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Megatherium
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<h2 id="research-history">Research history</h2> <p>The earliest specimen of <i>Megatherium americanum</i> was discovered in 1787 by Manuel de Torres, a <a href="/facts/Dominican_Order/n9l5y8Yk">Dominican</a> friar and naturalist, from a <a href="/facts/Ravine/aS8FAl19">ravine</a> on the banks of the <a href="/facts/Luj%25C3%25A1n_River/pvgzl2aS">Lujan River</a> in what is now northern Argentina, which at the time was part of the <a href="/facts/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%25C3%25ADo_de_la_Plata/WYCKLlu7">Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata</a> in the <a href="/facts/Spanish_Empire/RaWWgnQS">Spanish Empire</a>. Torres described the bones as a ‘wonder and providence of the Lord’. On the orders of the then viceroy of la Plata, <a href="/facts/Nicol%25C3%25A1s_del_Campo/MgGsJ0ya">Nicolás Cristóbal del Campo, Marqués de Loreto</a>, the specimen was moved to the capital <a href="/facts/Buenos_Aires/9lUVmS7f">Buenos Aires</a>. There the skeleton was drawn for the first time by José Custodio Sáa y Faria in a horse-like posture. Campo summoned a number of local indigenous leaders to ask if they had heard of the animal. The skeleton was then transferred by Campo to the Royal Cabinet of Natural History of Madrid (now the <a href="/facts/Museo_Nacional_de_Ciencias_Naturales/G2yFXAqL">National Museum of Natural Sciences</a> MNCN) in 7 crates, which had arrived and been unpacked by late 1788.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> </p><p>At the direction of the cabinets main taxidermist Juan Bautista Bru, the specimen was then mounted for public exhibition (which remains unaltered in the modern museum display). In 1796 a scientific description of the skeleton was published authored by Bru along with engineer Joseph Garriga, with engravings by Manuel Navarro. As the work was going through the process of publication in 1795, preliminary prints of the paper were obtained by French diplomat Philippe-Rose Roume who was in Madrid at the time, who sent them to the <a href="/facts/National_Museum_of_Natural_History%2c_France/eJBwetJD">National Museum of Natural History</a> (<i>Muséum national d'histoire naturelle</i>) in Paris, France, where they were seen by French anatomist and paleontologist <a href="/facts/Georges_Cuvier/4mmE7NzN">Georges Cuvier</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> </p><p>Cuvier, working solely from the prints from Madrid and not visiting the specimen personally,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> and using <a href="/facts/Comparative_anatomy/UycBTvDH">comparative anatomy</a> with "edentate" mammals (now recognised as members of the order <a href="/facts/Xenarthra/jEr4EcPD">Xenarthra</a>) in the collection of the Paris museum,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> correctly recognised that the remains represented those of a giant sloth, and an animal that was entirely extinct and not living. In early 1796, somewhat before the full publication of the work by Bru, Garriga and Navarro, Cuvier published a paper naming the species <i>Megatherium americanum</i> (literally "Great American beast"),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> becoming the first fossil mammal to be identified with both a <a href="/facts/Genus/m8EFjSms">genus</a> and species name. Which description had <a href="/facts/Principle_of_priority/bfHpKEDK">priority</a> has been controversial in the past. Cuvier later wrote a fuller description in 1804, which was republished in his famous 1812 book <i>Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles de quadrupèdes.</i> Cuvier identified <i>Megatherium</i> as a sloth primarily on the basis of its skull morphology, the <a href="/facts/Dental_formula/yMEdzfHh">dental formula</a> and the shoulder, while regarding the anatomy of its limbs as more similar to <a href="/facts/Armadillo/4acbwyFn">armadillos</a> and <a href="/facts/Anteater/4SAoVuwu">anteaters</a>. Cuvier suggested that based on the proportions of its limbs (which are approximately equal to each other), that <i>Megatherium</i> did not jump or run, nor crawl like living sloths, with the presence of a <a href="/facts/Clavicle/YWNjLv6s">clavicle</a> and well developed crests on the <a href="/facts/Humerus/9h0R2GuY">humerus</a>, suggesting to Cuvier that the animal probably used its forelimbs to grasp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> A later publication in 1823 by Cuvier suggested that giant carapaces found in the Pampas also belonged to <i>Megatherium</i>, but British paleontologist <a href="/facts/Richard_Owen/M8H3td41">Richard Owen</a> in 1839 demonstrated that these actually belonged to another extinct group of xenarthrans called <a href="/facts/Glyptodonts/7Dhw5RAA">glyptodonts</a> that were related to armadillos.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p><p> Additional remains of <i>Megatherium</i> were collected by <a href="/facts/Charles_Darwin/uwDLGItY">Charles Darwin</a> during the <a href="/facts/Second_voyage_of_HMS_Beagle/yTfNkp8n">Voyage of the Beagle</a> in the 1830s, these remains were assigned by Richard Owen in 1840 to the species <i>Megatherium cuvieri</i>, which had been named by <a href="/facts/Anselme_Ga%25C3%25ABtan_Desmarest/U1vLEUVh">Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest</a> in 1822. These remains are now assigned to <i>M. americanum.</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a></p><p>Owen later wrote a monograph series from 1851 to 1860 thoroughly describing the anatomy of <i>M. americanum.</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p><p>From the late 19th century onward additional species of <i>Megatherium</i> were described. In 1888 Argentine explorer <a href="/facts/Francisco_Moreno/7pgF0au0">Francisco Moreno</a> erected the species <i>Megatherium filholi</i> for remains found in the Late Pleistocene of Argentina.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a><i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a></i> In 1880 <a href="/facts/Paul_Gervais/Amvo2Am3">Paul Gervais</a> and <a href="/facts/Florentino_Ameghino/W418QUmx">Florentino Ameghino</a> described the species <i>M. tarijense</i> from remains of Pleistocene age found in Bolivia. In 1893 <a href="/facts/Rodolfo_Amando_Philippi/RK14D77f">Rodolfo Amando Philippi</a> erected the species <i>M. sundti</i> and <i>M. medinae</i> from remains found in the Pleistocene of Bolivia and Chile, respectively.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> In 1921, Florentino's brother <a href="/facts/Carlos_Ameghino/aoJefUbk">Carlos Ameghino</a> and Lucas Kraglievich described the species <i>Megatherium gallardoi</i> based on remains found in the Pampas of Northern Argentina, of Early-Middle Pleistocene age.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> In 2001, the species <i>M. altiplanicum</i> was described based on remains found in the Pliocene of Bolivia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> In 2004, the species <i>Megatherium urbinai</i> was erected based on remains found in Pleistocene aged deposits in Peru.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> In 2006, the species <i>Megatherium celendinense</i> was erected for remains of Pleistocene age found in the Peruvian Andes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="taxonomy-and-evolution">Taxonomy and evolution</h2> <p><i>Megatherium</i> is divided into 2 <a href="/facts/Subgenus/csbIQaGC">subgenera</a>, <i>Megatherium</i> and <i>Pseudomegatherium.</i> Taxonomy according to Pujos (2006) and De Iuliis <i>et al</i> (2009):<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> </p> <ul><li>Subgenus <i>Megatherium</i> <ul><li>†<i>M. altiplanicum</i> Saint-André & de Iuliis 2001</li> <li>†<i>M. americanum</i> Cuvier 1796</li> <li><i>†M. gallardoi</i> Ameghino & Kraglievich, 1921</li></ul></li> <li>Subgenus <i>Pseudomegatherium</i> Kraglievich 1931 <ul><li>†<i>M. celendinense</i> Pujos 2006</li> <li>†<i>M. medinae</i> Philippi 1893</li> <li>†<i>M. sundti</i> Philippi 1893</li> <li>†<i>M. tarijense</i> Gervais & Ameghino, 1880</li> <li>†<i>M. urbinai</i> Pujos & Salas 2004</li></ul></li></ul> <p><i>Megatherium gallardoi</i> Ameghino & Kraglievich, 1921 from the Pampas dating to the <a href="/facts/Pleistocene/0ya9eUp5">Early</a> to <a href="/facts/Middle_Pleistocene/UIH3W1Uk">Middle Pleistocene</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> has sometimes been regarded as a synonym of <i>M. americanum</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> The species <i>Megatherium filholi</i> Moreno, 1888 also from the Pleistocene of the Pampas region, historically regarded to be a junior synonym of <i>M. americanum</i> representing juvenile individuals has been suggested to be valid by some recent authors.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> <i>Megatherium gaudryi</i> Moreno (1888) from Argentina, of uncertain temporal provenance but possibly Pliocene in age, may also be valid.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Mitochondrial_DNA/goC0ex0X">Mitochondrial DNA</a> sequences obtained from <i>M. americanum</i> indicates that <a href="/facts/Three-toed_sloth/ohl465EI">three-toed sloths</a> (<i>Bradypus</i>) are their closest living relatives. Phylogeny of sloths after Delsuc et al. 2019.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><td><a href="/facts/Folivora/r97Q11Ls">Folivora</a> (sloths)</td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p>†<a href="/facts/Megalocnidae/jwFtNJ5o">Caribbean sloths</a></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td>Mylodontoidea</td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Two-toed_sloths/7Yupk8rm">Two-toed sloths</a> <i>(Choelopus)</i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p>†<a href="/facts/Mylodontidae/CeAf4Trj">Mylodontidae</a> (<i><a href="/facts/Mylodon/Jt1DxE9g">Mylodon</a></i>)</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td>Megatherioidea</td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p>†<a href="/facts/Megatheriidae/3Lbvku39">Megatheriidae</a> (<i>Megatherium</i>)</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p>†<a href="/facts/Megalonychidae/FNoQTzA3">Megalonychidae</a> (<i><a href="/facts/Megalonyx/cHmN8u5g">Megalonyx</a></i>)</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p>†<a href="/facts/Nothrotheriidae/fAYDKGSN">Nothrotheriidae</a> (<i><a href="/facts/Nothrotheriops/5EJxn91q">Nothrotheriops</a></i>)</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Three-toed_sloths/ohl465EI">Three-toed sloths</a> (<i>Bradypus</i>)</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table><p><a href="/facts/Megatheriidae/3Lbvku39">Megatheriidae</a> is suggested to have diverged from other sloth families during the <a href="/facts/Oligocene/n3gnNogo">Oligocene</a>, around 30 million years ago.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> The subfamily to which <i>Megatherium</i> belongs, <a href="/facts/Megatheriinae/rWexW5BP">Megatheriinae</a>, first appeared in the <a href="/facts/Middle_Miocene/kJPUC4QK">Middle Miocene</a> in <a href="/facts/Patagonia/HmNlUCh5">Patagonia</a>, at least 12 million years ago, represented by the genus <i><a href="/facts/Megathericulus/Ig7FIWVG">Megathericulus</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> The earliest known remains of the genus <i>Megatherium</i> are known from the <a href="/facts/Pliocene/MjcIVQ86">Pliocene</a>, found in Bolivia (<i>M. altiplanicum</i>) and the Pampas (indeterminate species), dating to at least 3.6 million years ago.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> <i>M. altiplanicum</i> is suggested to be more closely related to <i>M. americanum</i> than to species of <i>Pseudomegatherium</i>. Phylogeny of Megatheriinae after Pujos, 2006:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><td><a href="/facts/Megatheriinae/rWexW5BP">Megatheriinae</a></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><i>Plesiomegatherium</i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><i><a href="/facts/Megathericulus/Ig7FIWVG">Megathericulus</a></i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><i>Megatheriops</i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><i>Pyramiodontherium bergi</i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><i>Pyramiodontherium brevirostrum</i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><i><a href="/facts/Eremotherium/6kKIfEMa">Eremotherium</a></i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Megatherium</i></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td><i>Megatherium</i> (<i>Megatherium</i>)</td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><i>Megatherium americanum</i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><i>Megatherium altiplanicum</i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Megatherium</i> (<i>Pseudomegatherium</i>)</td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><i>Megatherium sundti</i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><i>Megatherium urbinai</i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><i>Megatherium celendinense</i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><i>Megatherium medinae</i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><i>Megatherium tarijense</i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table><p><i>Megatherium americanum</i> first appears in the fossil record during the second half of the <a href="/facts/Middle_Pleistocene/UIH3W1Uk">Middle Pleistocene</a>, from around 400,000 years ago.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> </p><h2 id="description">Description</h2> <h3>Size</h3> <p><i>M. americanum</i> is one of the largest known ground sloths, with a total body length of around 6 metres (20 ft).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Volumetric/aeAXCBUd">Volumetric</a> analysis suggests that a full grown <i>M. americanum</i> weighed around 3,700–4,000 kilograms (8,200–8,800 lb), comparable to an Asian elephant.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> The Late Pleistocene Andean-Altiplano <i>Pseudomegatherium</i> species <i>Megatherium celendinense</i> was likely comparable in size. These species were only rivalled in size amongst ground sloths by the closely related <i><a href="/facts/Eremotherium/6kKIfEMa">Eremotherium</a></i> and the distantly related <i><a href="/facts/Lestodon/b4gvP1QH">Lestodon</a></i>. The Chilean <i>Pseudomegatherium</i> species <i>M. sundti</i> was much smaller, with an estimated body mass of only 1,253 kilograms (2,762 lb), with the Peruvian <i>Megatherium urbinai,</i> Bolivian <i>Megatherium tarijense</i> and the Chilean <i>Megatherium medinae</i> (all also belonging to <i>Pseudomegatherium</i>) also having a considerably smaller body size than <i>M. americanum.</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> The Pliocene <i>Megatherium</i> (<i>Megatherium</i>) species <i>M. altiplanicum</i> has been estimated to weigh 977–1,465 kilograms (2,154–3,230 lb).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> </p> <h3>Skull and jaws</h3> <p>The head of <i>Megatherium</i> is relatively small compared to body size.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> The skull is roughly cylindrical in shape, with the cranial region of the skull being narrow. The <a href="/facts/Jugal_bone/Tl6PwYP6">jugal</a> bone of <i>M. americanum</i> has strongly developed ascending and descending <a href="/facts/Process_(anatomy)/IglUglyL">processes</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> The skull of <i>M. americanum</i> has a relatively small <a href="/facts/Cranial_cavity/TlXKf6dl">cranial cavity</a> (and thus brain) relative to skull size, with the skull having extensive <a href="/facts/Sinus_(anatomy)/TdjefDG0">sinus</a> spaces.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> In many species of <i>Megatherium</i>, the lower jaw is relatively deep, which served to accommodate the very long hypselodont (evergrowing) teeth,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> which are considerably proportionally longer than those of other ground sloths. Like other ground sloths, the number of teeth in the jaw is reduced to 5 and 4 teeth in each half of the upper and lower jaws, respectively, and the teeth lack enamel. The teeth of <i>Megatherium americanum</i> have sharp crests separated by v-shaped valleys, which interlock with the teeth on the opposing jaw.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> These teeth were self-sharpening, akin to rodent incisors.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> The skull of <i>M. americanum</i> has a relatively narrow snout/muzzle with a <a href="/facts/Ossification/6ETh4tp8">ossified</a> <a href="/facts/Nasal_septum/Ywdfql9B">nasal septum</a>, and is suggested to have had a thick <a href="/facts/Prehensility/2kBbz2U6">prehensile</a> upper lip, similar to that of the living <a href="/facts/Black_rhinoceros/ytVuESSA">black rhinoceros</a>, which compensated for the lack of teeth at the front of the jaws.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> The morphology of the <a href="/facts/Hyoid_bones/yAa2Vatb">hyoid bones</a> in <i>Megatherium</i> suggests that they were relatively rigid, this along with the short distance between the hyoid and the <a href="/facts/Mandibular_symphysis/Ia0g0hwn">mandibular symphysis</a> (the joint connecting the two halves of the lower jaw) suggests that the tongue had limited ability to protrude, and thus <i>Megatherium</i> did not have a long prehensile tongue, contrary to what was often historically suggested.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> The skull and jaws of <i>M. americanum</i> show adaptation to powerful vertical biting.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> <i>M. americanum</i> and <i>M. altiplanicum</i> are distinguished from species of the subgenus <i>Pseudomegatherium</i> by the fusion of the <a href="/facts/Maxilla/LbgmySaT">maxilla</a> and <a href="/facts/Premaxilla/82BL4FgY">premaxilla</a>, while members of <i>Pseudomegatherium</i> are distinguished from those species by their flat <a href="/facts/Occipital_condyles/kAg0tcIQ">occipital condyles</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> </p> <h3>Axial skeleton</h3> <p>Like other xenarthrans, the posterior trunk vertebrae of <i>Megatherium americanum</i> have additional xenarthrous processes that articulate with the other vertebrae. The <a href="/facts/Ischium/hfj1UDwx">ischium</a> was connected to the <a href="/facts/Caudal_vertebrae/qAdLhD5H">caudal vertebrae</a>. The caudal vertebrae were combined into a <a href="/facts/Synsacrum/0hRrUEcM">synsacrum</a>. The <a href="/facts/Sacrum/CTFnjSm0">sacrum</a> was composed of 5 vertebrae. The <a href="/facts/Pubic_symphysis/voKAVNqB">pubic symphysis</a> is reduced. The tail is large in size.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> </p> <h3>Limbs</h3> <p>The bones of the forelimbs of <i>M. americanum</i> are relatively slender. The three fingers in the middle of the hand bore claws, while the cuneiform hand bones did not touch the <a href="/facts/Ulna/6J7D2mhe">ulna</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Olecranon/7aMwkz4g">olecranon</a> process of the ulna was relatively short.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> Like other xenarthrans, but unlike most other mammals, <i>Megatherium</i> possesses <a href="/facts/Clavicle/YWNjLv6s">clavicles</a> (collarbones), which serves to support the forelimb. Like other sloths, the clavicle is merged with the <a href="/facts/Acromion/PUjQNQzB">acromion</a> of the <a href="/facts/Scapula/CTHFHgx4">scapula</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> The femur was massive and roughly rectangular in shape.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> As in most megatheriines, the <a href="/facts/Tibia/YXQ0F48L">tibia</a> and <a href="/facts/Fibula/pKXdd5nM">fibula</a> of <i>Megatherium</i> species are fused together at their proximal (closest to hip) end, while in <i>M. americanum</i> and <i>M. tarijense</i>, they are also fused together at their distal (closest to foot) ends.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> The foot was heavily modified from those of other mammals and earlier ground sloths, with a reduction in the number of digits on the inner part of the foot (digits I and II being lost), the increase in the size and robustness (thickness) of the <a href="/facts/Metapodial/IJx1qjcg">metapodial</a> elements of the outer digits, with the loss or reduction of the <a href="/facts/Phalanx_bone/ekWXmFh7">phalangeal</a> bones. The <a href="/facts/Calcaneum/WWuVbuuN">calcaneum</a> is wide and elongate posteriorly. The foot is suggested to have been inwardly rotated, historically the foot was suggested to be near vertical, though a recent study suggests that the angle was much shallower. The weight was primarily borne on the outer digits and the calcaneum.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> <i>M. urbinai</i> differs from <i>M. americanum</i> and other <i>Megatherium</i> species in the shape and position of the feet and hand bones, including the <a href="/facts/Metacarpals/j5U6ThfC">metacarpals</a>, <a href="/facts/Metatarsals/5sPXvop2">metatarsals</a>, ectocuneiform, <a href="/facts/Hamate/T0zkD0Kn">hamate/unciform</a>, <a href="/facts/Navicular_bone/YaryUG03">navicular</a> and <a href="/facts/Astragalus_bone/7FJvAwcv">astragalus/talus</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="ecology">Ecology</h2> <p>Remains of <i>Megatherium americanum</i> have been found in low elevation areas to the east of the Andes mountains in northern <a href="/facts/Patagonia/HmNlUCh5">Patagonia</a>, the <a href="/facts/Pampas/kwmqhcGb">Pampas</a> and adjacent areas in what is now northern Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, southern Bolivia and <a href="/facts/Rio_Grande_do_Sul/lXaAF8SU">Rio Grande do Sul</a> in southern Brazil.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> <i>Megatherium americanum</i> inhabited <a href="/facts/Temperate_climate/6WPypCzC">temperate</a>, <a href="/facts/Arid_climate/orfIQqrB">arid</a>-to <a href="/facts/Semi-arid_climate/XnSYao1E">semi arid</a> open habitats.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> During the <a href="/facts/Last_Glacial_Period/mIYwj8e9">Last Glacial Period</a>, the Pampas was generally drier than it is at present with many areas exhibiting a <a href="/facts/Steppe/IAako607">steppe</a>-like environment dominated by grass, with some areas of woodland.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> </p><p>Although some authors have suggested that <i>Megatherium</i> was an omnivore,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> isotopic analysis has supported an entirely herbivorous diet for <i>Megatherium</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> <i>Megatherium americanum</i> is suggested to have been a <a href="/facts/Browsing_(herbivory)/CofkS0Nv">browser</a> that was a selective feeder on the foliage, twigs and fruits of trees and shrubs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> The sharp cusps of the teeth served to shear plant material.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a> <i>Megatherium</i> is widely thought to have been able to adopt a bipedal posture to use its forelimbs to grasp vegetation, though whether it was capable of moving in this posture is uncertain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> Analysis of injuries on the clavicles of <i>M. americanum</i> individuals suggests that the species probably habitually moved in a quadrupedal posture and assumed a bipedal posture next to trees to feed on high-growing leaves, likely using its forelimbs to brace itself against the tree trunk, as well as to pull down higher branches within reach of its prehensile lip.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> Isotopic analysis suggests that some individuals of <i>M. americanum</i> at certain times and places also consumed grass.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> The smaller <i>Megatherium tarijense</i> has been suggested to have had a mixed feeding-browsing diet.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> Preserved <a href="/facts/Coprolite/VX4K6BNX">coprolites</a> attributed to <i>Megatherium</i> suggests that its diet included plants like <a href="/facts/Fabiana_(plant)/7Ty4F9Pg"><i>Fabiana</i></a>, <a href="/facts/Ephedra_(plant)/P4QTfalE"><i>Ephedra</i></a> <i>(<a href="/facts/Ephedra_breana/mBTu6Baw">Ephedra breana</a></i>), <a href="/facts/Beebrush/L3qaQCVc">beebrush</a>, <i><a href="/facts/Junellia/Y60JU1D0">Junellia</a></i>, and <i><a href="/facts/Chuquiraga/IhQ8lzL0">Chuquiraga</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> </p><p>Whether or not <i>Megatherium</i> had a slow <a href="/facts/Metabolism/WxDrm8k5">metabolism</a> like living tree sloths is uncertain. Analysis of the <a href="/facts/Nutrient_foramina/YeoavKSG">nutrient foramina</a> in the <a href="/facts/Diaphysis/GNo7H4al">diaphysis</a> (shaft) of the femur of <i>Megatherium americanum</i> shows that they are more similar to those of other large living mammals like elephants than living tree sloths, which may suggest that it had a metabolism more similar to non-xenarthran mammals and was capable of vigorous activity similar to living elephants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a> However, isotopic analysis of teeth suggests that <i>Megatherium</i> had a somewhat lower <a href="/facts/Body_temperature/V692hIjw">body temperature</a> than non-xenarthran mammals, around 30–32 °C (86–90 °F), comparable to that of living tree sloths, implying a lower metabolic rate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a> <i>Megatherium americanum</i> has been traditionally reconstructed as being covered with a thick coat of fur.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a> Due to its very large body size, some authors have alternatively argued that <i>Megatherium americanum</i> was probably relatively hairless like modern elephants in order to <a href="/facts/Thermoregulation/V692hIjw">maintain a stable body temperature</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a> However this has been disputed, with other authors suggesting based on thermodynamic modelling assuming a living xenarthran-like metabolism that <i>Megatherium</i> species probably had a dense coat of fur around 3 centimetres (1.2 in) thick to be able to tolerate the relatively cool environments they inhabited.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a> </p><p>Based on fossil trackways and the anatomy of its inner ear, which is considerably different from living sloths and more similar to those of armadillos, species of <i>Megatherium</i>, while probably not capable of swift <a href="/facts/Animal_locomotion/trhhYTVR">locomotion</a> due to limitations of their skeletal anatomy, were likely significantly more agile and mobile than living sloths, which are only capable of moving 0.5–0.6 kilometres per hour (0.31–0.37 mph). Species of <i>Megatherium</i> likely relied on their large adult body size to protect themselves against predators.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> Like many other large mammals, <i>Megatherium</i> is suggested to have had a slow life cycle in accordance with a <a href="/facts/K-selection/QrfKyXlE">K-selection</a> strategy. <i>Megatherium americanum</i> is suggested to have given birth to a single large offspring at a time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> </p><p>The anatomy of its forelimb bones suggests that <i>M. americanum</i> had the ability to rapidly and powerfully extend its arms, which likely made its claws effective stabbing weapons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a> It may have used its claws like this to defend itself, as living tree sloths do.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a> Although some authors in the 19th century suggested that <i>Megatherium</i> engaged in digging behaviour, this has been disputed by other scholars, and the morphology of its limb bones do not appear to display significant adaptations to digging unlike some other ground sloths like <a href="/facts/Mylodontidae/CeAf4Trj">mylodontids</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a> </p><p>In the Pampas, <i>Megatherium americanum</i> lived alongside other megafauna species, including the large ground sloth <i>Lestodon</i>, along with the smaller (but still large) ground sloths <i><a href="/facts/Mylodon/Jt1DxE9g">Mylodon</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Glossotherium/MUUacdYV">Glossotherium</a>,</i> and <i><a href="/facts/Scelidotherium/su17WPLY">Scelidotherium</a></i>, the <a href="/facts/Glyptodont/7Dhw5RAA">glyptodonts</a> (very large armadillos with fused round carapaces covering the body) <i><a href="/facts/Glyptodon/ujQchJNB">Glyptodon</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Doedicurus/KBkj32me">Doedicurus</a></i>, and <i><a href="/facts/Panochthus/99qndY7v">Panochthus</a></i>, the large camel-like ungulate <i><a href="/facts/Macrauchenia/e6KPd7b5">Macrauchenia</a></i> and rhinoceros-like <i><a href="/facts/Toxodon/vJEXS3SQ">Toxodon</a></i>, the <a href="/facts/Gomphothere/kqjTTu6m">gomphothere</a> (elephant-relative) <i><a href="/facts/Notiomastodon/rMYfGfsQ">Notiomastodon</a></i>, the equines <i><a href="/facts/Hippidion/zamgdhgs">Hippidion</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Equus_neogeus/nEV7xcrJ">Equus neogeus</a></i>, the large short-faced bear <i><a href="/facts/Arctotherium/nrHgWKrN">Arctotherium</a></i>, and the large sabertooth cat <i><a href="/facts/Smilodon/GhDEUMtH">Smilodon</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a></i> The range of <i>Megatherium americanum</i> overlaps little with its similarly sized tropical relative <i><a href="/facts/Eremotherium/6kKIfEMa">Eremotherium</a>,</i> with their co-occurrence only confidently reported from a few localities in Southern Brazil, and it is unclear whether they were contemporary at these localities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="relationship-with-humans-and-extinction">Relationship with humans and extinction</h2> <p>During the <a href="/facts/Late_Pleistocene/jKVh7yXL">Late Pleistocene</a>, six species of <i>Megatherium</i> were present in South America, including <i>M. americanum</i> in the Pampas and adjacent regions, and the 5 species of <i>Pseudomegatherium</i> in the vicinity of the Andes.<i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a></i> </p><p>The youngest unambiguous dates for <i>Megatherium</i> are from the end of the Late Pleistocene. Supposed early Holocene dates obtained for <i>Megatherium americanum</i> and other Pampas megafauna have been questioned, with suggestions that they are likely due to <a href="/facts/Humic_substance/nU58wtUm">humic acid</a> contamination of the <a href="/facts/Collagen/KsyAb72K">collagen</a> used to <a href="/facts/Radiocarbon_date/qjNglhKP">radiocarbon date</a> the bones.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> <i>Megatherium</i> disappeared simultaneously along with the vast majority (>80%) of other large (<a href="/facts/Megafauna/8PukHC5A">megafaunal</a>) South American mammals, as part of the <a href="/facts/Late_Pleistocene_extinctions/pMcgaUHC">end-Pleistocene extinction event</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a> The use of bioclimatic envelope modeling indicates that the area of suitable habitat for <i>Megatherium</i> had shrunk and become fragmented by the mid-Holocene. While this alone would not likely have caused its extinction, it has been cited as a possible contributing factor.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a> </p><p>Towards the end of the Late Pleistocene, <a href="/facts/Peopling_of_the_Americas/T2HM6lMI">humans first arrived in the Americas</a>, with some of the earliest evidence of humans in South America being the <a href="/facts/Monte_Verde/7XVYN42Q">Monte Verde II</a> site in Chile, dating to around 14,500 years <a href="/facts/Before_Present/BywUcMvW">Before Present</a> (~12,500 BC).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a> The extinction interval of <i>Megatherium</i> and other megafauna coincides with the appearance and abundance of <a href="/facts/Fishtail_projectile_point/CjbY9Av7">Fishtail points</a>, which are suggested to have been used to hunt megafauna, across the Pampas region and South America more broadly.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a> At the Paso Otero 5 site in the Pampas of northeast Argentina, Fishtail points are associated with burned bones of <i>Megatherium americanum</i> and other extinct megafauna. The bones appear to have been deliberately burned as a source of fuel. Due to the poor preservation of the bones there is no clear evidence of human modification.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a> </p><p>There is evidence for the butchery of <i>Megatherium</i> by humans. Two <i>M. americanum</i> bones, an <a href="/facts/Ulnar_nerve/VfYmdowM">ulna</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a> and an <a href="/facts/Atlas_(anatomy)/rdfMDmBH">atlas vertebra</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a> from separate collections, bear cut marks suggestive of butchery, with the latter suggested to represent an attempt to exploit the contents of the head.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a> A <a href="/facts/Kill_site/5axlcVQ4">kill site</a> dating to around 12,600 years Before Present (BP), is known from Campo Laborde in the Pampas in Argentina, where a single individual of <i>M. americanum</i> was slaughtered and butchered at the edge of a swamp, which is the only confirmed giant ground-sloth kill site in the Americas. At the site several stone tools were present, including the fragment of a projectile point.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a> Another possible kill site is Arroyo Seco 2 near <a href="/facts/Tres_Arroyos/KRVDnyKz">Tres Arroyos</a> in the Pampas in Argentina, where <i>M. americanum</i> bones amongst those of other megafauna were found associated with human artifacts dating to approximately 14,782–11,142 cal yr BP.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a> This hunting may have been a factor in its extinction.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="cultural-references">Cultural references</h2> <p>The <i><a href="/facts/Megatherium_Club/M36vyKcE">Megatherium Club</a></i>, named for the extinct animal and founded by <a href="/facts/William_Stimpson/mJjXUlvY">William Stimpson</a>, was a group of <a href="/facts/Washington%2c_D.C./enXPK156">Washington, D.C.</a>–based scientists who were attracted to that city by the <a href="/facts/Smithsonian_Institution/pqC74ta9">Smithsonian Institution</a>'s rapidly growing collection, from 1857 to 1866. </p> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Megatherium. <ul><li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140201215430/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/456.shtml">BBC – <i>Walking With Beasts</i> – Megatherium</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.lrb.co.uk/v40/n05/steven-shapin/bare-bones"><i>London Review of Books</i> – <i>Bare Bones</i> – Steven Shapin</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Megatherium">"Megatherium" </a>. <i><a href="/facts/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition/mPElbCRY">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.). 1911.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Saint-André, P. A.; De Iuliis, G. (2001). "The smallest and most ancient representative of the genus Megatherium Cuvier, 1796 (Xenarthra, Tardigrada, Megatheriidae), from the Pliocene of the Bolivian Altiplano" (PDF). Geodiversitas. 23 (4): 625–645. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 14 April 2016. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131029195857/http://www.mnhn.fr/publication/geodiv/g01n4a4.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20131029195857/http://www.mnhn.fr/publication/geodiv/g01n4a4.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Zurita, A. E.; Carlini, A. A.; Scillato-Yané, G. J.; Tonni, E. P. (2004). "Mamíferos extintos del Cuaternario de la Provincia del Chaco (Argentina) y su relación con aquéllos del este de la región pampeana y de Chile". Revista Geológica de Chile. 31 (1): 65–87. doi:10.4067/S0716-02082004000100004. hdl:11336/59128. <a href="https://doi.org/10.4067%2FS0716-02082004000100004" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.4067%2FS0716-02082004000100004</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Politis, Gustavo G.; Messineo, Pablo G.; Stafford, Thomas W.; Lindsey, Emily L. (March 2019). "Campo Laborde: A Late Pleistocene giant ground sloth kill and butchering site in the Pampas". Science Advances. 5 (3): eaau4546. Bibcode:2019SciA....5.4546P. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aau4546. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 6402857. 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