at least in <a href="/facts/Oxfordshire/dc4jQkHB">Oxfordshire</a>, England,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:203" href="#fn:203">203</a> although there is no evidence for specific herd structures.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:204" href="#fn:204">204</a> Congregating into herds may have evolved for defense, for <a href="/facts/Bird_migration/GvraPhgn">migratory</a> purposes, or to provide protection for young. There is evidence that many types of slow-growing dinosaurs, including various theropods, sauropods, ankylosaurians, ornithopods, and ceratopsians, formed aggregations of immature individuals. One example is a site in <a href="/facts/Inner_Mongolia/6nlXuwM9">Inner Mongolia</a> that has yielded remains of over 20 <a href="/facts/Sinornithomimus/CaNvXoB7">Sinornithomimus</a>, from one to seven years old. This assemblage is interpreted as a social group that was trapped in mud.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:205" href="#fn:205">205</a> The interpretation of dinosaurs as gregarious has also extended to depicting carnivorous theropods as <a href="/facts/Pack_hunter/6RsBsxyw">pack hunters</a> working together to bring down large prey.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:206" href="#fn:206">206</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:207" href="#fn:207">207</a> However, this lifestyle is uncommon among modern birds, crocodiles, and other reptiles, and the <a href="/facts/Taphonomy/x4zxN2Hm">taphonomic</a> evidence suggesting mammal-like pack hunting in such theropods as Deinonychus and <a href="/facts/Allosaurus/tV8XJreT">Allosaurus</a> can also be interpreted as the results of fatal disputes between feeding animals, as is seen in many modern diapsid predators.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:208" href="#fn:208">208</a>

The crests and frills of some dinosaurs, like the <a href="/facts/Marginocephalia/qWoDcqul">marginocephalians</a>, theropods and <a href="/facts/Lambeosaurinae/spWvHLLV">lambeosaurines</a>, may have been too fragile to be used for active defense, and so they were likely used for sexual or aggressive displays, though little is known about dinosaur mating and <a href="/facts/Territory_(animal)/T15S7XeD">territorialism</a>. Head wounds from bites suggest that theropods, at least, engaged in active aggressive confrontations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:209" href="#fn:209">209</a>
From a behavioral standpoint, one of the most valuable dinosaur fossils was discovered in the <a href="/facts/Gobi_Desert/Cgrf8RPQ">Gobi Desert</a> in 1971. It included a <a href="/facts/Velociraptor/KuXnwgjC">Velociraptor</a> attacking a <a href="/facts/Protoceratops/92vkVmKg">Protoceratops</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:210" href="#fn:210">210</a> providing evidence that dinosaurs did indeed attack each other.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:211" href="#fn:211">211</a> Additional evidence for attacking live prey is the partially healed tail of an <a href="/facts/Edmontosaurus/QQaA9hwo">Edmontosaurus</a>, a hadrosaurid dinosaur; the tail is damaged in such a way that shows the animal was bitten by a tyrannosaur but survived.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:212" href="#fn:212">212</a> <a href="/facts/Cannibalism_(zoology)/eKhe7wT9">Cannibalism</a> amongst some species of dinosaurs was confirmed by tooth marks found in <a href="/facts/Madagascar/ez12IAcY">Madagascar</a> in 2003, involving the theropod <a href="/facts/Majungasaurus/3TSR0Duk">Majungasaurus</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:213" href="#fn:213">213</a>
Comparisons between the <a href="/facts/Sclerotic_ring/sSvpB8jC">scleral rings</a> of dinosaurs and modern birds and reptiles have been used to infer daily activity patterns of dinosaurs. Although it has been suggested that most dinosaurs were active during the day, these comparisons have shown that small predatory dinosaurs such as dromaeosaurids, <a href="/facts/Juravenator/nmF6bzFB">Juravenator</a>, and <a href="/facts/Megapnosaurus/PVHwYo5Y">Megapnosaurus</a> were likely <a href="/facts/Nocturnal/PqAkbpKf">nocturnal</a>. Large and medium-sized herbivorous and omnivorous dinosaurs such as ceratopsians, sauropodomorphs, hadrosaurids, ornithomimosaurs may have been <a href="/facts/Cathemeral/PJlvSExV">cathemeral</a>, active during short intervals throughout the day, although the small ornithischian <a href="/facts/Agilisaurus/HjbMpv0g">Agilisaurus</a> was inferred to be <a href="/facts/Diurnality/GgXnXvN7">diurnal</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:214" href="#fn:214">214</a>
Based on fossil evidence from dinosaurs such as <a href="/facts/Oryctodromeus/PGqXJbhE">Oryctodromeus</a>, some ornithischian species seem to have led a partially <a href="/facts/Fossorial/98TbrC3h">fossorial</a> (burrowing) lifestyle.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:215" href="#fn:215">215</a> Many modern birds are <a href="/facts/Arboreal/6C5AeQ2y">arboreal</a> (tree climbing), and this was also true of many Mesozoic birds, especially the enantiornithines.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:216" href="#fn:216">216</a> While some early bird-like species may have already been arboreal as well (including dromaeosaurids) such as Microraptor<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:217" href="#fn:217">217</a>) most non-avialan dinosaurs seem to have relied on land-based locomotion. A good understanding of how dinosaurs moved on the ground is key to models of dinosaur behavior; the science of biomechanics, pioneered by <a href="/facts/Robert_McNeill_Alexander/5HVP6tVh">Robert McNeill Alexander</a>, has provided significant insight in this area. For example, studies of the forces exerted by muscles and gravity on dinosaurs' skeletal structure have investigated how fast dinosaurs could run,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:218" href="#fn:218">218</a> whether <a href="/facts/Diplodocid/mlAf9XxS">diplodocids</a> could create <a href="/facts/Sonic_boom/Hfnr1Vlz">sonic booms</a> via <a href="/facts/Whip/BlfWKzBE">whip</a>-like tail snapping,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:219" href="#fn:219">219</a> and whether sauropods could float.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:220" href="#fn:220">220</a>

<h3>Communication</h3>
Modern birds <a href="/facts/Animal_communication/nHBjVw3c">communicate</a> by visual and auditory signals, and the wide diversity of visual display structures among fossil dinosaur groups, such as horns, frills, crests, sails, and feathers, suggests that visual communication has always been important in dinosaur biology.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:221" href="#fn:221">221</a> Reconstruction of the plumage color of Anchiornis suggest the importance of color in visual communication in non-avian dinosaurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:222" href="#fn:222">222</a> Vocalization in non-avian dinosaurs is less certain. In birds, the <a href="/facts/Larynx/0bhtXI3Q">larynx</a> plays no role in sound production. Instead, birds vocalize with a novel organ, the <a href="/facts/Syrinx_(bird_anatomy)/INRhzG7D">syrinx</a>, farther down the trachea.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:223" href="#fn:223">223</a> The earliest remains of a syrinx were found in a specimen of the duck-like <a href="/facts/Vegavis/npbEk41C">Vegavis iaai</a> dated 69 –66 million years ago, and this organ is unlikely to have existed in non-avian dinosaurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:224" href="#fn:224">224</a>

On the basis that non-avian dinosaurs did not have syrinxes and that their next close living relatives, crocodilians, use the larynx, Phil Senter, a paleontologist, has suggested that the non-avians could not vocalize, because the common ancestor would have been mute. He states that they mostly on visual displays and possibly non-vocal sounds, such as hissing, jaw-grinding or -clapping, splashing, and wing-beating (possible in winged maniraptoran dinosaurs).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:225" href="#fn:225">225</a> Other researchers have countered that vocalizations also exist in turtles, the closest relatives of archosaurs, suggesting that the trait is ancestral to their lineage. In addition, vocal communication in dinosaurs is indicated by the development of advanced hearing in nearly all major groups. Hence the syrinx may have supplemented and then replaced the larynx as a vocal organ, without a "silent period" in bird evolution.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:226" href="#fn:226">226</a>
In 2023, a fossilized larynx was described, from a specimen of the ankylosaurid <a href="/facts/Pinacosaurus/QEH2nHgV">Pinacosaurus</a>. The structure was composed of <a href="/facts/Cricoid_cartilage/p4MbcphV">cricoid</a> and <a href="/facts/Arytenoid_cartilage/BEzTMYI0">arytenoid cartilages</a>, similar to those of non-avian reptiles; but the mobile cricoid–arytenoid joint and long arytenoid cartilages would have allowed air-flow control similar to that of birds, and thus could have made bird-like vocalizations. In addition, the cartilages were <a href="/facts/Ossification/6ETh4tp8">ossified</a>, implying that laryngeal ossification is a feature of some non-avian dinosaurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:227" href="#fn:227">227</a> A 2016 study concludes that some dinosaurs may have produced closed-mouth vocalizations, such as cooing, hooting, and booming. These occur in both reptiles and birds and involve inflating the esophagus or tracheal pouches. Such vocalizations evolved independently in extant archosaurs numerous times, following increases in body size.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:228" href="#fn:228">228</a> The crests of some hadrosaurids and the nasal chambers of ankylosaurids may have been <a href="/facts/Acoustic_resonance/BExhpHGK">resonators</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:229" href="#fn:229">229</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:230" href="#fn:230">230</a>

<h3>Reproductive biology</h3>
See also: <a href="/facts/Dinosaur_egg/bBypgTYQ">Dinosaur egg</a>

All dinosaurs laid <a href="/facts/Amniote/TeLtDTrJ">amniotic eggs</a>. Dinosaur eggs were usually laid in a nest. Most species create somewhat elaborate nests which can be cups, domes, plates, beds scrapes, mounds, or burrows.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:231" href="#fn:231">231</a> Some species of modern bird have no nests; the cliff-nesting <a href="/facts/Common_murre/4XfgSyS9">common guillemot</a> lays its eggs on bare rock, and male <a href="/facts/Emperor_penguin/1l9aAH64">emperor penguins</a> keep eggs between their body and feet. Primitive birds and many non-avialan dinosaurs often lay eggs in communal nests, with males primarily incubating the eggs. While modern birds have only one functional <a href="/facts/Oviduct/JRHneIPq">oviduct</a> and lay one egg at a time, more primitive birds and dinosaurs had two oviducts, like crocodiles. Some non-avialan dinosaurs, such as <a href="/facts/Troodon/cRJams94">Troodon</a>, exhibited iterative laying, where the adult might lay a pair of eggs every one or two days, and then ensured simultaneous hatching by delaying <a href="/facts/Broodiness/kDYMTtGw">brooding</a> until all eggs were laid.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:232" href="#fn:232">232</a>
When laying eggs, females grow a special type of bone between the hard outer bone and the <a href="/facts/Bone_marrow/4dfudk0H">marrow</a> of their limbs. This medullary bone, which is rich in <a href="/facts/Calcium/hf252CC0">calcium</a>, is used to make eggshells. A discovery of features in a Tyrannosaurus skeleton provided evidence of medullary bone in extinct dinosaurs and, for the first time, allowed paleontologists to establish the sex of a fossil dinosaur specimen. Further research has found medullary bone in the carnosaur Allosaurus and the ornithopod <a href="/facts/Tenontosaurus/LUBwzuYd">Tenontosaurus</a>. Because the line of dinosaurs that includes Allosaurus and Tyrannosaurus diverged from the line that led to Tenontosaurus very early in the evolution of dinosaurs, this suggests that the production of medullary tissue is a general characteristic of all dinosaurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:233" href="#fn:233">233</a>

Another widespread trait among modern birds (but see below in regards to fossil groups and extant <a href="/facts/Megapodes/t8sJxze5">megapodes</a>) is parental care for young after hatching. <a href="/facts/Jack_Horner_(paleontologist)/YfVGy8Be">Jack Horner's</a> 1978 discovery of a <a href="/facts/Maiasaura/6eqMzunc">Maiasaura</a> ("good mother lizard") nesting ground in Montana demonstrated that parental care continued long after birth among ornithopods.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:234" href="#fn:234">234</a> A specimen of the <a href="/facts/Oviraptoridae/lhJLvvTb">oviraptorid</a> <a href="/facts/Citipati/GweLC0pc">Citipati osmolskae</a> was discovered in a <a href="/facts/Chicken/RD2eTd83">chicken-like brooding position</a> in 1993,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:235" href="#fn:235">235</a> which may indicate that they had begun using an insulating layer of feathers to keep the eggs warm.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:236" href="#fn:236">236</a> An embryo of the basal sauropodomorph <a href="/facts/Massospondylus/okmMmoBX">Massospondylus</a> was found without teeth, indicating that some parental care was required to feed the young dinosaurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:237" href="#fn:237">237</a> Trackways have also confirmed parental behavior among ornithopods from the <a href="/facts/Isle_of_Skye/BcR9pSrw">Isle of Skye</a> in northwestern <a href="/facts/Scotland/VGwbbxB2">Scotland</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:238" href="#fn:238">238</a>
However, there is ample evidence of <a href="/facts/Precociality/Ck0Floj2">precociality</a> or <a href="/facts/Precociality/Ck0Floj2">superprecociality</a> among many dinosaur species, particularly theropods. For instance, non-<a href="/facts/Euornithes/5p7leC61">ornithuromorph</a> birds have been abundantly demonstrated to have had slow growth rates, <a href="/facts/Megapode/t8sJxze5">megapode</a>-like egg burying behavior and the ability to fly soon after birth.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:239" href="#fn:239">239</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:240" href="#fn:240">240</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:241" href="#fn:241">241</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:242" href="#fn:242">242</a> Both Tyrannosaurus and Troodon had juveniles with clear superprecociality and likely occupying different ecological niches than the adults.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:243" href="#fn:243">243</a> Superprecociality has been inferred for sauropods.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:244" href="#fn:244">244</a>
Genital structures are unlikely to fossilize as they lack scales that may allow preservation via pigmentation or residual calcium phosphate salts. In 2021, the best preserved specimen of a dinosaur's <a href="/facts/Cloacal_vent/e5rv15PI">cloacal vent</a> exterior was described for Psittacosaurus, demonstrating lateral swellings similar to crocodylian musk glands used in social displays by both sexes and pigmented regions which could also reflect a signalling function. However, this specimen on its own does not offer enough information to determine whether this dinosaur had sexual signalling functions; it only supports the possibility. Cloacal visual signalling can occur in either males or females in living birds, making it unlikely to be useful to determine sex for extinct dinosaurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:245" href="#fn:245">245</a>

<h3>Physiology</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Physiology_of_dinosaurs/LsrK9s9Y">Physiology of dinosaurs</a>
Because both modern crocodilians and birds have four-chambered hearts (albeit modified in crocodilians), it is likely that this is a trait shared by all archosaurs, including all dinosaurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:246" href="#fn:246">246</a> While all modern birds have high metabolisms and are <a href="/facts/Endotherm/qs3DIGHx">endothermic</a> ("warm-blooded"), a vigorous debate has been ongoing since the 1960s regarding how far back in the dinosaur lineage this trait extended. Various researchers have supported dinosaurs as being endothermic, <a href="/facts/Ectotherm/vdjXLuQr">ectothermic</a> ("cold-blooded"), or somewhere in between.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:247" href="#fn:247">247</a> An emerging consensus among researchers is that, while different lineages of dinosaurs would have had different metabolisms, most of them had higher metabolic rates than other reptiles but lower than living birds and mammals,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:248" href="#fn:248">248</a> which is termed <a href="/facts/Mesotherm/J9S5TE7I">mesothermy</a> by some.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:249" href="#fn:249">249</a> Evidence from crocodiles and their extinct relatives suggests that such elevated metabolisms could have developed in the earliest archosaurs, which were the common ancestors of dinosaurs and crocodiles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:250" href="#fn:250">250</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:251" href="#fn:251">251</a>

After non-avian dinosaurs were discovered, paleontologists first posited that they were ectothermic. This was used to imply that the ancient dinosaurs were relatively slow, sluggish organisms, even though many modern reptiles are fast and light-footed despite relying on external sources of heat to regulate their body temperature. The idea of dinosaurs as ectothermic remained a prevalent view until <a href="/facts/Robert_T._Bakker/A94QjX6G">Robert T. Bakker</a>, an early proponent of dinosaur endothermy, published an influential paper on the topic in 1968. Bakker specifically used anatomical and ecological evidence to argue that sauropods, which had hitherto been depicted as sprawling aquatic animals with their tails dragging on the ground, were endotherms that lived vigorous, terrestrial lives. In 1972, Bakker expanded on his arguments based on energy requirements and predator-prey ratios. This was one of the seminal results that led to the dinosaur renaissance.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:252" href="#fn:252">252</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:253" href="#fn:253">253</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:254" href="#fn:254">254</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:255" href="#fn:255">255</a>
One of the greatest contributions to the modern understanding of dinosaur physiology has been <a href="/facts/Histology/yrI90zlU">paleohistology</a>, the study of microscopic tissue structure in dinosaurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:256" href="#fn:256">256</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:257" href="#fn:257">257</a> From the 1960s forward, <a href="/facts/Armand_de_Ricql%25C3%25A8s/rnYm6hKj">Armand de Ricqlès</a> suggested that the presence of fibrolamellar bone—bony tissue with an irregular, fibrous texture and filled with blood vessels—was indicative of consistently fast growth and therefore endothermy. Fibrolamellar bone was common in both dinosaurs and pterosaurs,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:258" href="#fn:258">258</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:259" href="#fn:259">259</a> though not universally present.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:260" href="#fn:260">260</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:261" href="#fn:261">261</a> This has led to a significant body of work in reconstructing <a href="/facts/Growth_curve_(biology)/lpGFjPUK">growth curves</a> and modeling the evolution of growth rates across various dinosaur lineages,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:262" href="#fn:262">262</a> which has suggested overall that dinosaurs grew faster than living reptiles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:263" href="#fn:263">263</a> Other lines of evidence suggesting endothermy include the presence of feathers and other types of body coverings in many lineages (see § Feathers); more consistent ratios of the isotope <a href="/facts/Oxygen-18/fK0gerlA">oxygen-18</a> in bony tissue compared to ectotherms, particularly as latitude and thus air temperature varied, which suggests stable internal temperatures<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:264" href="#fn:264">264</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:265" href="#fn:265">265</a> (although these ratios can be altered during fossilization<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:266" href="#fn:266">266</a>); and the discovery of <a href="/facts/South_Polar_region_of_the_Cretaceous/SQQAASTs">polar dinosaurs</a>, which lived in Australia, Antarctica, and Alaska when these places would have had cool, temperate climates.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:267" href="#fn:267">267</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:268" href="#fn:268">268</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:269" href="#fn:269">269</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:270" href="#fn:270">270</a>

In saurischian dinosaurs, higher metabolisms were supported by the evolution of the avian respiratory system, characterized by an extensive system of <a href="/facts/Air_sac/BMpm1aqd">air sacs</a> that extended the lungs and invaded many of the bones in the skeleton, making them hollow.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:271" href="#fn:271">271</a> Such respiratory systems, which may have appeared in the earliest saurischians,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:272" href="#fn:272">272</a> would have provided them with more oxygen compared to a mammal of similar size, while also having a larger resting <a href="/facts/Tidal_volume/j1R0I4Xc">tidal volume</a> and requiring a lower breathing frequency, which would have allowed them to sustain higher activity levels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:273" href="#fn:273">273</a> The rapid airflow would also have been an effective cooling mechanism, which in conjunction with a lower metabolic rate<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:274" href="#fn:274">274</a> would have prevented large sauropods from overheating. These traits may have enabled sauropods to grow quickly to gigantic sizes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:275" href="#fn:275">275</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:276" href="#fn:276">276</a> Sauropods may also have benefitted from their size—their small surface area to volume ratio meant that they would have been able to thermoregulate more easily, a phenomenon termed <a href="/facts/Gigantothermy/xIVetrMI">gigantothermy</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:277" href="#fn:277">277</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:278" href="#fn:278">278</a>
Like other reptiles, dinosaurs are primarily <a href="/facts/Uricotelic/qGH5b3od">uricotelic</a>, that is, their <a href="/facts/Kidney/HBspPrv9">kidneys</a> extract nitrogenous wastes from their bloodstream and excrete it as <a href="/facts/Uric_acid/gPMSfLcT">uric acid</a> instead of <a href="/facts/Urea/6j84AoCG">urea</a> or <a href="/facts/Ammonia/MtLtJFtz">ammonia</a> via the ureters into the intestine. This would have helped them to conserve water.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:279" href="#fn:279">279</a> In most living species, uric acid is excreted along with feces as a semisolid waste.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:280" href="#fn:280">280</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:281" href="#fn:281">281</a> However, at least some modern birds (such as <a href="/facts/Hummingbird/LfcJhMzm">hummingbirds</a>) can be facultatively <a href="/facts/Ammonotelic/qGH5b3od">ammonotelic</a>, excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:282" href="#fn:282">282</a> This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the <a href="/facts/Cloaca/e5rv15PI">cloaca</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:283" href="#fn:283">283</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:284" href="#fn:284">284</a> In addition, many species regurgitate <a href="/facts/Pellet_(ornithology)/gk4BY71q">pellets</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:285" href="#fn:285">285</a> and fossil pellets are known as early as the Jurassic from <a href="/facts/Anchiornis/XjsIebUD">Anchiornis</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:286" href="#fn:286">286</a>
The size and shape of the brain can be partly reconstructed based on the surrounding bones. In 1896, Marsh calculated ratios between brain weight and body weight of seven species of dinosaurs, showing that the brain of dinosaurs was proportionally smaller than in today's crocodiles, and that the brain of Stegosaurus was smaller than in any living land vertebrate. This contributed to the widespread public notion of dinosaurs as being sluggish and extraordinarily stupid. Harry Jerison, in 1973, showed that proportionally smaller brains are expected at larger body sizes, and that brain size in dinosaurs was not smaller than expected when compared to living reptiles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:287" href="#fn:287">287</a> Later research showed that relative brain size progressively increased during the evolution of theropods, with the highest intelligence – comparable to that of modern birds – calculated for the troodontid Troodon.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:288" href="#fn:288">288</a>

<h2 id="origin-of-birds">Origin of birds</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Origin_of_birds/SAdvMKvp">Origin of birds</a>
The possibility that dinosaurs were the ancestors of birds was first suggested in 1868 by <a href="/facts/Thomas_Henry_Huxley/NUNXtNdr">Thomas Henry Huxley</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:289" href="#fn:289">289</a> After the work of <a href="/facts/Gerhard_Heilmann/MS6kGBUk">Gerhard Heilmann</a> in the early 20th century, the <a href="/facts/Scientific_theory/moMsLrUn">theory</a> of birds as dinosaur descendants was abandoned in favor of the idea of them being descendants of generalized <a href="/facts/Thecodontia/uf1bM3SN">thecodonts</a>, with the key piece of evidence being the supposed lack of <a href="/facts/Clavicle/YWNjLv6s">clavicles</a> in dinosaurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:290" href="#fn:290">290</a> However, as later discoveries showed, clavicles (or a single fused <a href="/facts/Furcula/MqWSI6T6">wishbone</a>, which derived from separate clavicles) were not actually absent;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:291" href="#fn:291">291</a> they had been found as early as 1924 in <a href="/facts/Oviraptor/VM8bNWrW">Oviraptor</a>, but misidentified as an <a href="/facts/Interclavicle/47Y1ThgE">interclavicle</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:292" href="#fn:292">292</a> In the 1970s, John Ostrom revived the dinosaur–bird theory,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:293" href="#fn:293">293</a> which gained momentum in the coming decades with the advent of cladistic analysis,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:294" href="#fn:294">294</a> and a great increase in the discovery of small theropods and early birds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:295" href="#fn:295">295</a> Of particular note have been the fossils of the Jehol Biota, where a variety of theropods and early birds have been found, often with feathers of some type.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:296" href="#fn:296">296</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:297" href="#fn:297">297</a> Birds share over a hundred distinct anatomical features with theropod dinosaurs, which are now generally accepted to have been their closest ancient relatives.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:298" href="#fn:298">298</a> They are most closely allied with maniraptoran coelurosaurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:299" href="#fn:299">299</a> A minority of scientists, most notably <a href="/facts/Alan_Feduccia/gvIBnJJ2">Alan Feduccia</a> and <a href="/facts/Larry_Martin/kvlW4YgY">Larry Martin</a>, have proposed other evolutionary paths, including revised versions of Heilmann's basal archosaur proposal,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:300" href="#fn:300">300</a> or that maniraptoran theropods are the ancestors of birds but themselves are not dinosaurs, only <a href="/facts/Convergent_evolution/dd0L8z4R">convergent</a> with dinosaurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:301" href="#fn:301">301</a>

<h3>Feathers</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Feathered_dinosaurs/epRs4crz">Feathered dinosaurs</a>

Feathers are one of the most recognizable characteristics of modern birds, and a trait that was also shared by several non-avian dinosaurs. Based on the current distribution of fossil evidence, it appears that feathers were an ancestral dinosaurian trait, though one that may have been selectively lost in some species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:302" href="#fn:302">302</a> Direct fossil evidence of feathers or feather-like structures has been discovered in a diverse array of species in many non-avian dinosaur groups,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:303" href="#fn:303">303</a> both among saurischians and ornithischians. Simple, branched, feather-like structures are known from <a href="/facts/Heterodontosauridae/URBX2qms">heterodontosaurids</a>, primitive <a href="/facts/Neornithischia/qabtbCPT">neornithischians</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:304" href="#fn:304">304</a> and theropods,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:305" href="#fn:305">305</a> and primitive ceratopsians. Evidence for true, vaned feathers similar to the flight feathers of modern birds has been found only in the theropod subgroup Maniraptora, which includes oviraptorosaurs, troodontids, dromaeosaurids, and birds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:306" href="#fn:306">306</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:307" href="#fn:307">307</a> Feather-like structures known as <a href="/facts/Pterosaur/YNQwa1ru">pycnofibres</a> have also been found in pterosaurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:308" href="#fn:308">308</a>
However, researchers do not agree regarding whether these structures share a common origin between lineages (i.e., they are <a href="/facts/Homology_(biology)/muctKlyT">homologous</a>),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:309" href="#fn:309">309</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:310" href="#fn:310">310</a> or if they were the result of widespread experimentation with skin coverings among ornithodirans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:311" href="#fn:311">311</a> If the former is the case, filaments may have been common in the ornithodiran lineage and evolved before the appearance of dinosaurs themselves.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:312" href="#fn:312">312</a> Research into the genetics of <a href="/facts/American_alligator/xHStTfHT">American alligators</a> has revealed that crocodylian <a href="/facts/Scute/IeqbYure">scutes</a> do possess feather-keratins during embryonic development, but these keratins are not expressed by the animals before hatching.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:313" href="#fn:313">313</a> The description of feathered dinosaurs has not been without controversy in general; perhaps the most vocal critics have been Alan Feduccia and Theagarten Lingham-Soliar, who have proposed that some purported feather-like fossils are the result of the decomposition of collagenous fiber that underlaid the dinosaurs' skin,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:314" href="#fn:314">314</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:315" href="#fn:315">315</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:316" href="#fn:316">316</a> and that maniraptoran dinosaurs with vaned feathers were not actually dinosaurs, but convergent with dinosaurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:317" href="#fn:317">317</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:318" href="#fn:318">318</a> However, their views have for the most part not been accepted by other researchers, to the point that the scientific nature of Feduccia's proposals has been questioned.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:319" href="#fn:319">319</a>
<a href="/facts/Archaeopteryx/2sR4Tns8">Archaeopteryx</a> was the first fossil found that revealed a potential connection between dinosaurs and birds. It is considered a <a href="/facts/Transitional_fossil/ov9o5s9l">transitional fossil</a>, in that it displays features of both groups. Brought to light just two years after <a href="/facts/Charles_Darwin/uwDLGItY">Charles Darwin</a>'s seminal <a href="/facts/On_the_Origin_of_Species/zTMxkKVY">On the Origin of Species</a> (1859), its discovery spurred the nascent debate between proponents of <a href="/facts/Evolutionary_biology/8tBoG55U">evolutionary biology</a> and <a href="/facts/Creationism/IIhQyYTo">creationism</a>. This early bird is so dinosaur-like that, without a clear impression of feathers in the surrounding rock, at least one specimen was mistaken for the small theropod <a href="/facts/Compsognathus/4D8n3AlJ">Compsognathus</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:320" href="#fn:320">320</a> Since the 1990s, a number of additional feathered dinosaurs have been found, providing even stronger evidence of the close relationship between dinosaurs and modern birds. Many of these specimens were unearthed in the <a href="/facts/Lagerst%25C3%25A4tten/ByI7PT8h">lagerstätten</a> of the Jehol Biota.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:321" href="#fn:321">321</a> If feather-like structures were indeed widely present among non-avian dinosaurs, the lack of abundant fossil evidence for them may be due to the fact that delicate features like skin and feathers are seldom preserved by fossilization and thus often absent from the fossil record.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:322" href="#fn:322">322</a>

<h3>Skeleton</h3>
Because feathers are often associated with birds, feathered dinosaurs are often touted as the missing link between birds and dinosaurs. However, the multiple skeletal features also shared by the two groups represent another important line of evidence for paleontologists. Areas of the skeleton with important similarities include the neck, pubis, <a href="/facts/Wrist/scSMl0zG">wrist</a> (semi-lunate <a href="/facts/Carpal/DjpaAuNd">carpal</a>), arm and <a href="/facts/Shoulder_girdle/XyWsm4hv">pectoral girdle</a>, furcula (wishbone), and <a href="/facts/Keel_(bird_anatomy)/GaGwb3jH">breast bone</a>. Comparison of bird and dinosaur skeletons through cladistic analysis strengthens the case for the link.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:323" href="#fn:323">323</a>

<h3>Soft anatomy</h3>

Large meat-eating dinosaurs had a complex system of air sacs similar to those found in modern birds, according to a 2005 investigation led by Patrick M. O'Connor. The lungs of theropod dinosaurs (carnivores that walked on two legs and had bird-like feet) likely pumped air into hollow sacs in their skeletons, as is the case in birds. "What was once formally considered unique to birds was present in some form in the ancestors of birds", O'Connor said.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:324" href="#fn:324">324</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:325" href="#fn:325">325</a> In 2008, scientists described <a href="/facts/Aerosteon/jXXzc3Kc">Aerosteon riocoloradensis</a>, the skeleton of which supplies the strongest evidence to date of a dinosaur with a bird-like breathing system. <a href="/facts/CT_scan/NusPJ2S8">CT scanning</a> of Aerosteon's fossil bones revealed evidence for the existence of air sacs within the animal's body cavity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:326" href="#fn:326">326</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:327" href="#fn:327">327</a>

<h3>Behavioral evidence</h3>
Fossils of the troodonts <a href="/facts/Mei_long/94JwQYkG">Mei</a> and <a href="/facts/Sinornithoides/VWEBwJEg">Sinornithoides</a> demonstrate that some dinosaurs slept with their heads tucked under their arms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:328" href="#fn:328">328</a> This behavior, which may have helped to keep the head warm, is also characteristic of modern birds. Several <a href="/facts/Deinonychosauria/mSuUHxz8">deinonychosaur</a> and oviraptorosaur specimens have also been found preserved on top of their nests, likely brooding in a bird-like manner.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:329" href="#fn:329">329</a> The ratio between egg volume and body mass of adults among these dinosaurs suggest that the eggs were primarily brooded by the male and that the young were highly precocial, similar to many modern ground-dwelling birds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:330" href="#fn:330">330</a>
Some dinosaurs are known to have used <a href="/facts/Gizzard/xGEzIoA5">gizzard</a> stones like modern birds. These stones are swallowed by animals to aid digestion and break down food and hard fibers once they enter the stomach. When found in association with fossils, gizzard stones are called gastroliths.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:331" href="#fn:331">331</a>

<h2 id="extinction-of-major-groups">Extinction of major groups</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Cretaceous%25E2%2580%2593Paleogene_extinction_event/HNyDuEcx">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a>
All non-avian dinosaurs and most lineages of birds<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:332" href="#fn:332">332</a> became extinct in a <a href="/facts/Extinction_event/HloJubtR">mass extinction event</a>, called the <a href="/facts/Cretaceous%25E2%2580%2593Paleogene_extinction_event/HNyDuEcx">Cretaceous–Paleogene (K-Pg) extinction event</a>, at the end of the Cretaceous period. Above the <a href="/facts/Cretaceous%25E2%2580%2593Paleogene_boundary/5056Agsq">Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary</a>, which has been dated to 66.038 ± 0.025 million years ago,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:333" href="#fn:333">333</a> fossils of non-avian dinosaurs disappear abruptly; the absence of dinosaur fossils was historically used to assign rocks to the ensuing Cenozoic. The nature of the event that caused this mass extinction has been extensively studied since the 1970s, leading to the development of two mechanisms that are thought to have played major roles: an extraterrestrial <a href="/facts/Impact_event/fbWu9Q4p">impact event</a> in the <a href="/facts/Yucat%25C3%25A1n_Peninsula/xGAcABhC">Yucatán Peninsula</a>, along with <a href="/facts/Flood_basalt/omlPkoyM">flood basalt</a> volcanism in <a href="/facts/India/1kKHcnxM">India</a>. However, the specific mechanisms of the extinction event and the extent of its effects on dinosaurs are still areas of ongoing research.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:334" href="#fn:334">334</a> Alongside dinosaurs, many other groups of animals became extinct: pterosaurs, marine reptiles such as mosasaurs and plesiosaurs, several groups of mammals, <a href="/facts/Ammonoidea/cRCH9GVd">ammonites</a> (<a href="/facts/Nautilus/5VgYqgds">nautilus</a>-like <a href="/facts/Mollusca/1elgknsQ">mollusks</a>), <a href="/facts/Rudist/WCbDo92y">rudists</a> (<a href="/facts/Reef/eHTITdLb">reef</a>-building <a href="/facts/Bivalvia/IQDxHVc8">bivalves</a>), and various groups of marine plankton.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:335" href="#fn:335">335</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:336" href="#fn:336">336</a> In all, approximately 47% of genera and 76% of species on Earth became extinct during the K-Pg extinction event.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:337" href="#fn:337">337</a> The relatively large size of most dinosaurs and the low diversity of small-bodied dinosaur species at the end of the Cretaceous may have contributed to their extinction;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:338" href="#fn:338">338</a> the extinction of the bird lineages that did not survive may also have been caused by a dependence on forest habitats or a lack of adaptations to <a href="/facts/Seed_predation/4Cbuef4k">eating seeds</a> for survival.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:339" href="#fn:339">339</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:340" href="#fn:340">340</a>

<h3>Pre-extinction diversity</h3>
Just before the K-Pg extinction event, the number of non-avian dinosaur species that existed globally has been estimated at between 628 and 1078.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:341" href="#fn:341">341</a> It remains uncertain whether the diversity of dinosaurs was in gradual decline before the K-Pg extinction event, or whether dinosaurs were actually thriving prior to the extinction. Rock formations from the <a href="/facts/Maastrichtian/xRBafamu">Maastrichtian</a> epoch, which directly preceded the extinction, have been found to have lower diversity than the preceding <a href="/facts/Campanian/MoPSxcqL">Campanian</a> epoch, which led to the prevailing view of a long-term decline in diversity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:342" href="#fn:342">342</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:343" href="#fn:343">343</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:344" href="#fn:344">344</a> However, these comparisons did not account either for varying <a href="/facts/Preservation_potential/x4zxN2Hm">preservation potential</a> between rock units or for different extents of exploration and excavation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:345" href="#fn:345">345</a> In 1984, <a href="/facts/Dale_Russell/KzqYIRrE">Dale Russell</a> carried out an analysis to account for these biases, and found no evidence of a decline;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:346" href="#fn:346">346</a> another analysis by David Fastovsky and colleagues in 2004 even showed that dinosaur diversity continually increased until the extinction,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:347" href="#fn:347">347</a> but this analysis has been rebutted.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:348" href="#fn:348">348</a> Since then, different approaches based on statistics and mathematical models have variously supported either a sudden extinction<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:349" href="#fn:349">349</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:350" href="#fn:350">350</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:351" href="#fn:351">351</a> or a gradual decline.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:352" href="#fn:352">352</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:353" href="#fn:353">353</a> End-Cretaceous trends in diversity may have varied between dinosaur lineages: it has been suggested that sauropods were not in decline, while ornithischians and theropods were in decline.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:354" href="#fn:354">354</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:355" href="#fn:355">355</a>

<h3>Impact event</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Chicxulub_crater/qVqCqm81">Chicxulub crater</a>

The <a href="/facts/Alvarez_hypothesis/ojlNS1Ik">bolide impact hypothesis</a>, first brought to wide attention in 1980 by <a href="/facts/Walter_Alvarez/64jHrG8q">Walter Alvarez</a>, <a href="/facts/Luis_Walter_Alvarez/YjnP5cd5">Luis Alvarez</a>, and colleagues, attributes the K-Pg extinction event to a <a href="/facts/Bolide/2wftckSU">bolide</a> (extraterrestrial projectile) impact.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:356" href="#fn:356">356</a> Alvarez and colleagues proposed that a sudden increase in <a href="/facts/Iridium/TFQutoj1">iridium</a> levels, recorded around the world in rock deposits at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, was direct evidence of the impact.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:357" href="#fn:357">357</a> <a href="/facts/Shocked_quartz/wUfFUvuH">Shocked quartz</a>, indicative of a strong shockwave emanating from an impact, was also found worldwide.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:358" href="#fn:358">358</a> The actual impact site remained elusive until a <a href="/facts/Chicxulub_crater/qVqCqm81">crater</a> measuring 180 km (110 mi) wide was discovered in the Yucatán Peninsula of southeastern <a href="/facts/Mexico/IT5bwhdh">Mexico</a>, and was publicized in a 1991 paper by <a href="/facts/Alan_R._Hildebrand/jvlczXB5">Alan Hildebrand</a> and colleagues.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:359" href="#fn:359">359</a> Now, the bulk of the evidence suggests that a bolide 5 to 15 kilometers (3 to 9+1⁄2 miles) wide impacted the Yucatán Peninsula 66 million years ago, forming this crater<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:360" href="#fn:360">360</a> and creating a "kill mechanism" that triggered the extinction event.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:361" href="#fn:361">361</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:362" href="#fn:362">362</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:363" href="#fn:363">363</a>
Within hours, the Chicxulub impact would have created immediate effects such as earthquakes,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:364" href="#fn:364">364</a> tsunamis,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:365" href="#fn:365">365</a> and a global firestorm that likely killed unsheltered animals and started wildfires.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:366" href="#fn:366">366</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:367" href="#fn:367">367</a> However, it would also have had longer-term consequences for the environment. Within days, sulfate <a href="/facts/Aerosol/X1jXFLp2">aerosols</a> released from rocks at the impact site would have contributed to <a href="/facts/Acid_rain/f769GyNz">acid rain</a> and <a href="/facts/Ocean_acidification/GE7MrSPj">ocean acidification</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:368" href="#fn:368">368</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:369" href="#fn:369">369</a> <a href="/facts/Soot/xzU91yKv">Soot</a> aerosols are thought to have spread around the world over the ensuing months and years; they would have cooled the surface of the Earth by reflecting <a href="/facts/Thermal_radiation/1PD9jtCv">thermal radiation</a>, and greatly slowed <a href="/facts/Photosynthesis/TMV7w693">photosynthesis</a> by blocking out sunlight, thus creating an <a href="/facts/Impact_winter/kJxHIe9S">impact winter</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:370" href="#fn:370">370</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:371" href="#fn:371">371</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:372" href="#fn:372">372</a> (This role was ascribed to <a href="/facts/Sulfate/yuWVxsUf">sulfate</a> aerosols until experiments demonstrated otherwise.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:373" href="#fn:373">373</a>) The cessation of photosynthesis would have led to the collapse of <a href="/facts/Food_web/YaakLo08">food webs</a> depending on leafy plants, which included all dinosaurs save for grain-eating birds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:374" href="#fn:374">374</a>

<h3>Deccan Traps</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Deccan_Traps/HdvPLMuQ">Deccan Traps</a> 
At the time of the K-Pg extinction, the <a href="/facts/Deccan_Traps/HdvPLMuQ">Deccan Traps</a> flood basalts of India were actively erupting. The eruptions can be separated into three phases around the K-Pg boundary, two prior to the boundary and one after. The second phase, which occurred very close to the boundary, would have extruded 70 to 80% of the volume of these eruptions in intermittent pulses that occurred around 100,000 years apart.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:375" href="#fn:375">375</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:376" href="#fn:376">376</a> <a href="/facts/Greenhouse_gases/HXaHqrT8">Greenhouse gases</a> such as <a href="/facts/Carbon_dioxide/xGzpppEp">carbon dioxide</a> and <a href="/facts/Sulfur_dioxide/jDK1fIDs">sulfur dioxide</a> would have been released by this volcanic activity,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:377" href="#fn:377">377</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:378" href="#fn:378">378</a> resulting in <a href="/facts/Climate_change/rEN4BDE7">climate change</a> through temperature perturbations of roughly 3 °C (5.4 °F) but possibly as high as 7 °C (13 °F).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:379" href="#fn:379">379</a> Like the Chicxulub impact, the eruptions may also have released sulfate aerosols, which would have caused acid rain and global cooling.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:380" href="#fn:380">380</a> However, due to large error margins in the dating of the eruptions, the role of the Deccan Traps in the K-Pg extinction remains unclear.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:381" href="#fn:381">381</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:382" href="#fn:382">382</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:383" href="#fn:383">383</a>
Before 2000, arguments that the Deccan Traps eruptions—as opposed to the Chicxulub impact—caused the extinction were usually linked to the view that the extinction was gradual. Prior to the discovery of the Chicxulub crater, the Deccan Traps were used to explain the global iridium layer;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:384" href="#fn:384">384</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:385" href="#fn:385">385</a> even after the crater's discovery, the impact was still thought to only have had a regional, not global, effect on the extinction event.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:386" href="#fn:386">386</a> In response, Luis Alvarez rejected volcanic activity as an explanation for the iridium layer and the extinction as a whole.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:387" href="#fn:387">387</a> Since then, however, most researchers have adopted a more moderate position, which identifies the Chicxulub impact as the primary progenitor of the extinction while also recognizing that the Deccan Traps may also have played a role. Walter Alvarez himself has acknowledged that the Deccan Traps and other ecological factors may have contributed to the extinctions in addition to the Chicxulub impact.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:388" href="#fn:388">388</a> Some estimates have placed the start of the second phase in the Deccan Traps eruptions within 50,000 years after the Chicxulub impact.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:389" href="#fn:389">389</a> Combined with mathematical modelling of the <a href="/facts/Seismic_wave/1JTeLfac">seismic waves</a> that would have been generated by the impact, this has led to the suggestion that the Chicxulub impact may have triggered these eruptions by increasing the permeability of the <a href="/facts/Mantle_plume/wLXJ0Q4a">mantle plume</a> underlying the Deccan Traps.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:390" href="#fn:390">390</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:391" href="#fn:391">391</a>
Whether the Deccan Traps were a major cause of the extinction, on par with the Chicxulub impact, remains uncertain. Proponents consider the climatic impact of the sulfur dioxide released to have been on par with the Chicxulub impact, and also note the role of flood basalt volcanism in other mass extinctions like the <a href="/facts/Permian-Triassic_extinction_event/d8kI8Mfn">Permian-Triassic extinction event</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:392" href="#fn:392">392</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:393" href="#fn:393">393</a> They consider the Chicxulub impact to have worsened the ongoing climate change caused by the eruptions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:394" href="#fn:394">394</a> Meanwhile, detractors point out the sudden nature of the extinction and that other pulses in Deccan Traps activity of comparable magnitude did not appear to have caused extinctions. They also contend that the causes of different mass extinctions should be assessed separately.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:395" href="#fn:395">395</a> In 2020, Alfio Chiarenza and colleagues suggested that the Deccan Traps may even have had the opposite effect: they suggested that the long-term warming caused by its carbon dioxide emissions may have dampened the impact winter from the Chicxulub impact.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:396" href="#fn:396">396</a>

<h3>Possible Paleocene survivors</h3>
Non-avian dinosaur remains have occasionally been found above the K-Pg boundary. In 2000, <a href="/facts/Spencer_G._Lucas/Ne2eRHaP">Spencer Lucas</a> and colleagues reported the discovery of a single hadrosaur right femur in the <a href="/facts/San_Juan_Basin/tmzXY3P6">San Juan Basin</a> of <a href="/facts/New_Mexico/wosJCGaW">New Mexico</a>, and described it as evidence of Paleocene dinosaurs. The rock unit in which the bone was discovered has been dated to the early <a href="/facts/Paleocene/IWWoh8D9">Paleocene</a> epoch, approximately 64.8 million years ago.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:397" href="#fn:397">397</a> If the bone was not <a href="/facts/Deposition_(geology)/qxjlY8KL">re-deposited</a> by weathering action, it would provide evidence that some dinosaur populations survived at least half a million years into the Cenozoic.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:398" href="#fn:398">398</a> Other evidence includes the presence of dinosaur remains in the Hell Creek Formation up to 1.3 m (4.3 ft) above the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, representing 40,000 years of elapsed time. This has been used to support the view that the K-Pg extinction was gradual.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:399" href="#fn:399">399</a> However, these supposed Paleocene dinosaurs are considered by many other researchers to be <a href="/facts/Reworked_fossil/by7NzIA1">reworked</a>, that is, washed out of their original locations and then reburied in younger sediments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:400" href="#fn:400">400</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:401" href="#fn:401">401</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:402" href="#fn:402">402</a> The age estimates have also been considered unreliable.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:403" href="#fn:403">403</a>

<h2 id="cultural-depictions">Cultural depictions</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Cultural_depictions_of_dinosaurs/XwWUBpEr">Cultural depictions of dinosaurs</a>

By human standards, dinosaurs were creatures of fantastic appearance and often enormous size. As such, they have captured the popular imagination and become an enduring part of human culture. The entry of the word "dinosaur" into the common <a href="/facts/Vernacular/DEmxDgM3">vernacular</a> reflects the animals' cultural importance: in English, "dinosaur" is commonly used to describe anything that is impractically large, obsolete, or bound for extinction.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:404" href="#fn:404">404</a>
Public enthusiasm for dinosaurs first developed in <a href="/facts/Victorian_era/HQxGp7wh">Victorian</a> England, where in 1854, three decades after the first scientific descriptions of dinosaur remains, a menagerie of lifelike <a href="/facts/Crystal_Palace_dinosaurs/4cPHydmY">dinosaur sculptures</a> was unveiled in <a href="/facts/London/KozCCsy9">London</a>'s <a href="/facts/Crystal_Palace_Park/gTbc0pu9">Crystal Palace Park</a>. The Crystal Palace dinosaurs proved so popular that a strong market in smaller replicas soon developed. In subsequent decades, dinosaur exhibits opened at parks and <a href="/facts/Natural_history_museum/PzopxUgP">museums</a> around the world, ensuring that successive generations would be introduced to the animals in an immersive and exciting way.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:405" href="#fn:405">405</a> The enduring popularity of dinosaurs, in its turn, has resulted in significant public funding for dinosaur science, and has frequently spurred new discoveries. In the United States, for example, the competition between museums for public attention led directly to the Bone Wars of the 1880s and 1890s, during which a pair of feuding paleontologists made enormous scientific contributions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:406" href="#fn:406">406</a>
The popular preoccupation with dinosaurs has ensured their appearance in <a href="/facts/Literature/CmUDxokU">literature</a>, <a href="/facts/Film/wM3b9Kk3">film</a>, and other <a href="/facts/Media_(communication)/uflm14CI">media</a>. Beginning in 1852 with a passing mention in <a href="/facts/Charles_Dickens/B54mQHJs">Charles Dickens</a>' <a href="/facts/Bleak_House/yoUBDKk9">Bleak House</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:407" href="#fn:407">407</a> dinosaurs have been featured in large numbers of <a href="/facts/Fiction/p1AY3Xp4">fictional</a> works. <a href="/facts/Jules_Verne/lLA0B0EF">Jules Verne</a>'s 1864 novel <a href="/facts/Journey_to_the_Center_of_the_Earth/sXHhKtPh">Journey to the Center of the Earth</a>, <a href="/facts/Arthur_Conan_Doyle/52dvrHvc">Sir Arthur Conan Doyle</a>'s 1912 book <a href="/facts/The_Lost_World_(Doyle_novel)/5GLkC3jx">The Lost World</a>, the 1914 animated film <a href="/facts/Gertie_the_Dinosaur/IFA57auB">Gertie the Dinosaur</a> (featuring the first animated dinosaur), the iconic 1933 <a href="/facts/Motion_picture/wM3b9Kk3">film</a> <a href="/facts/King_Kong_(1933_film)/HPvaw2uE">King Kong</a>, the 1954 <a href="/facts/Godzilla_(1954_film)/bGFMsbWB">Godzilla</a> and its many sequels, the best-selling 1990 novel <a href="/facts/Jurassic_Park_(novel)/IdfzRvYD">Jurassic Park</a> by <a href="/facts/Michael_Crichton/fFkkVqzr">Michael Crichton</a> and its 1993 <a href="/facts/Jurassic_Park_(film)/ExlNWCI4">film adaptation</a> are just a few notable examples of dinosaur appearances in fiction. Authors of general-interest <a href="/facts/Non-fiction/8YkF8zrG">non-fiction</a> works about dinosaurs, including some prominent paleontologists, have often sought to use the animals as a way to educate readers about science in general. Dinosaurs are ubiquitous in <a href="/facts/Advertising/Hgz271hW">advertising</a>; numerous <a href="/facts/Company_(law)/psBVz9jr">companies</a> have referenced dinosaurs in printed or televised advertisements, either in order to sell their own products or in order to characterize their rivals as slow-moving, dim-witted, or obsolete.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:408" href="#fn:408">408</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:409" href="#fn:409">409</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Dinosaur_diet_and_feeding/UdSEqIet">Dinosaur diet and feeding</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Evolutionary_history_of_life/Ss6eB0EX">Evolutionary history of life</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Lists_of_dinosaur-bearing_stratigraphic_units/G8KXXsw0">Lists of dinosaur-bearing stratigraphic units</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_dinosaur_genera/VMI3c8V0">List of dinosaur genera</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_bird_genera/CqNpQnTf">List of bird genera</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_birds/dpWUb9s8">List of birds</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_informally_named_dinosaurs/5pswCPdu">List of informally named dinosaurs</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_films_featuring_dinosaurs/hAIEMdWg">List of films featuring dinosaurs</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="notes">Notes</h2>

<h2 id="bibliography">Bibliography</h2>

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<li>Cowen, Richard (2005). History of Life (4th ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4051-1756-2. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2003027993">2003027993</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53970577">53970577</a>. The 5th edition of the book is available from the <a href="https://archive.org/details/History_of_Life_5th_Edition_by_Richard_Cowen">Internet Archive</a>. Retrieved 2019-10-19.</li>
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<li><a href="/facts/Peter_Dodson/zuCv5evX">Dodson, Peter</a>; <a href="/facts/Philip_D._Gingerich/Lrbgx4gW">Gingerich, Philip D.</a>, eds. (1993). Functional Morphology and Evolution. <a href="/facts/American_Journal_of_Science/kJ1jX1N3">American Journal of Science</a>. Vol. 293A. <a href="/facts/New_Haven%2c_Connecticut/dRanslgz">New Haven, CT</a>: Kline Geology Laboratory, <a href="/facts/Yale_University/KUdS6jt1">Yale University</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9599">0002-9599</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/27781160">27781160</a>.</li>
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<li><a href="/facts/John_Foster_(paleontologist)/t4DUjYIs">Foster, John R.</a>; <a href="/facts/Spencer_G._Lucas/Ne2eRHaP">Lucas, Spencer G.</a>, eds. (2006). <a href="https://econtent.unm.edu/digital/collection/bulletins/id/803">"Paleontology and Geology of the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation"</a>. Bulletin of the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin. 36. <a href="/facts/Albuquerque%2c_New_Mexico/SATmBfJb">Albuquerque, NM</a>: <a href="/facts/New_Mexico_Museum_of_Natural_History_and_Science/IzQ2PFgA">New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1524-4156">1524-4156</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/77520577">77520577</a>. Retrieved October 21, 2019.</li>
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<li>Hansell, Mike (2000). <a href="https://archive.org/details/birdnestsconstru0000hans">Bird Nests and Construction Behaviour</a>. Pen and ink illustration by Raith Overhill. <a href="/facts/Cambridge/gNRdbmwK">Cambridge</a>: University of Cambridge Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-46038-5. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/99087681">99087681</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/876286627">876286627</a>. Retrieved October 30, 2019.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Gerhard_Heilmann/MS6kGBUk">Heilmann, Gerhard</a> (1926). <a href="/facts/The_Origin_of_Birds/074plDTP">The Origin of Birds</a>. London; New York: <a href="/facts/H._F._%2526_G._Witherby/dB80tfy5">H. F. & G. Witherby</a>; <a href="/facts/D._Appleton_%2526_Company/wNR7pxN7">D. Appleton & Company</a>. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/27001127">27001127</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/606021642">606021642</a>.</li>
<li>Holmes, Thom (1998). <a href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9790382391483_c8k9">Fossil Feud: The Rivalry of the First American Dinosaur Hunters</a>. <a href="/facts/Parsippany-Troy_Hills%2c_New_Jersey/Cwq0yGtu">Parsippany, NJ</a>: <a href="/facts/Julian_Messner/0eEA72N2">Julian Messner</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-382-39149-1. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/96013610">96013610</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/34472600">34472600</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Thomas_R._Holtz_Jr./LzA9tafp">Holtz, Thomas R. Jr.</a> (2007). <a href="https://archive.org/details/dinosaursmostcom00holt">Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages</a>. Illustrated by <a href="/facts/Luis_Rey/P4ehylLT">Luis V. Rey</a>. New York: <a href="/facts/Random_House/NcR9r1F1">Random House</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-375-82419-7. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2006102491">2006102491</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/77486015">77486015</a>. Retrieved October 22, 2019.</li>
<li>Lambert, David; The Diagram Group (1990). <a href="https://archive.org/details/dinosaurdatabook00lamb">The Dinosaur Data Book: The Definitive, Fully Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs</a>. New York: <a href="/facts/Avon_Books/1DEeWDJq">Avon Books</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-380-75896-8. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/89092487">89092487</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/21833417">21833417</a>. Retrieved October 14, 2019.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Don_Lessem/8pJ4lXCE">Lessem, Don</a>; Glut, Donald F. (1993). <a href="https://archive.org/details/dinosaursocietys00less">The Dinosaur Society's Dinosaur Encyclopedia</a>. Illustrations by Tracy Lee Ford; scientific advisors, Peter Dodson, et al. New York: Random House. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-679-41770-5. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/94117716">94117716</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/30361459">30361459</a>. Retrieved October 30, 2019.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Edward_Lhuyd/a3FUtsQH">Lhuyd, Edward</a> (1699). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200814045952/http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/earththeory/id/1913">Lithophylacii Britannici ichnographia</a> [British figured stones]. London: Ex Officina M.C. Archived from <a href="http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/earththeory/id/1913">the original</a> on August 14, 2020. Retrieved November 4, 2019.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Gerald_Mayr/cvQj8Vtc">Mayr, Gerald</a> (2009). <a href="https://archive.org/details/PaleogeneFossilBirds">Paleogene Fossil Birds</a>. <a href="/facts/Berlin/pMTIRNXK">Berlin</a>: Springer-Verlag. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-89628-9">10.1007/978-3-540-89628-9</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-540-89627-2. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008940962">2008940962</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/916182693">916182693</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:88941254">88941254</a>. Retrieved October 30, 2019.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Mark_Norell/AyCykXmq">Norell, Mark</a>; <a href="/facts/Eugene_S._Gaffney/LRkRspfB">Gaffney, Eugene S.</a>; Dingus, Lowell (2000) [Originally published as Discovering Dinosaurs in the American Museum of Natural History. New York: <a href="/facts/Alfred_A._Knopf/thjQX89q">Knopf</a>, 1995]. <a href="https://archive.org/details/discoveringdinos00nore">Discovering Dinosaurs: Evolution, Extinction, and the Lessons of Prehistory</a> (Revised ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-520-22501-5. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/99053335">99053335</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/977125867">977125867</a>. Retrieved October 30, 2019.</li>
<li>Olshevsky, George (2000). An Annotated Checklist of Dinosaur Species by Continent. Mesozoic Meanderings. Vol. 3. Illustrated by Tracy Lee Ford. <a href="/facts/San_Diego/YFUP7gB9">San Diego, CA</a>: Publications Requiring Research. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0271-9428">0271-9428</a>. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/00708700">00708700</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44433611">44433611</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Richard_Owen/M8H3td41">Owen, Richard</a> (1842). <a href="https://archive.org/details/reportofeleventh42lond/page/n99">"Report on British Fossil Reptiles. Part II"</a>. <a href="https://archive.org/details/reportofeleventh42lond">Report of the Eleventh Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science; Held at Plymouth in July 1841</a>. <a href="/facts/London/KozCCsy9">London</a>: <a href="/facts/John_Murray_(publishing_house)/g24FrCcj">John Murray</a>. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/reportofeleventh42lond/page/60">60</a>–204. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/99030427">99030427</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1015526268">1015526268</a>. Retrieved October 13, 2019.</li>
<li>Padian, Kevin, ed. (1986). The Origin of Birds and the Evolution of Flight. Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences. Vol. 8. San Francisco, CA: <a href="/facts/California_Academy_of_Sciences/P976HtIM">California Academy of Sciences</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-940228-14-6. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/946083441">946083441</a>. <a href="/facts/OL_(identifier)/A13NLNNh">OL</a> <a href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL9826926M">9826926M</a>.</li>
<li>Parsons, Keith M. (2001). <a href="https://archive.org/details/drawingoutleviat0000pars">Drawing out Leviathan: Dinosaurs and the Science Wars</a>. Life in the Past. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-253-33937-9. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2001016803">2001016803</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50174737">50174737</a>. Retrieved October 30, 2019.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Gregory_S._Paul/3dyWNx8J">Paul, Gregory S.</a> (1988). <a href="https://archive.org/details/predatorydinosaursoftheworld1988">Predatory Dinosaurs of the World: A Complete Illustrated Guide</a>. New York: <a href="/facts/Simon_%2526_Schuster/pESq8Dxl">Simon & Schuster</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-671-61946-6. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/88023052">88023052</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/859819093">859819093</a>. Retrieved October 30, 2019.</li>
<li>Paul, Gregory S., ed. (2000). The Scientific American Book of Dinosaurs (1st ed.). New York: <a href="/facts/St._Martin%2527s_Press/a8JmlhsC">St. Martin's Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-312-26226-6. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2001269051">2001269051</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45256074">45256074</a>.</li>
<li>Paul, Gregory S. (2010). <a href="/facts/The_Princeton_Field_Guide_to_Dinosaurs/mEAkBaA1">The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs</a>. Princeton Field Guides. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-691-13720-9. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2010014916">2010014916</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/907619291">907619291</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Robert_Plot/Cs0rX8D8">Plot, Robert</a> (1677). <a href="https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryo00plot/page/n9">The Natural History of Oxford-shire: Being an Essay toward the Natural History of England</a>. Oxford; London: S. Millers. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/11004267">11004267</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/933062622">933062622</a>. Retrieved November 13, 2019.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Lisa_Randall/3kp0wIlf">Randall, Lisa</a> (2015). <a href="/facts/Dark_Matter_and_the_Dinosaurs/6dMkf1Px">Dark Matter and the Dinosaurs: The Astounding Interconnectedness of the Universe</a>. New York: <a href="/facts/HarperCollins/HHLz5lk5">HarperCollins</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-06-232847-2. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2016427646">2016427646</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/962371431">962371431</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Nicolaas_Adrianus_Rupke/3IrUjNya">Rupke, Nicolaas A.</a> (1994). <a href="https://archive.org/details/richardowenvicto00rupk">Richard Owen: Victorian Naturalist</a>. New Haven: <a href="/facts/Yale_University_Press/oavMPaT7">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-300-05820-8. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/93005739">93005739</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/844183804">844183804</a>. Retrieved November 5, 2019.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/William_Sarjeant/wBATwvTL">Sarjeant, William A.S.</a>, ed. (1995). Vertebrate Fossils and the Evolution of Scientific Concepts: Writings in Tribute to Beverly Halstead, by Some of His Many Friends. Modern Geology, vol. 18. Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach Publishers. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-2-88124-996-9. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-7775">0026-7775</a>. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/00500382">00500382</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/34672546">34672546</a>. "Reprint of papers published in a special volume of Modern geology [v. 18 (Halstead memorial volume), 1993], with five additional contributions.--Pref."</li>
<li>Tanner, Lawrence H.; Spielmann, Justin A.; Lucas, Spencer G., eds. (2013). <a href="https://econtent.unm.edu/digital/collection/bulletins/id/1645/rec/1">"The Triassic System: New Developments in Stratigraphy and Paleontology"</a>. Bulletin of the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin. 61. Albuquerque, NM: New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1524-4156">1524-4156</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/852432407">852432407</a>. Retrieved October 21, 2019.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/David_B._Weishampel/j6GTWKnC">Weishampel, David B.</a>; Dodson, Peter; <a href="/facts/Halszka_Osm%25C3%25B3lska/kF2xGfyv">Osmólska, Halszka</a>, eds. (2004). <a href="/facts/The_Dinosauria/rkYqjaS8">The Dinosauria</a> (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-520-25408-4. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2004049804">2004049804</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/154697781">154697781</a>.</li></ul>

<h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2>

<ul><li>University of Southampton (September 29, 2021). <a href="https://scitechdaily.com/two-new-species-of-large-predatory-dinosaur-with-crocodile-like-skulls-discovered-on-isle-of-wight/">"Two New Species of Large Predatory Dinosaur With Crocodile-Like Skulls Discovered on Isle of Wight"</a>. SciTechDaily.</li>
<li>Zhou, Zhonghe (October 2004). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721144552/http://www.cisneros-heredia.org/infotrans/usfq/ornitofauna/pdfs/zhou2004.pdf">"The origin and early evolution of birds: discoveries, disputes, and perspectives from fossil evidence"</a> (PDF). Naturwissenschaften. 91 (10). Berlin: Springer Science+Business Media: 455–471. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004NW.....91..455Z">2004NW.....91..455Z</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00114-004-0570-4">10.1007/s00114-004-0570-4</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-1042">0028-1042</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15365634">15365634</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3329625">3329625</a>. Archived from <a href="http://www.cisneros-heredia.org/infotrans/usfq/ornitofauna/pdfs/zhou2004.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on July 21, 2011. Retrieved November 6, 2019.</li>
<li>Paul, Gregory S. (2002). <a href="https://archive.org/details/dinosaursofairev0000paul">Dinosaurs of the Air: The Evolution and Loss of Flight in Dinosaurs and Birds</a>. <a href="/facts/Baltimore/ncJvTzBU">Baltimore</a>; London: <a href="/facts/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press/Npd5lJTV">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8018-6763-7. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2001000242">2001000242</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1088130487">1088130487</a>..</li>
<li>Stewart, Tabori & Chang (1997). <a href="/facts/The_Humongous_Book_of_Dinosaurs/VUHfKGqN">The Humongous Book of Dinosaurs</a>. New York: <a href="/facts/Abrams_Books/ldI3YBN7">Stewart, Tabori & Chang</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-55670-596-0. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/97000398">97000398</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1037269801">1037269801</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Charles_Mortram_Sternberg/awy1owe6">Sternberg, Charles Mortram</a> (1966) [Original edition published by E. Cloutier, printer to the King, 1946]. Canadian Dinosaurs. Geological Series. Vol. 54 (2nd ed.). <a href="/facts/Ottawa/x5FkqX7F">Ottawa</a>: <a href="/facts/National_museums_of_Canada/dhm3DhL3">National Museum of Canada</a>. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/gs46000214">gs46000214</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1032865683">1032865683</a>.</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Dinosaurs (including birds) are members of the natural group Reptilia. Their biology does not precisely correspond to the antiquated class Reptilia of Linnaean taxonomy, consisting of cold-blooded amniotes without fur or feathers. As Linnean taxonomy was formulated for modern animals prior to the study of evolution and paleontology, it fails to account for extinct animals with intermediate traits between traditional classes. <a href="/wiki/Clade" target="_blank">/wiki/Clade</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Weishampel, Dodson & Osmólska 2004, pp. 7–19, chpt. 1: "Origin and Relationships of Dinosauria" by Michael J. Benton. - Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; Osmólska, Halszka, eds. (2004). The Dinosauria (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25408-4. LCCN 2004049804. OCLC 154697781. <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2004049804" target="_blank">https://lccn.loc.gov/2004049804</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Olshevsky 2000 - Olshevsky, George (2000). An Annotated Checklist of Dinosaur Species by Continent. Mesozoic Meanderings. Vol. 3. Illustrated by Tracy Lee Ford. San Diego, CA: Publications Requiring Research. ISSN 0271-9428. LCCN 00708700. OCLC 44433611. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0271-9428" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0271-9428</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Langer, Max C.; Ezcurra, Martin D.; Bittencourt, Jonathas S.; Novas, Fernando E. (February 2010). "The origin and early evolution of dinosaurs". Biological Reviews. 85 (1). Cambridge: Cambridge Philosophical Society: 65–66, 82. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185x.2009.00094.x. hdl:11336/103412. ISSN 1464-7931. PMID 19895605. S2CID 34530296. <a href="/wiki/Martin_Ezcurra" target="_blank">/wiki/Martin_Ezcurra</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">"Using the tree for classification". Understanding Evolution. Berkeley: University of California. Archived from the original on August 31, 2019. Retrieved October 14, 2019. <a href="https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_10" target="_blank">https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_10</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Weishampel, Dodson & Osmólska 2004, pp. 210–231, chpt. 11: "Basal Avialae" by Kevin Padian. - Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; Osmólska, Halszka, eds. (2004). The Dinosauria (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25408-4. LCCN 2004049804. OCLC 154697781. <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2004049804" target="_blank">https://lccn.loc.gov/2004049804</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Wade, Nicholas (March 22, 2017). "Shaking Up the Dinosaur Family Tree". The New York Times. New York. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on April 7, 2018. Retrieved October 30, 2019. "A version of this article appears in print on March 28, 2017, on Page D6 of the New York edition with the headline: Shaking Up the Dinosaur Family Tree." <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wade" target="_blank">/wiki/Nicholas_Wade</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Baron, Matthew G.; Norman, David B.; Barrett, Paul M. (2017). "A new hypothesis of dinosaur relationships and early dinosaur evolution". Nature. 543 (7646). London: Nature Research: 501–506. Bibcode:2017Natur.543..501B. doi:10.1038/nature21700. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 28332513. S2CID 205254710. <a href="/wiki/David_B._Norman" target="_blank">/wiki/David_B._Norman</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:10">Lambert & The Diagram Group 1990, p. 288 - Lambert, David; The Diagram Group (1990). The Dinosaur Data Book: The Definitive, Fully Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs. New York: Avon Books. ISBN 978-0-380-75896-8. LCCN 89092487. OCLC 21833417. Retrieved October 14, 2019. <a href="https://archive.org/details/dinosaurdatabook00lamb" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/dinosaurdatabook00lamb</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Farlow & Brett-Surman 1997, pp. 607–624, chpt. 39: "Major Groups of Non-Dinosaurian Vertebrates of the Mesozoic Era" by Michael Morales. - Farlow, James O.; Brett-Surman, M.K., eds. (1997). The Complete Dinosaur. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-33349-0. LCCN 97-23698. OCLC 924985811. Retrieved October 14, 2019. <a href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780253333490" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780253333490</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:13">Starrfelt, Jostein; Liow, Lee Hsiang (2016). "How many dinosaur species were there? Fossil bias and true richness estimated using a Poisson sampling model". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 371 (1691) 20150219. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0219. PMC 4810813. PMID 26977060. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4810813" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4810813</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Wang, Steve C.; Dodson, Peter (2006). "Estimating the diversity of dinosaurs". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103 (37). Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences: 13601–13605. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10313601W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0606028103. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1564218. PMID 16954187. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Dodson" target="_blank">/wiki/Peter_Dodson</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Russell, Dale A. (1995). "China and the lost worlds of the dinosaurian era". Historical Biology. 10 (1). Milton Park, Oxfordshire: Taylor & Francis: 3–12. Bibcode:1995HBio...10....3R. doi:10.1080/10292389509380510. ISSN 0891-2963. <a href="/wiki/Dale_Russell" target="_blank">/wiki/Dale_Russell</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Starrfelt, Jostein; Liow, Lee Hsiang (2016). "How many dinosaur species were there? Fossil bias and true richness estimated using a Poisson sampling model". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 371 (1691) 20150219. London: Royal Society. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0219. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 4810813. PMID 26977060. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4810813" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4810813</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Black, Riley (March 23, 2016). "Most Dinosaur Species Are Still Undiscovered". National Geographic News. Archived from the original on March 6, 2021. Retrieved June 6, 2021. <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/most-dinosaur-species-are-still-undiscovered/" target="_blank">https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/most-dinosaur-species-are-still-undiscovered/</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Gill, F.; Donsker, D.; Rasmussen, P. (2021). "Welcome". IOC World Bird List 11.1. Archived from the original on July 30, 2023. Retrieved January 25, 2021. <a href="https://www.worldbirdnames.org/new/" target="_blank">https://www.worldbirdnames.org/new/</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">MacLeod, Norman; Rawson, Peter F.; Forey, Peter L.; et al. (1997). "The Cretaceous–Tertiary biotic transition". Journal of the Geological Society. 154 (2). London: Geological Society of London: 265–292. Bibcode:1997JGSoc.154..265M. doi:10.1144/gsjgs.154.2.0265. ISSN 0016-7649. S2CID 129654916. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Geological_Society" target="_blank">/wiki/Journal_of_the_Geological_Society</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Amiot, Romain; Buffetaut, Éric; Lécuyer, Christophe; et al. (2010). "Oxygen isotope evidence for semi-aquatic habits among spinosaurid theropods". Geology. 38 (2). Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America: 139–142. Bibcode:2010Geo....38..139A. doi:10.1130/G30402.1. ISSN 0091-7613. <a href="/wiki/%C3%89ric_Buffetaut" target="_blank">/wiki/%C3%89ric_Buffetaut</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Brusatte 2012, pp. 9–20, 21 - Brusatte, Stephen L. (2012). Benton, Michael J. (ed.). Dinosaur Paleobiology. Topics in Paleobiology. Foreword by Michael J. Benton. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. Bibcode:2012dipa.book.....B. doi:10.1002/9781118274071. ISBN 978-0-470-65658-7. LCCN 2011050466. OCLC 781864955. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012dipa.book.....B" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012dipa.book.....B</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Nesbitt, Sterling J. (2011). "The Early Evolution of Archosaurs: Relationships and the Origin of Major Clades". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 2011 (352). New York: American Museum of Natural History: 1–292. doi:10.1206/352.1. hdl:2246/6112. ISSN 0003-0090. S2CID 83493714. <a href="/wiki/Sterling_Nesbitt" target="_blank">/wiki/Sterling_Nesbitt</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Weishampel, Dodson & Osmólska 2004, pp. 7–19, chpt. 1: "Origin and Relationships of Dinosauria" by Michael J. Benton. - Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; Osmólska, Halszka, eds. (2004). The Dinosauria (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25408-4. LCCN 2004049804. OCLC 154697781. <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2004049804" target="_blank">https://lccn.loc.gov/2004049804</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Paul 2000, pp. 140–168, chpt. 3: "Classification and Evolution of the Dinosaur Groups" by Thomas R. Holtz Jr. - Paul, Gregory S., ed. (2000). The Scientific American Book of Dinosaurs (1st ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-26226-6. LCCN 2001269051. OCLC 45256074. <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2001269051" target="_blank">https://lccn.loc.gov/2001269051</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Weishampel, Dodson & Osmólska 2004, pp. 7–19, chpt. 1: "Origin and Relationships of Dinosauria" by Michael J. Benton. - Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; Osmólska, Halszka, eds. (2004). The Dinosauria (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25408-4. LCCN 2004049804. OCLC 154697781. <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2004049804" target="_blank">https://lccn.loc.gov/2004049804</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Smith, Dave; et al. "Dinosauria: Morphology". Berkeley: University of California Museum of Paleontology. Archived from the original on November 12, 2020. Retrieved October 16, 2019. <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/dinomm.html" target="_blank">https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/dinomm.html</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Langer, Max C.; Abdala, Fernando; Richter, Martha; Benton, Michael J. (1999). "Un dinosaure sauropodomorphe dans le Trias supérieur (Carnien) du Sud du Brésil" [A sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Upper Triassic (Carman) of southern Brazil]. Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, Série IIA. 329 (7). Amsterdam: Elsevier on behalf of the French Academy of Sciences: 511–517. Bibcode:1999CRASE.329..511L. doi:10.1016/S1251-8050(00)80025-7. ISSN 1251-8050. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Benton" target="_blank">/wiki/Michael_Benton</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Nesbitt, Sterling J.; Irmis, Randall B.; Parker, William G. (2007). "A critical re-evaluation of the Late Triassic dinosaur taxa of North America". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 5 (2). Milton Park, Oxfordshire: Taylor & Francis on behalf of the Natural History Museum, London: 209–243. Bibcode:2007JSPal...5..209N. doi:10.1017/S1477201907002040. ISSN 1477-2019. S2CID 28782207. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Systematic_Palaeontology" target="_blank">/wiki/Journal_of_Systematic_Palaeontology</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">This was recognized not later than 1909: Celeskey, Matt (2005). "Dr. W. J. Holland and the Sprawling Sauropods". The Hairy Museum of Natural History. Archived from the original on June 12, 2011. Retrieved October 18, 2019.
Holland, William J. (May 1910). "A Review of Some Recent Criticisms of the Restorations of Sauropod Dinosaurs Existing in the Museums of the United States, with Special Reference to that of Diplodocus Carnegiei in the Carnegie Museum". The American Naturalist. 44 (521). American Society of Naturalists: 259–283. Bibcode:1910ANat...44..258H. doi:10.1086/279138. ISSN 0003-0147. S2CID 84424110. Retrieved October 18, 2019.
The arguments and many of the images are also presented in Desmond 1975.
 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110612180650/http://www.hmnh.org/library/diplodocus/holland1910.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20110612180650/http://www.hmnh.org/library/diplodocus/holland1910.html</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Benton 2005 - Benton, Michael J. (2005). Vertebrate Palaeontology (3rd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-632-05637-8. LCCN 2003028152. OCLC 53970617. Retrieved October 30, 2019. <a href="https://archive.org/details/VertebratePalaeontology" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/VertebratePalaeontology</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">Cowen 2005, pp. 151–175, chpt. 12: "Dinosaurs". - Cowen, Richard (2005). History of Life (4th ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-1756-2. LCCN 2003027993. OCLC 53970577. <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2003027993" target="_blank">https://lccn.loc.gov/2003027993</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Kubo, Tai; Benton, Michael J. (November 2007). "Evolution of hindlimb posture in archosaurs: limb stresses in extinct vertebrates" (PDF). Palaeontology. 50 (6). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell: 1519–1529. Bibcode:2007Palgy..50.1519K. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2007.00723.x. ISSN 0031-0239. S2CID 140698705. <a href="http://doc.rero.ch/record/14855/files/PAL_E1993.pdf" target="_blank">http://doc.rero.ch/record/14855/files/PAL_E1993.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Kubo, Tai; Benton, Michael J. (November 2007). "Evolution of hindlimb posture in archosaurs: limb stresses in extinct vertebrates" (PDF). Palaeontology. 50 (6). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell: 1519–1529. Bibcode:2007Palgy..50.1519K. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2007.00723.x. ISSN 0031-0239. S2CID 140698705. <a href="http://doc.rero.ch/record/14855/files/PAL_E1993.pdf" target="_blank">http://doc.rero.ch/record/14855/files/PAL_E1993.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Dong 1992 - Dong, Zhiming (1992). Dinosaurian Faunas of China (English ed.). Beijing; Berlin; New York: China Ocean Press; Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-52084-9. LCCN 92207835. OCLC 26522845. <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/92207835" target="_blank">https://lccn.loc.gov/92207835</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">"Dinosaur bones 'used as medicine'". BBC News. London: BBC. July 6, 2007. Archived from the original on August 27, 2019. Retrieved November 4, 2019. <a href="https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6276948.stm" target="_blank">https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6276948.stm</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Paul 2000, pp. 10–44, chpt. 1: "A Brief History of Dinosaur Paleontology" by Michael J. Benton. - Paul, Gregory S., ed. (2000). The Scientific American Book of Dinosaurs (1st ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-26226-6. LCCN 2001269051. OCLC 45256074. <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2001269051" target="_blank">https://lccn.loc.gov/2001269051</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">Farlow & Brett-Surman 1997, pp. 3–11, chpt. 1: "The Earliest Discoveries" by William A.S. Sarjeant. - Farlow, James O.; Brett-Surman, M.K., eds. (1997). The Complete Dinosaur. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-33349-0. LCCN 97-23698. OCLC 924985811. Retrieved October 14, 2019. <a href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780253333490" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780253333490</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">Plot 1677, pp. 131–139, illus. opp. p. 142, fig. 4 - Plot, Robert (1677). The Natural History of Oxford-shire: Being an Essay toward the Natural History of England. Oxford; London: S. Millers. LCCN 11004267. OCLC 933062622. Retrieved November 13, 2019. <a href="https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryo00plot/page/n9" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryo00plot/page/n9</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">Plot 1677, p. [1] - Plot, Robert (1677). The Natural History of Oxford-shire: Being an Essay toward the Natural History of England. Oxford; London: S. Millers. LCCN 11004267. OCLC 933062622. Retrieved November 13, 2019. <a href="https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryo00plot/page/n9" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryo00plot/page/n9</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">"Robert Plot" (PDF). Learning more. Oxford: Oxford University Museum of Natural History. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 1, 2006. Retrieved November 14, 2019. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061001094736/http://www.oum.ox.ac.uk/learning/pdfs/plot.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20061001094736/http://www.oum.ox.ac.uk/learning/pdfs/plot.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">Lhuyd 1699, p. 67 - Lhuyd, Edward (1699). Lithophylacii Britannici ichnographia [British figured stones]. London: Ex Officina M.C. Archived from the original on August 14, 2020. Retrieved November 4, 2019. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200814045952/http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/earththeory/id/1913" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20200814045952/http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/earththeory/id/1913</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">Delair, Justin B.; Sarjeant, William A.S. (2002). "The earliest discoveries of dinosaurs: the records re-examined". Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. 113 (3). Amsterdam: Elsevier on behalf of the Geologists' Association: 185–197. Bibcode:2002PrGA..113..185D. doi:10.1016/S0016-7878(02)80022-0. ISSN 0016-7878. <a href="/wiki/Geologists%27_Association" target="_blank">/wiki/Geologists%27_Association</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">Gunther 1968 - Gunther, Robert Theodore, ed. (1968) [First printed in Oxford 1945]. Life and Letters of Edward Lhwyd. Early Science in Oxford. Vol. XIV. Preface by Albert Everard Gunther (Reprint ed.). London: Dawsons of Pall Mall. ISBN 978-0-7129-0292-2. LCCN 22005926. OCLC 43529321. Retrieved November 4, 2019. <a href="https://archive.org/details/earlyscienceinox14gunt/page/n3" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/earlyscienceinox14gunt/page/n3</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">Farlow & Brett-Surman 1997, pp. 3–11, chpt. 1: "The Earliest Discoveries" by William A.S. Sarjeant. - Farlow, James O.; Brett-Surman, M.K., eds. (1997). The Complete Dinosaur. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-33349-0. LCCN 97-23698. OCLC 924985811. Retrieved October 14, 2019. <a href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780253333490" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780253333490</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">Buckland, William (1824). "Notice on the Megalosaurus or great Fossil Lizard of Stonesfield". Transactions of the Geological Society of London. 1 (2). London: Geological Society of London: 390–396. doi:10.1144/transgslb.1.2.390. ISSN 2042-5295. S2CID 129920045. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 21, 2019. Retrieved November 5, 2019. <a href="/wiki/William_Buckland" target="_blank">/wiki/William_Buckland</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">Mantell, Gideon A. (1825). "Notice on the Iguanodon, a newly discovered fossil reptile, from the sandstone of Tilgate forest, in Sussex". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 115. London: Royal Society: 179–186. Bibcode:1825RSPT..115..179M. doi:10.1098/rstl.1825.0010. ISSN 0261-0523. JSTOR 107739. <a href="/wiki/Gideon_Mantell" target="_blank">/wiki/Gideon_Mantell</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:47">Farlow & Brett-Surman 1997, pp. 14, chpt. 2: "European Dinosaur Hunters" by Hans-Dieter Sues. - Farlow, James O.; Brett-Surman, M.K., eds. (1997). The Complete Dinosaur. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-33349-0. LCCN 97-23698. OCLC 924985811. Retrieved October 14, 2019. <a href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780253333490" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780253333490</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:48">"The 'birth' of dinosaurs". More Than A Dodo. April 28, 2017. Archived from the original on March 14, 2023. Retrieved March 15, 2023. <a href="https://morethanadodo.com/2017/04/28/the-birth-of-dinosaurs/" target="_blank">https://morethanadodo.com/2017/04/28/the-birth-of-dinosaurs/</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:49">"The Birth of Dinosaurs: Richard Owen and Dinosauria". Biodiversity Heritage Library. October 16, 2015. Archived from the original on March 14, 2023. Retrieved March 15, 2023. <a href="https://blog.biodiversitylibrary.org/2015/10/the-birth-of-dinosaurs-richard-owen-and-dinosauria.html" target="_blank">https://blog.biodiversitylibrary.org/2015/10/the-birth-of-dinosaurs-richard-owen-and-dinosauria.html</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:50">Brett-Surman, M. K.; Holtz, Thomas R.; Farlow, James O. (June 27, 2012). The Complete Dinosaur. Indiana University Press. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-253-00849-7. <a href="978-0-253-00849-7" target="_blank">978-0-253-00849-7</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:51">Owen 1842, p.103: "The combination of such characters ... will, it is presumed, be deemed sufficient ground for establishing a distinct tribe or sub-order of Saurian Reptiles, for which I would propose the name of Dinosauria*. (*Gr. δεινός, fearfully great; σαύρος, a lizard. ... ) - Owen, Richard (1842). "Report on British Fossil Reptiles. Part II". Report of the Eleventh Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science; Held at Plymouth in July 1841. London: John Murray. pp. 60–204. LCCN 99030427. OCLC 1015526268. Retrieved October 13, 2019. <a href="https://archive.org/details/reportofeleventh42lond/page/n99" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/reportofeleventh42lond/page/n99</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:262">For examples of this work conducted on different dinosaur lineages, see

Erickson, G.M.; Tumanova, T.A. (2000). "Growth curve of Psittacosaurus mongoliensis Osborn (Ceratopsia: Psittacosauridae) inferred from long bone histology". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 130 (4): 551–566. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2000.tb02201.x. S2CID 84241148.
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Erickson, G.; Makovicky, P.; Currie, P.; Norell, M.A.; Yerby, S.A.; Brochu, C.A. (2004). "Gigantism and comparative life-history parameters of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs" (PDF). Nature. 430 (7001): 772–775. Bibcode:2004Natur.430..772E. doi:10.1038/nature02699. PMID 15306807. S2CID 4404887. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 14, 2020. (Erratum: doi:10.1038/nature16487, PMID 26675726,  Retraction Watch)
Lehman, T.M.; Woodward, H.N. (2008). "Modeling growth rates for sauropod dinosaurs" (PDF). Paleobiology. 34 (2): 264–281. doi:10.1666/0094-8373(2008)034[0264:MGRFSD]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 84163725. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 4, 2023. Retrieved January 3, 2023.
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<li id="fn:404">"Dinosaur". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved November 7, 2019. <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Dinosaur" target="_blank">https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Dinosaur</a> <a href="#fnref:404" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:405">Sarjeant 1995, pp. 255–284, chpt. 15: "The Dinosaurs and Dinomania over 150 Years" by Hugh S. Torrens. - Sarjeant, William A.S., ed. (1995). Vertebrate Fossils and the Evolution of Scientific Concepts: Writings in Tribute to Beverly Halstead, by Some of His Many Friends. Modern Geology, vol. 18. Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach Publishers. ISBN 978-2-88124-996-9. ISSN 0026-7775. LCCN 00500382. OCLC 34672546. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-7775" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-7775</a> <a href="#fnref:405" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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</ol>

Dinosaur open-in-new

Dinosaur