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Zinc mining
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<h2 id="history">History</h2> <p>Zinc deposits have been exploited for thousands of years: the oldest known zinc mine, in <a href="/facts/Rajasthan/rC0MvrRD">Rajasthan</a>, India, was established nearly 2000 years <a href="/facts/Before_Present/BywUcMvW">BP</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p><p>Pure zinc was produced in the 9th century AD; earlier in antiquity zinc was primarily used to alloy with copper to produce <a href="/facts/Brass/pe8EHk6x">brass</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> This is because it is difficult to isolate zinc metal from its ore. At the temperature zinc is released from its ore it also vaporizes into a gas, and if the furnace is not airtight, the gaseous zinc reacts with the air to form <a href="/facts/Zinc_oxide/P7sTyDez">zinc oxide</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p><p>Metallic zinc was smelted in the 9th century BC in India, followed by China 300 years later, and in Europe by 1738 AD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> The methods of smelting in China and India were most likely independently developed, while the method of smelting developed in Europe was likely derived from the Indian method.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="modern-uses">Modern uses</h2> Primary modern uses for zinc<table><tbody><tr><th>Use</th><th>Approx %worldwide</th></tr><tr><td>Coating iron and steel in order to prevent their corrosion (<a href="/facts/Galvanization/htRtThFL">galvanization</a>)</td><td>50%<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Production of brass: the zinc is alloyed with copper in ratios of 20%–40% zinc.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a></td><td>20%</td></tr><tr><td>Production of zinc alloys: the zinc is combined with varying proportions of <a href="/facts/Aluminium/7wmR8jYE">aluminium</a> and <a href="/facts/Magnesium/XyIhd2FG">magnesium</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a></td><td>15%</td></tr><tr><td>Various other industries, as an agricultural fertilizer and as a human food supplement.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a></td><td>15%</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="methods-of-extraction">Methods of extraction</h2> <p>Zinc is mined both at the surface and at depth. Surface mining of zinc is typically used for oxide ores, while underground mining yields <a href="/facts/Zinc_sulfide/K8l5AF3K">zinc sulfide</a> ores.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> Some of the common methods of zinc mining are open pit mining, open stope, and cut and fill mining:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Open-pit_mining/IvTLjU41">Open-pit mining</a>: Surface mining involves the removal of waste rock from above an ore deposit before it can be extracted. Once the waste overburden is removed, ore and waste are then mined in parallel, primarily using <a href="/facts/Continuous_track/Kdn9EBLN">track-mounted</a> <a href="/facts/Excavator/4WNsUkjs">excavators</a> and rubber-tired trucks. In smaller scale operations, <a href="/facts/Loader_(equipment)/0EDM3gur">front loaders</a> may be used.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Stoping/V85ja0ek">Open Stope mining:</a> This is a method of underground mining where ore bodies are completely removed leaving sizeable caverns (stopes) within the mine. Open stope mining leaves these caverns with no additional bracing or external support; instead the cavern walls are supported by random pillars of ore which have not been removed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p><p>Cut and Fill stoping: A method of underground mining which removes ore from below the deposit. The stope is then filled with waste rock to replace the mined out ore to support the stope walls, and to provide an elevated floor for the miners and equipment to further extract ore from the deposit.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="production">Production</h2> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/List_of_countries_by_zinc_production/KltmaAge">List of countries by zinc production</a></p> <p>Global mine production of zinc in 2019 was 12.9 million tonnes, a 0.9% increase from 2018, with the increase primarily attributed to increased output from zinc mines in <a href="/facts/Australia/qLHpbppq">Australia</a> and <a href="/facts/Mining_in_South_Africa/sQ6JAz7u">South Africa</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> </p><p>In 2020, production of zinc is expected to rise 3.7% to 13.99 million tonnes, with the increase due to increased production of zinc by <a href="/facts/China/lTjIXY5p">China</a> and <a href="/facts/India/1kKHcnxM">India</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> </p><p>In 2019 global demand for refined zinc exceeded supply and resulted in a deficit of 0.178 million tonnes, while in 2020 there is an expected surplus of 0.192 million tonnes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> </p> Major zinc producing countries ranked by their output for 2023<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><th>Country</th><th>Output (million tonnes)</th><th>Share of world production</th></tr><tr><td>China</td><td>4</td><td>33%</td></tr><tr><td>Peru</td><td>1.4</td><td>12%</td></tr><tr><td>Australia</td><td>1.1</td><td>9%</td></tr><tr><td>India</td><td>0.86</td><td>7%</td></tr><tr><td>USA</td><td>0.75</td><td>6%</td></tr><tr><td>Mexico</td><td>0.69</td><td>6%</td></tr><tr><td>Bolivia</td><td>0.49</td><td>4%</td></tr><tr><td>Other countries</td><td>2.71</td><td>23%</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="environmental-impact">Environmental impact</h2> <p>Research on the health of the <a href="/facts/Benthos/DeHzh0sN">benthic macroinvertebrate</a> populations in the mining areas of southeastern <a href="/facts/Missouri/wQ3VAb99">Missouri</a>, USA, have yielded a wealth of information on the effects of zinc mining on its local environment. Fish and crayfish populations in localities near mining sites have been observed to be much lower than other populations found in reference sites; and the crayfish tissues have much higher metal concentrations than their reference counterparts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> It was also found that mussel populations near lead-zinc mining areas had reduced <a href="/facts/Biomass/4VHjaya3">biomass</a>, and were less specious than those found in reference sites.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> Concentrations of metals 10-60% higher than reference have been reported in plant tissues.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> Immediately downstream of mining activity, a reduction in biotic condition of <a href="/facts/Macroinvertebrate/3CyqCVnN">macroinvertebrates</a> by 10%-58%[<i>Need to explain how biotic condition has been quantified.</i>] have been observed, with the ecosystem having an impaired <a href="/facts/Carrying_capacity/7KNgGmIv">ability to support its populations</a> when compared to other reference sites.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> </p><p>Benthic macro-invertebrates such as crayfish and mussels represent a pathway for <a href="/facts/Biomagnification/Jw5whhaj">biomagnification</a>, where the concentration of noxious materials within organisms at higher trophic levels accumulates as a result of consuming contaminated prey. In addition, benthic macroinvertebrate populations are frequently used as <a href="/facts/Bioindicator/smsha83y">indicators of overall ecosystem health</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> </p><p>Soil samples from agricultural areas near a lead-zinc mining region in <a href="/facts/Guangxi/1BIHzs3q">Guangxi</a>, China have shown a "serious pollution level" of zinc in paddy fields relatively close to the mining area, and a "moderate pollution level" in the aerated fields relatively further away.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> The research also indicated that their Nemerow synthetic index assessment showed that the region under study is not fit for agricultural purposes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> Other investigation into the effect of zinc mining on agricultural soils in the <a href="/facts/Heilongjiang/lCa5cxw7">Heilongjiang</a> Province of China has found that the soils were "moderately contaminated", and the population and diversity of the bacterial assemblages within the soils were significantly reduced, with reduced activity of soil enzymes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> The activity of the bacteria and enzymes help plant matter to take up nutrients, decompose decaying matter, and in other ecosystem interactions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> Their reduction and impaired effectiveness result in poorer agricultural productivity. </p> <h2 id="zinc-mines">Zinc mines</h2> The world's ten largest zinc producing mines (by tonnes of zinc)<table><tbody><tr><th>Name</th><th>Country</th><th>Owner(s)</th><th>Production(tonnes)</th><th>Year and ref.</th><th>Operations</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Red_Dog_mine/f0o9Wj1I">Red Dog</a></td><td>USA</td><td><a href="/facts/Teck_Resources/ESEpRpSv">Teck Resources</a></td><td>552,400</td><td>(2019)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a></td><td>Open-pit zinc-lead-silver mine</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Rampura_Agucha/BvESzK7o">Rampura Agucha</a></td><td>India</td><td><a href="/facts/Vedanta_Resources/flL5uDaX">Vedanta Resources</a> (64.9%)<a href="/facts/Government_of_India/BIpETqjv">Government of India</a> (29.5%)[<i>Article says fully owned by Vedanta</i>]</td><td>357,571</td><td>(2019)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a></td><td>Underground zinc-lead-silver mine</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Mount_Isa_Mines/m7zTVxvC">Mount Isa</a></td><td>Australia</td><td><a href="/facts/Glencore/XPUBgBof">Glencore</a></td><td>326,400</td><td>(2019)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a></td><td>George Fisher and Lady Loretta underground lead-zinc-silver mines</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Antamina_mine/G4HlmsLC">Antamina</a></td><td>Peru</td><td><a href="/facts/BHP/KIj8E6Nh">BHP</a> (33.75%)Glencore (33.75%)Teck Resources (22.5%)<a href="/facts/Mitsubishi_Corporation/2ckD671A">Mitsubishi Corporation</a> (10%)</td><td>303,555</td><td>(2019)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a></td><td>Open-pit copper-zinc-molybdenum mine</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/McArthur_River_zinc_mine/MH0Mvprp">McArthur River</a></td><td>Australia</td><td>Glencore</td><td>271,200</td><td>(2019)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a></td><td>Open-pit zinc-lead-silver mine</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/San_Crist%25C3%25B3bal_mine_(Bolivia)/a93NKype">San Cristóbal</a></td><td>Bolivia</td><td><a href="/facts/Sumitomo_Corporation/Xc2dzQD3">Sumitomo Corporation</a></td><td>206,100</td><td>(2019)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a></td><td>Open-pit silver-lead-zinc mine</td></tr><tr><td>Dugald River</td><td>Australia</td><td><a href="/facts/China_Minmetals/zq1r9lCe">China Minmetals</a></td><td>170,057</td><td>(2019)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a></td><td>Underground cut and fill <a href="/facts/Stoping/V85ja0ek">stoping</a></td></tr><tr><td>Vazante</td><td>Brazil</td><td><a href="/facts/Compa%25C3%25B1%25C3%25ADa_Minera_Milpo/A00QxKsP">Nexa Resources</a></td><td>139,000</td><td>(2019)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a></td><td>Underground and open pit zinc-lead-silver mine</td></tr><tr><td>Cerro Lindo</td><td>Peru</td><td>Nexa Resources</td><td>126,000</td><td>(2019)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a></td><td>Underground zinc-lead-copper-silver mine</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Tara_Mine/8KfQ9eRJ">Tara</a></td><td>Ireland</td><td><a href="/facts/Boliden_AB/flbKyn5g">Boliden AB</a></td><td>122,463</td><td>(2019)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a></td><td>Underground zinc-lead mine</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Zinc_mining_in_the_United_States/vqctz6p8">Zinc mining in the United States</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Russell, Peter; Tharmanathan, Tharsika (28 February 2013). "Zinc". Earth Sciences Museum. Waterloo, ON: University of Waterloo. Retrieved 27 February 2020. <a href="https://uwaterloo.ca/earth-sciences-museum/resources/detailed-rocks-and-minerals-articles/zinc" target="_blank">https://uwaterloo.ca/earth-sciences-museum/resources/detailed-rocks-and-minerals-articles/zinc</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>"Processing". McArthur River Mine. Glencore. Retrieved 28 February 2020. <a href="https://www.mcarthurrivermine.com.au/en/about-us/mining-process/Pages/processing.aspx" target="_blank">https://www.mcarthurrivermine.com.au/en/about-us/mining-process/Pages/processing.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Tolcin, Amy C. (29 January 2021). "Zinc" (PDF). Mineral commodity summaries 2021. Reston, Virginia: U.S. Geological Survey. pp. 190–191. ISBN 978-1-4113-4398-6. Retrieved 23 January 2021. <a href="978-1-4113-4398-6" target="_blank">978-1-4113-4398-6</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>"Teck 2019 Annual Report" (PDF). Vancouver, BC: Teck Resources Limited. 26 February 2020. p. 22. Retrieved 31 March 2020. <a href="https://www.teck.com/media/2019-Annual-Report.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.teck.com/media/2019-Annual-Report.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>"Industry Trend Analysis - Global Zinc Mining Outlook" (PDF). Mining.com. 4 October 2018. Retrieved 28 February 2020. <a href="https://mining.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Global-Mining-Zinc_Mining_Outlook-Fitch-Solutions-04-October-2018.pdf" target="_blank">https://mining.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Global-Mining-Zinc_Mining_Outlook-Fitch-Solutions-04-October-2018.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>"Industry Trend Analysis - Global Zinc Mining Outlook" (PDF). Mining.com. 4 October 2018. Retrieved 28 February 2020. <a href="https://mining.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Global-Mining-Zinc_Mining_Outlook-Fitch-Solutions-04-October-2018.pdf" target="_blank">https://mining.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Global-Mining-Zinc_Mining_Outlook-Fitch-Solutions-04-October-2018.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Willies, Lynn; Craddock, P. T.; Gurjar, L. J.; Hegde, K. T. M. (October 1984). "Ancient lead and zinc mining in Rajasthan, India". World Archaeology. 16 (2): 222–233. doi:10.1080/00438243.1984.9979929. ISSN 0043-8243. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Kharakwal, J. S.; Gurjar, L. K. (2006-12-01). "Zinc and Brass in Archaeological Perspective". Ancient Asia. 1: 139. doi:10.5334/aa.06112. ISSN 2042-5937. <a href="https://doi.org/10.5334%2Faa.06112" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.5334%2Faa.06112</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Craddock, P.T. (January 1987). "The early history of zinc". Endeavour. 11 (4): 183–191. doi:10.1016/0160-9327(87)90282-1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>La Niece, Susan; Hook, Duncan R.; Craddock, Paul T., eds. (2007). Metals and mines : studies in archaeometallurgy. London: Archetype Publications in association with the British Museum. ISBN 978-1-904982-19-7. OCLC 174131337. <a href="978-1-904982-19-7" target="_blank">978-1-904982-19-7</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Kharakwal, J. S.; Gurjar, L. K. (2006-12-01). "Zinc and Brass in Archaeological Perspective". Ancient Asia. 1: 139. doi:10.5334/aa.06112. ISSN 2042-5937. <a href="https://doi.org/10.5334%2Faa.06112" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.5334%2Faa.06112</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Craddock, Paul Terence (2009-05-01). "The origins and inspirations of zinc smelting". Journal of Materials Science. 44 (9): 2181–2191. Bibcode:2009JMatS..44.2181C. doi:10.1007/s10853-008-2942-1. ISSN 1573-4803. S2CID 135523239. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Kharakwal, J. S.; Gurjar, L. K. (2006-12-01). "Zinc and Brass in Archaeological Perspective". Ancient Asia. 1: 139. doi:10.5334/aa.06112. ISSN 2042-5937. <a href="https://doi.org/10.5334%2Faa.06112" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.5334%2Faa.06112</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Doran, David; Cather, Bob, eds. (2013-07-24). Construction materials reference book (Second ed.). Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-13921-6. OCLC 855585443. <a href="978-1-135-13921-6" target="_blank">978-1-135-13921-6</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Doran, David; Cather, Bob, eds. (2013-07-24). Construction materials reference book (Second ed.). Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-13921-6. OCLC 855585443. <a href="978-1-135-13921-6" target="_blank">978-1-135-13921-6</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Doran, David; Cather, Bob, eds. (2013-07-24). Construction materials reference book (Second ed.). Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-13921-6. OCLC 855585443. <a href="978-1-135-13921-6" target="_blank">978-1-135-13921-6</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Doran, David; Cather, Bob, eds. (2013-07-24). Construction materials reference book (Second ed.). Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-13921-6. OCLC 855585443. <a href="978-1-135-13921-6" target="_blank">978-1-135-13921-6</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>"Zinc processing - Ores". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-02-13. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/zinc-processing" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/technology/zinc-processing</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>"Zinc processing - Ores". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-02-13. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/zinc-processing" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/technology/zinc-processing</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Craddock, P.T. (January 1987). "The early history of zinc". Endeavour. 11 (4): 183–191. doi:10.1016/0160-9327(87)90282-1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Grosh, Wesley A. (1959). Zinc-ore mining and milling methods, Piquette Mining and Milling Co., Tennyson, Wis. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. ISBN 9781135139209. OCLC 609238014. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="9781135139209" target="_blank">9781135139209</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Storms, Walter R. (1949). 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