Menu
Home
People
Places
Arts
History
Plants & Animals
Science
Life & Culture
Technology
Reference.org
Countercurrent distribution
open-in-new
<h2 id="historical-development">Historical development</h2> <p>Early work in the development of liquid-liquid separation techniques was undertaken by Cornish et al. with a process called "systematic fractional distribution"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> as well as Randall and Longtin,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> however, the central figure is certainly <a href="/facts/Lyman_C._Craig/aNdb2t9T">Lyman C. Craig</a>. Lyman Craig's development of countercurrent distribution began with studying the distribution of a pharmaceutical, <a href="/facts/Mepacrine/Tgjq9l1F">mepacrine</a> (atabrine), between the two layers of an ethylene dichloride, methanol, and aqueous buffer biphasic solvent system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> The distribution coefficient (Kc which coincides with <a href="/facts/Partition_coefficient/D4aTlBal">partition coefficient</a>) of atabrine varied by the composition of the solvent system and the pH of the buffer. In the next article, Craig was inspired by the work of Martin and Synge with <a href="/facts/Partition_chromatography/g3jClgwU">partition chromatography</a> to develop an apparatus that would separate compounds based on their distribution constant (<i>K</i> which coincides with partition coefficient). It was shown that a solvent system composed of benzene, <i>n</i>-hexane, methanol and water would separate mixtures of organic acids.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> It is remarkable that the mathematical theory developed hand-in-hand with the progression of applications.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> Craig continued to pursue this method of separation by testing different compounds,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> formulating biphasic solvent systems,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> and most importantly developing a commercially viable instrument.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p><p>The CCD technique was employed in many notable separations such as <a href="/facts/Penicillin/Abo8VQ3p">penicillin</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon/K52xSfNC">polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Insulin/oXG0myt1">insulin</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Bile_acids/ojTJzf0c">bile acids</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Ribonucleic_acid/HxPeNfNj">ribonucleic acids</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Taxol/sGxTE647">taxol</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> <i>Streptomyces</i> antibiotics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> and many other antibiotics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Moore, Stanford (1978). "Lyman Creighton Craig 1906-1974". National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoirs: 49–77. Retrieved 2016-02-26. <a href="http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/20000680.html" target="_blank">http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/20000680.html</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Joseph-Nathan, P. (1967). "Liquid-liquid extraction". Journal of Chemical Education. 44 (3): 176. Bibcode:1967JChEd..44..176J. doi:10.1021/ed044p176. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>"Countercurrent Separations". 2 December 2013. <a href="https://chem.libretexts.org/Core/Analytical_Chemistry/Instrumental_Analysis/Countercurrent_Separations" target="_blank">https://chem.libretexts.org/Core/Analytical_Chemistry/Instrumental_Analysis/Countercurrent_Separations</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Cornish, R. E.; Archibald, R. C.; Murphy, Elizabeth A.; Evans, H. M. (1934). "Purification of Vitamins - Fractional Distribution between Immiscible Solvents". Industrial & Engineering Chemistry. 26 (4): 397–406. doi:10.1021/ie50292a010. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Randall, Merle; Longtin, Bruce (1938). "Separation Processes: General Method of Analysis". Industrial & Engineering Chemistry. 30 (9): 1063–1067. doi:10.1021/ie50345a028. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Lyman C. Craig (1943). "Identification of Small Amounts of Organic Compounds by Distribution Studies. Application to Atabrine". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 150: 33–45. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)51248-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2818%2951248-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2818%2951248-5</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Lyman C. Craig (1944). "Identification of Small Amounts of Organic Compounds by Distribution Studies. II. Separation by Counter-current Distribution". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 155: 535–546. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Williamson, Byron; Craig, Calvin (1947). "Identification of Small Amounts of Organic Compounds by Distribution Studies. V. Calculation of Theoretical Curves". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 168 (2): 687–697. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(17)30926-2. PMID 20238623. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2817%2930926-2" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2817%2930926-2</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Craig, L. C. (1950). "Partition Chromatography and Countercurrent Distribution". Analytical Chemistry. 22 (11): 1346–1352. doi:10.1021/ac60047a003. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Sato, Yoshio; Barry, Guy T.; Craig, Lyman C. (1947). "Identification of Small Amounts of Organic Compounds by Distribution Studies. VII. Separation and Estimation of Normal Fatty Acids". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 170 (2): 501–507. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(17)30832-3. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2817%2930832-3" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2817%2930832-3</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Craig, Lyman C.; Golumbic, Calvin; Mighton, Harold; Titus, Elwood (1945). "Identification of Small Amounts of Organic Compounds by Distribution Studies. III. The Use of Buffers in Counter-current Distribution". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 161: 321–332. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(17)41546-8. PMID 21005739. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2817%2941546-8" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2817%2941546-8</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Craig, L. C.; Post, Otto (1949). "Apparatus for Countercurrent Distribution". Analytical Chemistry. 21 (4): 500–504. doi:10.1021/ac60028a013. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Craig, L. C.; Hausmann, Werner; Ahrens, E. H.; Harfenist, E. J. (1951). "Automatic Countercurrent Distribution Equipment". Analytical Chemistry. 23 (9): 1236–1244. doi:10.1021/ac60057a009. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Craig, Lyman C.; Hogeboom, George H.; Carpenter, Frederick H.; Vigneaud, Vincent du (1947). "Separation and Characterization of Some Penicillins by the Method of Counter-Current Distribution". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 168 (2): 665–686. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(17)30925-0. PMID 20238622. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2817%2930925-0" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2817%2930925-0</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Golumbic, Calvin. (1950). "Separation and Analysis of Polynuclear Compounds by Countercurrent Distribution". Analytical Chemistry. 22 (4): 579–582. doi:10.1021/ac60040a023. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Harfenist, Elizabeth J.; Craig, Lyman C. (1951). "Countercurrent Distribution of Insulin". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 73 (2): 877–878. doi:10.1021/ja01146a538. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Ahrens, Jr., Edward H.; Craig, Lyman C. (1952). "The Extraction and Separation of Bile Acids". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 195 (2): 763–778. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)55787-2. PMID 14946188. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2818%2955787-2" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2818%2955787-2</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Kirby, K.S. (1960). "Fractionation of ribonucleic acids by countercurrent distribution". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 41 (2): 338–340. doi:10.1016/0006-3002(60)90018-4. PMID 14409277. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Wani, Mansukh C.; Horwitz, Susan Band (2014). "Nature as a remarkable chemist: a personal story of the discovery and development of Taxol". Anti-Cancer Drugs. 25 (5): 482–487. doi:10.1097/CAD.0000000000000063. PMC 3980006. PMID 24413390. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3980006" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3980006</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Swart, E. Augustus. (1949). "The Use of Counter-Current Distribution for the Characterization of Streptomyces Antibiotics". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 71 (8): 2942–2944. doi:10.1021/ja01176a524. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Craig, Lyman C.; Sogn, John (1975). "Isolation of antibiotics by countercurrent distribution". Methods in Enzymology. Vol. 43. Elsevier. pp. 320–346. doi:10.1016/0076-6879(75)43092-0. ISBN 978-0-12-181943-9. PMID 1134363. <a href="978-0-12-181943-9" target="_blank">978-0-12-181943-9</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>