List of Greek and Roman architectural records

<h2 id="bridges">Bridges</h2>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Roman_bridge/8osCfVKm">Roman bridge</a> and <a href="/facts/List_of_Roman_bridges/dSYfKcPA">List of Roman bridges</a>
<ul><li>The highest bridge over the water or ground was the single-arched <a href="/facts/Pont_d%2527A%25C3%25ABl/XqSazIkk">Pont d'Aël</a> which carried irrigation water for <a href="/facts/Aosta/odtDTxS9">Aosta</a> across a deep Alpine gorge. The height of its deck over the torrent below measures 66 m.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1">1</a></li></ul>

<ul><li>The largest bridge by span was the <a href="/facts/Trajan%2527s_Bridge/7fQKPPeV">Trajan's Bridge</a> over the lower Danube. Its twenty-one timber arches spanned 50 m each from centreline to centreline.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2">2</a></li>
<li>The largest pointed arch bridge by span was the <a href="/facts/Karamagara_Bridge/WdBclpcg">Karamagara Bridge</a> in <a href="/facts/Cappadocia/Ik92oE2V">Cappadocia</a> with a clear span of 17 m. Constructed in the 5th or 6th century AD across a tributary of the Euphrates, the now submerged structure is one of the earliest known examples of pointed architecture in <a href="/facts/Late_antiquity/sPTl0dyD">late antiquity</a>, and may even be the oldest surviving pointed arch bridge.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a></li>
<li>The largest rivers to be spanned by solid bridges were the <a href="/facts/Danube/8lMeM9xg">Danube</a> and the <a href="/facts/Rhine/MgJ88oaz">Rhine</a>, the two <a href="/facts/List_of_rivers_of_Europe/qvPkenTo">largest European rivers</a> west of the <a href="/facts/Eurasian_Steppe/mJlxBbxJ">Eurasian Steppe</a>. The lower Danube was crossed at least at two different crossing points (<a href="/facts/Trajan%2527s_Bridge/7fQKPPeV">at Drobeta-Turnu Severin</a> and <a href="/facts/Constantine%2527s_Bridge_(Danube)/CyYkTP1K">at Corabia</a>) and the middle and lower Rhine at four (at Mainz, <a href="/facts/Caesar%2527s_Rhine_bridges/GPUYPUDD">at Neuwied</a>, at Koblenz and at Cologne). For rivers with strong currents and to allow swift army movements, <a href="/facts/Pontoon_bridges/DX5xQlzl">pontoon bridges</a> were also routinely employed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a> Going from the distinct lack of records of solid bridges spanning larger rivers elsewhere,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a> the Roman feat appears to be unsurpassed anywhere in the world until well into the 19th century.</li>
<li>The longest bridge, and one of the longest of all time, was <a href="/facts/Constantine%2527s_Bridge_(Danube)/CyYkTP1K">Constantine's Bridge</a> with an overall length of 2,437 m, 1137 m of which crossed the Danube's riverbed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a> <a href="/facts/Pont_Serme/hXJBUvUR">Pont Serme</a> in southern France reached a length of 1,500 m,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> but may be better classified as an arcaded <a href="/facts/Viaduct/xAd1mu7L">viaduct</a>. The second longest bridge was thus the acclaimed <a href="/facts/Trajan%2527s_Bridge/7fQKPPeV">Trajan's Bridge</a> further upstream from Constantine's. Erected 104–105 AD by the engineer <a href="/facts/Apollodorus_of_Damascus/6MgUzURR">Apollodorus of Damascus</a> for facilitating the advance of Roman troops in the <a href="/facts/Trajan%2527s_Dacian_Wars/NsdI5bVD">Dacian Wars</a>, it featured twenty-one spans covering a total distance of between 1,070 and 1,100 m. The longest existing Roman bridge is the sixty-two span <a href="/facts/Puente_Romano_(M%25C3%25A9rida)/WqJXfqKw">Puente Romano</a> at <a href="/facts/M%25C3%25A9rida%2c_Spain/ah8I9mJ0">Mérida, Spain</a> (today 790 m). The total length of all <a href="/facts/Aqueduct_(bridge)/KqM5bQof">aqueduct arch bridges</a> of the <a href="/facts/Aqua_Marcia/3ECRQ8pV">Aqua Marcia</a> to <a href="/facts/Rome/bh1Ttx3T">Rome</a>, constructed from 144 to 140 BC, amounts to 10 km.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a></li></ul>

<ul><li>The longest segmental arch bridge was the c. 1,100 m long <a href="/facts/Trajan%2527s_Bridge/7fQKPPeV">Trajan's Bridge</a>, whose wooden superstructure was supported by twenty concrete piers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> The <a href="/facts/Limyra_Bridge/nWmyGDPn">Bridge at Limyra</a> in modern-day Turkey, consisting of twenty-six flat brick arches, features the greatest lengths of all extant masonry structures in this category (360 m).</li>
<li>The tallest bridge was the <a href="/facts/Pont_du_Gard/Enm8oqzW">Pont du Gard</a>, which carried water across the <a href="/facts/Gardon/z2FNzHT8">Gard river</a> to <a href="/facts/N%25C3%25AEmes/VKM9b65f">Nîmes</a>, southern France. The 270 m long <a href="/facts/Aqueduct_(bridge)/KqM5bQof">aqueduct bridge</a> was constructed in three tiers which measure successively 20.5 m, 19.5 m and 7.4 m, adding up to a total height of 47.4 m above the water-level. When crossing deeper valleys, Roman hydraulic engineers preferred <a href="/facts/Inverted_siphon/aEh4Ptkw">inverted siphons</a> over bridges for reasons of relative economics; this is evident in the <a href="/facts/Gier_aqueduct/Dxdw4aT0">Gier aqueduct</a> where seven out of nine siphons exceed the 45 m mark, reaching depths up to 123 m. The tallest road bridges were the monumental <a href="/facts/Alc%25C3%25A1ntara_Bridge/ab4MlW0b">Alcántara Bridge</a>, Spain, and the <a href="/facts/Ponte_d%2527Augusto_(Narni)/g8V3BU4K">bridge at Narni</a>, Italy, which rose above the stream-level c. 42 m and 30 m, respectively.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a></li>
<li>The widest bridge was the <a href="/facts/Pergamon_Bridge/5FIwNvKn">Pergamon Bridge</a> in <a href="/facts/Pergamon/rIpRRus2">Pergamon</a>, Turkey. The structure served as a substruction for a large court in front of the <a href="/facts/Serapis/oEYvoILR">Serapis</a> Temple, allowing the waters of the Selinus river to pass unrestricted underneath. Measuring 193 m in width, the dimensions of the extant bridge are such that it is frequently mistaken for a tunnel, although the whole structure was actually erected above ground. A similar design was also executed in the <a href="/facts/Nysa_Bridge/W0btgj23">Nysa Bridge</a> which straddled the local stream on a length of 100 m, supporting a forecourt of the city <a href="/facts/Roman_theatre_(structure)/KPpI1cR8">theatre</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> By comparison, the width of a normal, free standing Roman bridge did not exceed 10 m.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a></li></ul>

<ul><li>The bridge with the greatest load capacity – as far as can be determined from the limited research – was the <a href="/facts/Alc%25C3%25A1ntara_Bridge/ab4MlW0b">Alcántara Bridge</a> the largest arch of which can support a load of 52 t, followed by the Ponte de Pedra (30 t), Puente Bibei (24 t) and Puente de Ponte do Lima (24 t) (all in <a href="/facts/Hispania/EYd2cv27">Hispania</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> According to modern calculations, the <a href="/facts/Limyra_Bridge/nWmyGDPn">Limyra Bridge</a>, <a href="/facts/Asia_Minor/vMkrLrPr">Asia Minor</a>, can support a 30 t vehicle on one arch plus a load of 500 <a href="/facts/Kilogram-force/RtMF3WhP">kp/m2</a> on the remaining surface of the arch.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> The load limit of Roman arch bridges was thus far in excess of the <a href="/facts/Live_load/MAxjDyhc">live loads</a> imposed by ancient traffic.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a></li></ul>
Ratio of clear span against rise, arch rib and pier thickness:

<ul><li>The bridge with the flattest arches was the <a href="/facts/Trajan%2527s_Bridge/7fQKPPeV">Trajan's Bridge</a>, with a span-to-rise ratio of about 7 to 1.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> It also held several other important architectural records (see below).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> A number of fully stone segmental arch bridges, scattered throughout the <a href="/facts/Roman_Empire/l4E1aUuV">empire</a>, featured ratios of between 6.4 and 3, such as the relatively unknown <a href="/facts/Limyra_Bridge/nWmyGDPn">Bridge at Limyra</a>, the <a href="/facts/Ponte_San_Lorenzo/PTbg8Gq9">Ponte San Lorenzo</a> and the <a href="/facts/Alcon%25C3%25A9tar_Bridge/Iqr0zhCL">Alconétar Bridge</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a> By comparison, the Florentine <a href="/facts/Ponte_Vecchio/VGjDJ0Kc">Ponte Vecchio</a>, one of the earliest segmental arch bridges in the <a href="/facts/Middle_Ages/RqzEKB9v">Middle Ages</a>, features a ratio of 5.3 to 1.</li>
<li>The bridge with the most slender arch was the <a href="/facts/Pont-Saint-Martin_Bridge/v0am8c8f">Pont-Saint-Martin</a> in the Alpine <a href="/facts/Aosta_Valley/ueqKxV9V">Aosta Valley</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a> A favourable ratio of arch rib thickness to span is regarded as the single most important parameter in the design of stone arches.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> The arch rib of the Pont-Saint-Martin is only 1.03 m thick what translates to a ratio of 1/34 respectively 1/30 depending on whether one assumes 35.64 m<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> or 31.4 m<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a> to be the value for its clear span. A statistical analysis of extant Roman bridges shows that ancient bridge builders preferred a ratio for rib thickness to span of 1/10 for smaller bridges, while they reduced this to as low as 1/20 for larger spans in order to relieve the arch from its own weight.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a></li>
<li>The bridge with the most slender piers was the three-span <a href="/facts/Ponte_San_Lorenzo/PTbg8Gq9">Ponte San Lorenzo</a> in <a href="/facts/Padua/7yw19UVp">Padua</a>, Italy. A favourable ratio between pier thickness and span is considered a particularly important parameter in bridge building, since wide openings reduce stream velocities which tend to undermine the foundations and cause collapse.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> The approximately 1.70 m thick piers of the Ponte San Lorenzo are as slender as one-eighth of the span.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> In some Roman bridges, the ratio still reached one-fifth, but a common pier thickness was around one third of the span.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a> Having been completed sometime between 47 and 30 BC, the San Lorenzo Bridge also represents one of the earliest segmental arch bridges in the world with a span to rise ratio of 3.7 to 1.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="canals">Canals</h2>
Further information: <a href="/facts/List_of_Roman_canals/8gnpsIaX">List of Roman canals</a>
<ul><li>The largest canal appears to be the <a href="/facts/Canal_of_the_Pharaohs/62Gw0MR9">Canal of the Pharaohs</a> connecting the <a href="/facts/Mediterranean_Sea/Vr2pzVbM">Mediterranean Sea</a> and the <a href="/facts/Red_Sea/0dKWSgEe">Red Sea</a> via the <a href="/facts/Nile/vGoXVUFH">Nile</a>. Opened by king <a href="/facts/Ptolemy_II/UjxDL2h9">Ptolemy II</a> around 280 BC the waterway branched off the <a href="/facts/Pelusiac/ItjnDeVk">Pelusiac</a> arm of the river running eastwards through the Wadi Tumalat to the <a href="/facts/Great_Bitter_Lake/1PtQFzQe">Great Bitter Lake</a> on a length of 55.6 km. There, it turned sharply south following the modern course of the canal and discharged into the Red Sea after altogether 92.6 km. The canal was 10 m deep and 35 m wide, with its sea entrance secured by a <a href="/facts/Lock_(water_transport)/rFGHXS0p">lock</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a> Under <a href="/facts/Trajan/Q6n5uj1q">Trajan</a> the <a href="/facts/Ptolemaic_Kingdom/sAg88Lvs">Ptolemaic</a> canal was restored and extended for about another 60 km to the south where it now tapped the main branch of the Nile at <a href="/facts/Babylon_(Egypt)/pDnS3z5g">Babylon</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a> A particularly ambitious canal scheme which never came to fruition was <a href="/facts/Nero/1w3NteNP">Nero</a>'s <a href="/facts/Corinth_Canal/fD2gfUQ8">Corinth Canal</a> project, work on which was abandoned after his murder.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="columns">Columns</h2>
Further information: <a href="/facts/List_of_Roman_victory_columns/y45txFbJ">List of Roman victory columns</a>
Note: This section makes no distinction between columns composed of drums and monolithic shafts; for records concerning solely the latter, see monoliths.

<ul><li>The tallest victory column in <a href="/facts/Constantinople/fLcY371n">Constantinople</a> was the <a href="/facts/Column_of_Theodosius/Sf03VR39">Column of Theodosius</a>, which no longer exists, with the height of its top above ground being c. 50 m.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a> The <a href="/facts/Column_of_Arcadius/6jK0MdQ3">Column of Arcadius</a>, whose 10.5 m base alone survives, was c. 46.1 m high.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> The <a href="/facts/Column_of_Constantine/hgs5d4db">Column of Constantine</a> may originally have been as high as 40 m above the pavement of the <a href="/facts/Forum_of_Constantine/pTv4vqgw">Forum</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a> The height of the <a href="/facts/Column_of_Justinian/Q8nJLCNR">Column of Justinian</a> is unclear, but it may have been even larger. The height of each of these monuments was originally even higher, as all were further crowned with a colossal imperial statue several times life-size.</li>
<li>The tallest <a href="/facts/Victory_column/y45txFbJ">victory column</a> in Rome was the <a href="/facts/Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius/30mmadG2">Column of Marcus Aurelius</a>, Rome, with the height of its top above ground being c. 39.72 m. It thus exceeds its earlier model, <a href="/facts/Trajan%2527s_Column/dW7XzefD">Trajan's Column</a>, by 4.65 m, chiefly due to its higher <a href="/facts/Pedestal/khLJPkCG">pedestal</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a></li>
<li>The tallest monolithic column was <a href="/facts/Pompey%2527s_Pillar_(column)/0SWPDtSf">Pompey's Pillar</a> in <a href="/facts/Alexandria/hdg1twWA">Alexandria</a> which is 26.85 m high with its base and capital and whose monolithic column shaft measures 20.75 m.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a> The statue of <a href="/facts/Diocletian/l4Inf5wa">Diocletian</a> atop "Pompey's" Pillar was itself approximately 7 m tall.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a></li>
<li>The tallest <a href="/facts/Corinthian_column/2zCzPuH4">Corinthian</a> <a href="/facts/Colonnade/7LP0xBhk">colonnade</a>, a style which was particularly popular in Roman monumental construction, adorned the Temple of Jupiter at <a href="/facts/Baalbek/5pHygt5K">Baalbek</a>, reaching a height of 19.82 m including base and <a href="/facts/Capital_(architecture)/A4Dxlbdg">capital</a>; their shafts measure 16.64 m high. The next two tallest are those of the <a href="/facts/Temple_of_Mars_Ultor/uBFAoII5">Temple of Mars Ultor</a> in Rome and of the Athenian <a href="/facts/Olympieion/3Jet2aSk">Olympieion</a> which are 17.74 m (14.76 m) respectively 16.83 m (14 m) high. These are followed by a group of three virtually identical high Corinthian orders in Rome: the <a href="/facts/Temple_of_Hadrian/wJsXrIMP">Hadrianeum</a>, the <a href="/facts/Temple_of_Apollo_Sosianus/gTIYteq0">Temple of Apollo Sosianus</a> and the <a href="/facts/Temple_of_Castor_and_Pollux/Fd5DS9U2">Temple of Castor and Pollux</a>, all of which are in the order of 14.8 m (12.4 m) height.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="dams">Dams</h2>
Further information: <a href="/facts/List_of_Roman_dams/02DJshgm">List of Roman dams</a>

<ul><li>The largest <a href="/facts/Arch_dam/A42zfPY9">arch dam</a> was the <a href="/facts/Glanum_Dam/p2DYUhk5">Glanum Dam</a> in the French <a href="/facts/Provence/SrlTIbPQ">Provence</a>. Since its remains were nearly obliterated by a 19th-century dam on the same spot, its reconstruction relies on prior documentation, according to which the Roman dam was 12 m high, 3.9 m wide and 18 m long at the crest.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a> Being the earliest known arch dam,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a> it remained unique in antiquity and beyond (aside from the <a href="/facts/Dara_Dam/BVGn4CQX">Dara Dam</a> whose dimensions are unknown).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a></li>
<li>The largest <a href="/facts/Arch-gravity_dam/RIrJc05X">arch-gravity dam</a> was the <a href="/facts/Kasserine_Dam/UHKcRGDX">Kasserine Dam</a> in <a href="/facts/Tunisia/4uC8Po6k">Tunisia</a>, arguably the biggest Roman dam in North Africa with 150 m length by 10 m height by 7.3 m width.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> However, despite its curved nature, it is uncertain whether the 2nd century AD dam structurally acted by arching action and not solely by its sheer weight; in this case it would be classified as a gravity dam<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a> and considerably smaller structures in Turkey or the Spanish <a href="/facts/Puy_Foradado_Dam/BTGrUWWl">Puy Foradado Dam</a> would move up in this category (see sortable <a href="/facts/List_of_Roman_dams/02DJshgm">List of Roman dams</a>).</li>
<li>The largest bridge dam was the <a href="/facts/Band-e_Kaisar/eCcg8DSP">Band-e Kaisar</a> which was erected by a Roman workforce on <a href="/facts/Sassanid/JvbRevkA">Sassanid</a> territory in the 3rd century AD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a> The approximately 500 m long structure, a novel combination of <a href="/facts/Weir/U2m4EEpM">overflow dam</a> and <a href="/facts/Arch_bridge/oGQeFjp2">arcaded bridge</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a> crossed Iran's most effluent river on more than forty arches.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a> The most eastern Roman civil engineering structure ever built,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a> its dual-purpose design exerted a profound influence on Iranian dam building.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a></li>
<li>The largest <a href="/facts/Arch_dam/A42zfPY9">multiple arch buttress dam</a> was the <a href="/facts/Esparragalejo_Dam/NaTqFfPa">Esparragalejo Dam</a> in Spain, whose 320 m long wall was supported on its air face alternatingly by buttresses and concave-shaped arches.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a> Dated to the 1st century AD, the structure represents the first and, as it appears, only known dam of its type in ancient times.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a></li>
<li>The longest <a href="/facts/Buttress_dam/w8X9Dhlf">buttress dam</a> was the 632+ m long <a href="/facts/Consuegra_Dam/ucwNzbnv">Consuegra Dam</a> (3rd–4th century AD) in central Spain which is still fairly well preserved.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a> Instead of an earth embankment, its only 1.3 m thick retaining wall was supported on the downstream side by buttresses in regular intervals of 5 to 10 m.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a> In Spain, a large number of ancient buttress dams are concentrated, representing nearly one-third of the total found there.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a></li>
<li>The longest <a href="/facts/Dam/BroJFhEI">gravity dam</a>, and longest dam overall, impounds <a href="/facts/Lake_Homs/Mrajg3W1">Lake Homs</a> in Syria. Built in 284 AD by emperor <a href="/facts/Diocletian/l4Inf5wa">Diocletian</a> for irrigation, the 2,000 m long and 7 m high masonry dam consists of a concrete core protected by basalt ashlar.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a> The lake, 6 miles long by 2.5 miles wide,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a> had a capacity of 90 million m3, making it the biggest Roman reservoir in the Near East<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a> and possibly the largest artificial lake constructed up to that time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a> Enlarged in the 1930s, it is still a landmark of <a href="/facts/Homs/dC0Mf5Nz">Homs</a> which it continues to supply with water.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a> Further notable dams in this category include the little-studied 900 m long Wadi Caam II dam at <a href="/facts/Leptis_Magna/eoRTLNvU">Leptis Magna</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> and the Spanish dams <a href="/facts/Alcantarilla_Dam/tyBno3n1">at Alcantarilla</a> and <a href="/facts/Consuegra_Dam/ucwNzbnv">at Consuegra</a>.</li>
<li>The tallest dam belonged to the <a href="/facts/Subiaco_Dams/JQVo12Hf">Subiaco Dams</a> at the central Italian <a href="/facts/Subiaco%2c_Italy/Sh09mDuc">town of the same name</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a> Constructed by <a href="/facts/Nero/1w3NteNP">Nero</a> (54–68 AD) as an adjunct to his villa on the <a href="/facts/Aniene/tdm2g1sK">Aniene</a> river, the three reservoirs were highly unusual in their time for serving recreational rather than utilitarian purposes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a> The biggest dam of the group is estimated to have reached a height of 50 m.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a> It remained unsurpassed in the world until its accidental destruction in 1305 by two monks who fatally removed cover stones from the top.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a> Also quite tall structures were <a href="/facts/Almonacid_de_la_Cuba_Dam/T7L3CmsS">Almonacid de la Cuba Dam</a> (34 m), <a href="/facts/Cornalvo_Dam/dk0F0yde">Cornalvo Dam</a> (28 m) and <a href="/facts/Proserpina_Dam/DW58YvHH">Proserpina Dam</a> (21.6 m), all of which are located in Spain and still of substantially Roman fabric.</li></ul>
<h2 id="domes">Domes</h2>
Further information: <a href="/facts/List_of_Roman_domes/ReSuskvQ">List of Roman domes</a>

<ul><li>The largest dome in the world for more than 1,700 years was the <a href="/facts/Pantheon%2c_Rome/3dfWzItW">Pantheon</a> in Rome.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a> Its <a href="/facts/Opus_caementicium/4fUqugB5">concrete</a> <a href="/facts/Dome/vcv5uuXj">dome</a> spans an interior space of 43.45 m,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a> which corresponds exactly to its height from floor to top. Its apex concludes with an 8.95 m wide <a href="/facts/Oculus_(architecture)/k2VQ6CXd">oculus</a>. The structure remained <a href="/facts/List_of_world%2527s_largest_domes/3HwvlNRR">unsurpassed until 1881</a> and stills holds the title of the largest unreinforced solid concrete dome in the world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a> The Pantheon has exercised an immense influence on <a href="/facts/Western_world/UQl4e7du">Western</a> dome construction to this day.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a></li>
<li>The largest dome out of clay hollowware ever constructed is the <a href="/facts/Caldarium/JILBDYJh">caldarium</a> of the <a href="/facts/Baths_of_Caracalla/k3xpBAAw">Baths of Caracalla</a> in Rome. The now ruined dome, completed in 216 AD, had an inner diameter of 35.08 m.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> For reduction of weight its shell was constructed of <a href="/facts/Amphora/joJ3P6W4">amphora</a> joined together, a quite new method then which could do without time-consuming wooden <a href="/facts/Centring/SRQbshSG">centring</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a></li>
<li>The largest half-domes were found in the <a href="/facts/Baths_of_Trajan/f6efWwSr">Baths of Trajan</a> in Rome, completed in 109 AD. Several <a href="/facts/Exedra/vo4jyzev">exedrae</a> integrated into the enclosure wall of the compound reached spans up to 30 m.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a></li>
<li>The largest stone dome was the Western Thermae in <a href="/facts/Gerasa/zBkzqWQn">Gerasa</a>, <a href="/facts/Jordan/JC5sS1oJ">Jordan</a>, constructed around 150–175 AD. The 15 m wide dome of the bath complex was also one of the earliest of its kind with a square ground plan.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="fortifications">Fortifications</h2>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Roman_military_engineering/2bTFYuHA">Roman military engineering</a>

<ul><li>The longest city walls were those of <a href="/facts/Classical_Athens/a3b6Hpbw">Classical Athens</a>. Their extraordinary length was due to the construction of the famous <a href="/facts/Long_Walls/2gcY7gF1">Long Walls</a> which played a key role in the city's maritime strategy, by providing it with a secure access to the sea and offering the population of <a href="/facts/Attica/NmJausKA">Attica</a> a retreat zone in case of foreign invasions. At the eve of the <a href="/facts/Peloponnesian_War/Dgbc4cCE">Peloponnesian War</a> (431–404 BC), <a href="/facts/Thucydides/oec8VKJz">Thucydides</a> gave the length of the entire circuit as follows:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a> 43 <a href="/facts/Stadia_(length)/q1Kc19LD">stades</a> (7.6 km) for the city walls without the southwestern section covered by others walls and 60 stades (10.6 km) for the circumference of the <a href="/facts/Peiraeus/VzkzdTHc">Peiraeus</a> port. A corridor between these two was established by the northern Long Wall (40 stades or 7.1 km) and the Phaleric Wall (35 stades or 6.2 km). Assuming a value of 177.6 m for one Attic stade,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a> the overall length of the walls of Athens thus measured about 31.6 km. The structure, consisting of <a href="/facts/Mudbrick/WVTq2bae">sun-dried bricks</a> built on a foundation of <a href="/facts/Limestone/8ntvtFnR">limestone</a> blocks, was dismantled after Athens' defeat in 404 BC, but rebuilt a decade later.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a> <a href="/facts/Syracuse%2c_Sicily/d6TtVugX">Syracuse</a>, Rome (<a href="/facts/Aurelian_Walls/DACpSTNo">Aurelian Walls</a>) and Constantinople (<a href="/facts/Walls_of_Constantinople/A5rAaatE">Walls of Constantinople</a>) were also protected by very long circuit walls.</li></ul>
<h2 id="monoliths">Monoliths</h2>
Further information: <a href="/facts/List_of_ancient_monoliths/2A2TAu9D">List of ancient monoliths</a> and <a href="/facts/Ancient_crane/Q5axXY0l">Ancient crane</a>

<ul><li>The largest <a href="/facts/Monolith/nJU2zKA1">monolith</a> lifted by a single crane can be determined from the characteristic <a href="/facts/Lewis_(lifting_appliance)/Rck2WdN8">lewis iron</a> holes (each of which points at the use of one crane) in the lifted stone block. By dividing its weight by their number, one arrives at a maximum lifting capacity of 7.5 to 8 t as exemplified by a <a href="/facts/Cornice/DNI7jxBV">cornice</a> block at the <a href="/facts/Trajan%2527s_Forum/D9Dk2tKr">Trajan's Forum</a> and the <a href="/facts/Architrave/RwC27HKw">architrave</a> blocks of the Temple of Jupiter at Baalbek.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a> Based on a detailed Roman <a href="/facts/Relief/quWLJGKo">relief</a> of a construction crane, the engineer O'Connor calculates a slightly less lifting capability, 6.2 t, for such a type of <a href="/facts/Treadwheel_crane/mTzA2IVE">treadwheel crane</a>, on the assumption that it was powered by five men and using a three-<a href="/facts/Pulley/Mrq15sdg">pulley</a> block.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a></li>
<li>The largest monolith lifted by cranes was the 108 t heavy corner cornice block of the Jupiter temple at Baalbek, followed by an architrave block weighing 63 t, both of which were raised to a height of about 19 m.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a> The capital block of <a href="/facts/Trajan%2527s_Column/dW7XzefD">Trajan's Column</a>, with a weight of 53.3 t, was even lifted to c. 34 m above the ground.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a> As such enormous loads far exceeded the lifting capability of any single treadwheel crane, it is assumed that Roman engineers set up a four-masted lifting tower in the midst of which the stone blocks were vertically raised by the means of <a href="/facts/Capstan_(nautical)/HAdF2lNP">capstans</a> placed on the ground around it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a></li>
<li>The largest monoliths hewn were two giant building blocks in the quarry of Baalbek: an <a href="/facts/Stone_of_the_Pregnant_Woman/g2bbyn8M">unnamed rectangular block</a> which was only recently discovered is measured at c. 20 m x 4.45 m x 4.5 m, yielding a weight of 1,242 t.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a> The similarly shaped <a href="/facts/Stone_of_the_Pregnant_Woman/g2bbyn8M">Stone of the Pregnant Woman</a> nearby weighs an estimated 1,000.12 t.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a> Both limestone blocks were intended for the Roman temple district nearby, possibly as an addition to the <a href="/facts/Trilithon/kuzR6yUT">trilithon</a>, but were left for unknown reasons at their quarrying sites.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a></li>
<li>The largest monolith moved was the <a href="/facts/Trilithon/kuzR6yUT">trilithon</a>, a group of three monumental blocks in the podium of the Jupiter temple at Baalbek. The individual stones are 19.60 m, 19.30 m and 19.10 m long respectively, with a depth of 3.65 m and a height of 4.34 m.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a> Weighing approximately 800 t on average, they were transported a distance of 800 m from the quarry and probably pulled by the means of ropes and capstans into their final position.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a> The supporting stone layer beneath features a number of blocks which are still in the order of 350 t.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a> The various giant stones of Roman Baalbek rank high among <a href="/facts/List_of_largest_monoliths_in_the_world/KmP7CDsW">the largest man-made monoliths in history</a>.</li>
<li>The largest <a href="/facts/Monolithic_column/JRwRwlzu">monolithic columns</a> were used by Roman builders who preferred them over the stacked drums typical of classical Greek architecture.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a> The logistics and technology involved in the transport and erection of extra-large single-piece columns were demanding: As a rule of thumb, the weight of the column shafts in the length range between 40 and 60 <a href="/facts/Roman_foot/TjXrMs3P">Roman feet</a> (c. 11.8 to 17.8 m) doubled with every ten feet from c. 50 over 100 to 200 t.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a> Despite this, forty and also fifty feet tall monolithic shafts can be found in a number of Roman buildings, but examples reaching sixty feet are only in evidence in two unfinished <a href="/facts/Granite/G2evuVKo">granite</a> columns which still lie in the Roman quarry of <a href="/facts/Mons_Claudianus/pBGtE2hz">Mons Claudianus</a>, Egypt.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a> One of the pair, which was discovered only in the 1930s,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a> has an estimated weight of 207 t.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a> All these dimensions, however, are surpassed by <a href="/facts/Pompey%2527s_Pillar_(column)/0SWPDtSf">Pompey's Pillar</a>, a free-standing victory column erected in <a href="/facts/Alexandria/hdg1twWA">Alexandria</a> in 297 AD: measuring 20.46 m high with a diameter of 2.71 m at its base, the weight of its granite shaft has been put at 285 t.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a></li>
<li>The largest monolithic dome crowned the early 6th century AD <a href="/facts/Mausoleum_of_Theodoric/JspaVuEt">Mausoleum of Theodoric</a> in <a href="/facts/Ravenna/qTQGdKhn">Ravenna</a>, then capital of the <a href="/facts/Ostrogothic_kingdom/cft8mecD">Ostrogothic kingdom</a>. The weight of the single, 10.76 m wide roof slab has been calculated at 230 t.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="obelisks">Obelisks</h2>
Further information: <a href="/facts/List_of_Roman_obelisks/W2CnQPwx">List of Roman obelisks</a>
<ul><li>The tallest obelisks are all located in Rome, adorning its inner-city squares. The Agonalis obelisk on <a href="/facts/Piazza_Navona/fEtNWrnh">Piazza Navona</a> stands highest at 16.54 m without <a href="/facts/Pedestal/khLJPkCG">pedestal</a>, followed by the Esquiline, Quirinale (both 14.7 m), Sallustiano (13.92 m) and the somewhat smaller Pinciano obelisk. Only some of them were inscribed with <a href="/facts/Egyptian_hieroglyphs/qXRpprLe">hieroglyphs</a>, while others remained blank. These five obelisks of Roman date complement a group of eight <a href="/facts/Ancient_Egyptian/BDsEGK4g">ancient Egyptian</a> obelisks which were carried on imperial order by <a href="/facts/Obelisk_carrier/2lE3pJVQ">obelisk carriers</a> from the Nile to the <a href="/facts/Tiber/zbk9Wajq">Tiber</a>, elevating Rome to the city with the most ancient obelisks to this day.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="roads">Roads</h2>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Roman_roads/b7mj9ySN">Roman roads</a>
<ul><li>The longest trackway was the <a href="/facts/Diolkos/AV7VeQyd">Diolkos</a> near <a href="/facts/Corinth/GtvbldxS">Corinth</a>, <a href="/facts/Greece/lqHw8bTB">Greece</a>, measuring between 6 and 8.5 km.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a> The paved roadway allowed boats to be pulled across the <a href="/facts/Isthmus_of_Corinth/4S9N9TMY">Isthmus of Corinth</a>, thus avoiding the long and dangerous sea trip around the <a href="/facts/Peloponnese/o56B4jsB">Peloponnese</a> peninsula. Working by the <a href="/facts/Railway/9nJQbsDV">railway</a> principle, with a <a href="/facts/Rail_gauge/aQIXUugv">gauge</a> of around 160 cm between two parallel grooves cut into the limestone paving,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a> it remained in regular and frequent service for at least 650 years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a> By comparison, the world's first overland wagonway, the <a href="/facts/Wollaton_Wagonway/k3DItjEL">Wollaton Wagonway</a> of 1604, ran for c. 3 km.</li></ul>
<h2 id="roofs">Roofs</h2>
Further information: <a href="/facts/List_of_ancient_Greek_and_Roman_roofs/dD7HFyA1">List of ancient Greek and Roman roofs</a>

<ul><li>The largest <a href="/facts/Post_and_lintel/qkFbJoa6">post and lintel</a> roof by span spanned the <a href="/facts/Parthenon/sp89Dxoa">Parthenon</a> in <a href="/facts/Athens/mBxlp8X1">Athens</a>. It measured 19.20 m between the <a href="/facts/Cella/LDNC0NH3">cella</a> walls, with an unsupported span of 11.05 m between the interior colonnades.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a> <a href="/facts/Magna_Graecia/XdhvdfTN">Sicilian</a> temples of the time featured slightly larger cross sections, but these may have been covered by truss roofs instead.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a></li>
<li>The largest <a href="/facts/Truss/bJXJyUtz">truss</a> roof by span covered the <a href="/facts/Flavian_Palace/pYTAGh4l">Aula Regia</a> (throne room) built for emperor <a href="/facts/Domitian/tR00gRmQ">Domitian</a> (81–96 AD) on the <a href="/facts/Palatine_Hill/QzCfItrB">Palatine Hill</a>, Rome. The timber truss roof had a width of 31.67 m, slightly surpassing the postulated limit of 30 m for Roman roof constructions. Tie-beam trusses allowed for much larger spans than the older prop-and-lintel system and even concrete vaulting: Nine out of the ten largest rectangular spaces in Roman architecture were bridged this way, the only exception being the groin vaulted <a href="/facts/Basilica_of_Maxentius/HnWNhgV8">Basilica of Maxentius</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="tunnels">Tunnels</h2>

<ul><li>The deepest tunnel was the <a href="/facts/Tunnels_of_Claudius/jn9o6Sge">Tunnels of Claudius</a>, constructed in eleven years time by emperor <a href="/facts/Claudius/WJ31y54a">Claudius</a> (41–54 AD). Draining the <a href="/facts/Fucine_Lake/ceEIYAUX">Fucine Lake</a>, the largest Italian inland water, 100 km east of Rome, it is widely deemed as the most ambitious Roman tunnel project as it stretched ancient technology to its limits.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a> The 5653 m long <a href="/facts/Qanat/qzVzdzbf">qanat</a> tunnel, passing under Monte Salviano, features vertical shafts up to 122 m depth; even longer ones were run obliquely through the rock.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a> After repairs under <a href="/facts/Trajan/Q6n5uj1q">Trajan</a> and <a href="/facts/Hadrian/e1RoggvV">Hadrian</a>, the Claudius tunnel remained in use until the end of antiquity. Various attempts at restoration succeeded only in the late 19th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a></li>
<li>The longest road tunnel was the <a href="/facts/Grotta_di_Cocceio/8kC3gz9v">Cocceius Tunnel</a> near <a href="/facts/Naples/SXrFcg2C">Naples</a>, Italy, which connected <a href="/facts/Cumae/c7b9VRuo">Cumae</a> with the base of the <a href="/facts/Roman_navy/hpCKsHov">Roman fleet</a>, <a href="/facts/Portus_Julius/jFAE2Ml6">Portus Julius</a>. The 1000 m long tunnel was part of an extensive underground network which facilitated troop movements between the various Roman facilities in the volcanic area. Built by the architect <a href="/facts/Cocceius_Auctus/8GF4u0ta">Cocceius Auctus</a>, it featured paved access roads and well-built mouthes. Other road tunnels include the <a href="/facts/Crypta_Neapolitana/D90uRucj">Crypta Neapolitana</a> to <a href="/facts/Pozzuoli/bJRK7xhT">Pozzuoli</a> (750 m long, 3–4 m wide and 3–5 m high), and the similarly sized Grotta di Seiano.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a></li>
<li>The longest <a href="/facts/Qanat/qzVzdzbf">qanat</a> was the 94 km long <a href="/facts/Gadara_Aqueduct/N4vtmX3H">Gadara Aqueduct</a> in northern <a href="/facts/Jordan/JC5sS1oJ">Jordan</a>. This recently discovered structure provided for hundreds of years water for Adraa, <a href="/facts/Abila_(Decapolis)/2D8yk5Sz">Abila</a> and Gadara, three cities of the ancient <a href="/facts/Decapolis/ETLy2JLw">Decapolis</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a> Only 35 km long as the crow flies, its length was almost tripled by following closely the contours of the local topography, avoiding valleys and mountain ridges alike.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a> The monumental work seemed to be carried out in seven stages of construction between 130 and 193 AD. The distance between the individual vertical shafts was on average 50 m. Probably the project was initiated by <a href="/facts/Hadrian/e1RoggvV">Hadrian</a>, who had granted privileges to the cities during a longer stay in the Decapolis. The aqueduct remained operational until the <a href="/facts/Byzantine_Empire/njEELXWF">Byzantines</a> lost control of the region after the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Yarmuk/SBCRs03r">Battle of Yarmuk</a> in 636.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a></li>
<li>The longest tunnel excavated from opposite ends was built around the end of the 6th century BC for draining and regulating <a href="/facts/Lake_Nemi/uyeBe6J2">Lake Nemi</a>, Italy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108">108</a> Measuring 1600 m, it was almost 600 m longer than the slightly older <a href="/facts/Tunnel_of_Eupalinos/jcXaswXQ">Tunnel of Eupalinos</a> on the isle of <a href="/facts/Samos/bBJufQRK">Samos</a>, the first tunnel in history to be excavated from two ends with a methodical approach.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109">109</a> The <a href="/facts/Lake_Albano/yCYgCcvp">Albano Tunnel</a>, also in central Italy, reaches a length of 1,400 m.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110">110</a> It was excavated no later than 397 BC and is still in service. Determining the tunnelling direction underground and coordinating the advance of the separate work parties made meticulous surveying and execution on the part of the ancient engineers necessary.</li></ul>
<h2 id="vaulting">Vaulting</h2>
<ul><li>The largest <a href="/facts/Barrel_vault/owxuMAwF">barrel vault</a> by span covered the <a href="/facts/Temple_of_Venus_and_Roma/eHATCGN6">Temple of Venus and Roma</a>, Rome. Built between 307 and 312 AD, the vaulted structure replaced the original timber truss roof from <a href="/facts/Hadrian/e1RoggvV">Hadrian</a>'s time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111">111</a></li>
<li>The largest <a href="/facts/Groin_vault/FWxMtzHY">groin vault</a> by span roofed the 25.01 m wide main nave of the <a href="/facts/Basilica_of_Maxentius/HnWNhgV8">Basilica of Maxentius</a> on the <a href="/facts/Forum_Romanum/NI8yC1VI">Forum Romanum</a>, built in the early 4th century AD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112">112</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="miscellaneous">Miscellaneous</h2>
Further information: <a href="/facts/List_of_Roman_watermills/ANwFhPp5">List of Roman watermills</a> and <a href="/facts/List_of_ancient_spiral_stairs/EwG2MWJb">List of ancient spiral stairs</a>

<ul><li>The greatest concentration of mechanical power was the <a href="/facts/Barbegal_aqueduct_and_mill/LSf0vFSR">Barbegal water mill complex</a> in southern <a href="/facts/France/CxIeIKM3">France</a>, constructed in the early 2nd century AD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113">113</a> Sixteen overshot <a href="/facts/Water_wheel/7xwQDxrP">water wheels</a> fed by an <a href="/facts/Aqueduct_(bridge)/KqM5bQof">arcaded aqueduct</a> branch from the main conduit to <a href="/facts/Arles/339pn0TW">Arles</a> produced an estimated 4.5 t of <a href="/facts/Flour/dY1Lx5RQ">flour</a> per 24 hours – an output sufficient to feed 12,500 people or the majority of the population of Arles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114">114</a> Water mill batteries are also known from <a href="/facts/Diyarbak%25C4%25B1r/kHqcXpPe">Amida</a> in Asia Minor, the <a href="/facts/Janiculum/hMkqTGAI">Janiculum</a> hill in Rome, and a number of other places throughout the <a href="/facts/Roman_empire/l4E1aUuV">empire</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115">115</a></li>
<li>The longest <a href="/facts/Stairway/mmBBnteX">spiral stair</a> belonged to the 2nd century AD <a href="/facts/Trajan%2527s_Column/dW7XzefD">Trajan's Column</a> in Rome. Measuring a height of 29.68 m, it surpassed its successor, the Column of Marcus Aurelius, by a mere 6 cm. Its treads were carved out ouf nineteen massive marble blocks so that each drum comprised a half-turn of seven steps. The quality of the craftsmanship was such that the staircase was practically even, and the joints between the huge blocks accurately fitting. The design of the Trajan's column had a profound influence on Roman construction technique, and the spiral stair became over time an establish architectural element.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116">116</a></li>
<li>The longest straight alignment was constituted by an 81.259 km long section of the <a href="/facts/Limes_Germanicus/oAvrRTyH">Roman limes</a> in <a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a>. The fortified line ran through hilly and densely wooded country in completely linear fashion, deviating in its entire length only once, for a distance of 1.6 km, to avoid a steep valley. The extraordinary accuracy of the alignment has been attributed to the <a href="/facts/Groma_surveying/RUa21jJc">groma</a>, a surveying instrument which was used by the Romans to great effect in land division and road construction.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117">117</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Ancient_Greek_architecture/2vTuKmR4">Ancient Greek architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Ancient_Greek_technology/kclQXMcc">Greek technology</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Ancient_Roman_architecture/1wtv6yFU">Ancient Roman architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Roman_technology/mhEB7rUJ">Roman technology</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Roman_engineering/Uq8cU5jM">Roman engineering</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="sources">Sources</h2>
<ul><li>Adam, Jean-Pierre (1977), "À propos du trilithon de Baalbek: Le transport et la mise en oeuvre des mégalithes", Syria, 54 (1/2): 31–63, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fsyria.1977.6623">10.3406/syria.1977.6623</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Tom_M._Apostol/S6vGtJWN">Apostol, Tom M.</a> (2004), <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110714025051/http://www.mamikon.com/TunnelSamos.pdf">"The Tunnel of Samos"</a> (PDF), Engineering and Science (1): 30–40, archived from <a href="http://www.mamikon.com/TunnelSamos.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 14 July 2011, retrieved 12 September 2012</li>
<li>Arenillas, Miguel; Castillo, Juan C. (2003), <a href="http://www.traianvs.net/textos/presas_in.htm#_ednref4">"Dams from the Roman Era in Spain. Analysis of Design Forms (with Appendix)"</a>, 1st International Congress on Construction History [20th–24th January], Madrid</li>
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<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>
<ul><li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080528061612/http://traianus.rediris.es/">Traianus</a> – Technical investigation of Roman public works</li>
<li><a href="http://www.romanaqueducts.info/">600 Roman Aqueducts</a> – with 40 described in detail</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Döring 1998, pp. 131f. (fig. 10) - Döring, Mathias (1998), "Die römische Wasserleitung von Pondel (Aostatal)", Antike Welt, 29 (2): 127–134 <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">O'Connor 1993, pp. 142–145 - O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Galliazzo 1995, pp. 92, 93 (fig. 39) - Galliazzo, Vittorio (1995), I ponti romani, vol. 1, Treviso: Edizioni Canova, ISBN 88-85066-66-6 <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">O'Connor 1993, pp. 133–139 - O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Fernández Troyano 2003 - Fernández Troyano, Leonardo (2003), Bridge Engineering. A Global Perspective, London: Thomas Telford Publishing, ISBN 0-7277-3215-3 <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Tudor 1974, p. 139; Galliazzo 1994, p. 319 - Tudor, D. (1974), "Le pont de Constantin le Grand à Celei", Les ponts romains du Bas-Danube, Bibliotheca Historica Romaniae Études, vol. 51, Bucharest: Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste România, pp. 135–166 <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">O'Connor 1993, p. 99 - O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">O'Connor 1993, p. 151 - O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">O'Connor 1993, pp. 142–145 - O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">O'Connor 1993, p. 154f. - O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Grewe & Özis 1994, pp. 348–352 - Grewe, Klaus; Özis, Ünal (1994), "Die antiken Flußüberbauungen von Pergamon und Nysa (Türkei)", Antike Welt, 25 (4): 348–352 <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">O'Connor 1993 - O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Durán Fuentes 2004, pp. 236f. - Durán Fuentes, Manuel (2004), La Construcción de Puentes Romanos en Hispania, Santiago de Compostela: Xunta de Galicia, ISBN 978-84-453-3937-4 <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Wurster & Ganzert 1978, p. 299 - Wurster, Wolfgang W.; Ganzert, Joachim (1978), "Eine Brücke bei Limyra in Lykien", Archäologischer Anzeiger, Berlin: Deutsches Archäologisches Institut: 288–307, ISSN 0003-8105 <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-8105" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-8105</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Durán Fuentes 2004, pp. 236f. - Durán Fuentes, Manuel (2004), La Construcción de Puentes Romanos en Hispania, Santiago de Compostela: Xunta de Galicia, ISBN 978-84-453-3937-4 <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">O'Connor 1993, pp. 142–145 - O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">O'Connor 1993, pp. 142–145 - O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">O'Connor 1993, p. 171 - O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">O'Connor 1993, p. 169 (fig. 140)–171 - O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">O'Connor 1993, p. 167 - O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">O'Connor 1993, p. 169 (fig. 140)–171 - O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Frunzio, Monaco & Gesualdo 2001, p. 592 - Frunzio, G.; Monaco, M.; Gesualdo, A. (2001), "3D F.E.M. Analysis of a Roman Arch Bridge", in Lourenço, P.B.; Roca, P. (eds.), Historical Constructions (PDF), Guimarães: University of Minho, pp. 591–597, archived from the original (PDF) on 21 August 2007 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070821165204/http://www.civil.uminho.pt/masonry/Publications/Historical%20constructions/page%20591-598%20_69_.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20070821165204/http://www.civil.uminho.pt/masonry/Publications/Historical%20constructions/page%20591-598%20_69_.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">O'Connor 1993, pp. 168f. - O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">O'Connor 1993, p. 165; Heinrich 1983, p. 38 - O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">O'Connor 1993, p. 92; Durán Fuentes 2004, pp. 234f. - O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">O'Connor 1993, pp. 164f.; Durán Fuentes 2004, pp. 234f. - O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">O'Connor 1993, p. 171 - O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Schörner 2000, pp. 34f. - Schörner, Hadwiga (2000), "Künstliche Schiffahrtskanäle in der Antike. Der sogenannte antike Suez-Kanal", Skyllis, 3 (1): 28–43 <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Schörner 2000, pp. 36f. - Schörner, Hadwiga (2000), "Künstliche Schiffahrtskanäle in der Antike. Der sogenannte antike Suez-Kanal", Skyllis, 3 (1): 28–43 <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Werner 1997, pp. 115f - Werner, Walter (1997), "The Largest Ship Trackway in Ancient Times: the Diolkos of the Isthmus of Corinth, Greece, and Early Attempts to Build a Canal", The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 26 (2): 98–119, doi:10.1111/j.1095-9270.1997.tb01322.x <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-9270.1997.tb01322.x" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-9270.1997.tb01322.x</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">Gehn, Ulrich. "LSA-2458: Demolished spiral column once crowned by colossal statue of Theodosius I, emperor; later used for statue of Anastasius, emperor. Constantinople, Forum of Theodosius (Tauros). 386-394 and 506". Last Statues of Antiquity. Oxford University. Retrieved 18 March 2020. <a href="http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=2832" target="_blank">http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=2832</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Gehn, Ulrich (2012). "LSA-2459: Demolished spiral column once crowned by colossal statue of Arcadius, emperor. Constantinople, Forum of Arcadius. 401-21". Last Statues of Antiquity. Oxford University. Retrieved 13 March 2020. <a href="http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=2833" target="_blank">http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=2833</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Yoncaci Arslan, Pelin (2016). "Towards A New Honorific Column: The Column Of Constantine In Early Byzantine Urban Landscape" (PDF). METU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture. 33 (1): 121–145. doi:10.4305/METU.JFA.2016.1.5. <a href="http://jfa.arch.metu.edu.tr/archive/0258-5316/2016/cilt33/sayi_1/121-145.pdf" target="_blank">http://jfa.arch.metu.edu.tr/archive/0258-5316/2016/cilt33/sayi_1/121-145.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Jones 2000, p. 220 - Jones, Mark Wilson (2000), Principles of Roman Architecture, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08138-3 <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">Adam 1977, pp. 50f. - Adam, Jean-Pierre (1977), "À propos du trilithon de Baalbek: Le transport et la mise en oeuvre des mégalithes", Syria, 54 (1/2): 31–63, doi:10.3406/syria.1977.6623 <a href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fsyria.1977.6623" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fsyria.1977.6623</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Gehn, Ulrich (2012). "LSA-874: Column used as base for statue of Diocletian, emperor (so-called 'Column of Pompey'). Alexandria (Aegyptus). 297-302". Last Statues of Antiquity. Retrieved 18 March 2020. <a href="http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=1246" target="_blank">http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=1246</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">Bergmann, Marianne (2012). "LSA-1005: Fragments of colossal porphyry statue of Diocletian in cuirass (lost ). From Alexandria. 297-302". Last Statues of Antiquity. Oxford University. Retrieved 18 March 2020. <a href="http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/detail.php?record=LSA-1005" target="_blank">http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/detail.php?record=LSA-1005</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">Jones 2000, pp. 224f. (table 2) - Jones, Mark Wilson (2000), Principles of Roman Architecture, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08138-3 <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">Schnitter 1978, pp. 31f. - Schnitter, Niklaus (1978), "Römische Talsperren", Antike Welt, 8 (2): 25–32 <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">Smith 1971, pp. 33–35; Schnitter 1978, pp. 31f.; Schnitter 1987a, p. 12; Schnitter 1987c, p. 80; Hodge 2000, p. 332, fn. 2 - Smith, Norman (1971), A History of Dams, London: Peter Davies, pp. 25–49, ISBN 0-432-15090-0 <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">Schnitter 1987b, p. 80 - Schnitter, Niklaus (1987b), "Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pfeilerstaumauer", in Garbrecht, Günther (ed.), Historische Talsperren, vol. 1, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 57–74, ISBN 3-87919-145-X <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">Dimensions: Smith 1971, pp. 35f. - Smith, Norman (1971), A History of Dams, London: Peter Davies, pp. 25–49, ISBN 0-432-15090-0 <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">Gravity dam: Smith 1971, pp. 35f.; Schnitter 1978, p. 30; arch-gravity dam: James & Chanson 2002 - Smith, Norman (1971), A History of Dams, London: Peter Davies, pp. 25–49, ISBN 0-432-15090-0 <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">Smith 1971, pp. 56–61; Schnitter 1978, p. 32; Kleiss 1983, p. 106; Vogel 1987, p. 50; Hartung & Kuros 1987, p. 232; Hodge 1992, p. 85; O'Connor 1993, p. 130; Huff 2010; Kramers 2010 - Smith, Norman (1971), A History of Dams, London: Peter Davies, pp. 25–49, ISBN 0-432-15090-0 <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">Vogel 1987, p. 50 - Vogel, Alexius (1987), "Die historische Entwicklung der Gewichtsmauer", in Garbrecht, Günther (ed.), Historische Talsperren, vol. 1, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 47–56 (50), ISBN 3-87919-145-X <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">Hartung & Kuros 1987, p. 246 - Hartung, Fritz; Kuros, Gh. R. (1987), "Historische Talsperren im Iran", in Garbrecht, Günther (ed.), Historische Talsperren, vol. 1, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 221–274, ISBN 3-87919-145-X <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:47">Schnitter 1978, p. 28, fig. 7 - Schnitter, Niklaus (1978), "Römische Talsperren", Antike Welt, 8 (2): 25–32 <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:48">Huff 2010; Smith 1971, pp. 60f. - Huff, Dietrich (2010), "Bridges. Pre-Islamic Bridges", in Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), Encyclopædia Iranica Online <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:49">Schnitter 1978, p. 29 - Schnitter, Niklaus (1978), "Römische Talsperren", Antike Welt, 8 (2): 25–32 <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:50">Schnitter 1978, p. 29; Schnitter 1987b, pp. 60, table 1, 62; James & Chanson 2002; Arenillas & Castillo 2003 - Schnitter, Niklaus (1978), "Römische Talsperren", Antike Welt, 8 (2): 25–32 <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:51">Schnitter 1978, p. 29; Arenillas & Castillo 2003 - Schnitter, Niklaus (1978), "Römische Talsperren", Antike Welt, 8 (2): 25–32 <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:52">Schnitter 1978, p. 29 - Schnitter, Niklaus (1978), "Römische Talsperren", Antike Welt, 8 (2): 25–32 <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:53">Arenillas & Castillo 2003 - Arenillas, Miguel; Castillo, Juan C. (2003), "Dams from the Roman Era in Spain. Analysis of Design Forms (with Appendix)", 1st International Congress on Construction History [20th–24th January], Madrid <a href="http://www.traianvs.net/textos/presas_in.htm#_ednref4" target="_blank">http://www.traianvs.net/textos/presas_in.htm#_ednref4</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:54">Smith 1971, pp. 39–42; Schnitter 1978, p. 31; Hodge 1992, p. 91 - Smith, Norman (1971), A History of Dams, London: Peter Davies, pp. 25–49, ISBN 0-432-15090-0 <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:55">Smith 1971, p. 42 - Smith, Norman (1971), A History of Dams, London: Peter Davies, pp. 25–49, ISBN 0-432-15090-0 <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:56">Hodge 1992, p. 91; Hodge 2000, p. 338 - Hodge, A. Trevor (1992), Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply, London: Duckworth, ISBN 0-7156-2194-7 <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:57">Smith 1971, p. 42 - Smith, Norman (1971), A History of Dams, London: Peter Davies, pp. 25–49, ISBN 0-432-15090-0 <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:58">Hodge 1992, p. 91 - Hodge, A. Trevor (1992), Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply, London: Duckworth, ISBN 0-7156-2194-7 <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:59">Smith 1971, p. 37 - Smith, Norman (1971), A History of Dams, London: Peter Davies, pp. 25–49, ISBN 0-432-15090-0 <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:60">Smith 1970, pp. 60f.; Smith 1971, p. 26; Schnitter 1978, p. 28 - Smith, Norman (1970), "The Roman Dams of Subiaco", Technology and Culture, 11 (1): 58–68, doi:10.2307/3102810, JSTOR 3102810, S2CID 111915102 <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3102810" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3102810</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">Smith 1970, pp. 60f.; Smith 1971, p. 26 - Smith, Norman (1970), "The Roman Dams of Subiaco", Technology and Culture, 11 (1): 58–68, doi:10.2307/3102810, JSTOR 3102810, S2CID 111915102 <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3102810" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3102810</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">Hodge 1992, p. 82 (table 39) - Hodge, A. Trevor (1992), Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply, London: Duckworth, ISBN 0-7156-2194-7 <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">Smith 1970, pp. 65 & 68; Hodge 1992, p. 87 - Smith, Norman (1970), "The Roman Dams of Subiaco", Technology and Culture, 11 (1): 58–68, doi:10.2307/3102810, JSTOR 3102810, S2CID 111915102 <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3102810" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3102810</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:64">Mark & Hutchinson 1986, p. 24 - Mark, Robert; Hutchinson, Paul (1986), "On the Structure of the Roman Pantheon", Art Bulletin, 68 (1): 24–34, doi:10.2307/3050861, JSTOR 3050861 <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3050861" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3050861</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:65">Rasch 1985, p. 119 - Rasch, Jürgen (1985), "Die Kuppel in der römischen Architektur. Entwicklung, Formgebung, Konstruktion", Architectura, 15: 117–139 <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:67">Mark & Hutchinson 1986, p. 24; Müller 2005, p. 253 - Mark, Robert; Hutchinson, Paul (1986), "On the Structure of the Roman Pantheon", Art Bulletin, 68 (1): 24–34, doi:10.2307/3050861, JSTOR 3050861 <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3050861" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3050861</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:68">Heinle & Schlaich 1996, p. 27 - Heinle, Erwin; Schlaich, Jörg (1996), Kuppeln aller Zeiten, aller Kulturen, Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlagsanstalt, ISBN 3-421-03062-6 <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:69">Rasch 1985, p. 124 - Rasch, Jürgen (1985), "Die Kuppel in der römischen Architektur. Entwicklung, Formgebung, Konstruktion", Architectura, 15: 117–139 <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:70">Rasch 1985, p. 119 - Rasch, Jürgen (1985), "Die Kuppel in der römischen Architektur. Entwicklung, Formgebung, Konstruktion", Architectura, 15: 117–139 <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:71">Rasch 1985, p. 126 - Rasch, Jürgen (1985), "Die Kuppel in der römischen Architektur. Entwicklung, Formgebung, Konstruktion", Architectura, 15: 117–139 <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:73">Scranton 1938, p. 529 - Scranton, Robert L. (1938), "The Fortifications of Athens at the Opening of the Peloponnesian War", American Journal of Archaeology, 42 (4): 525–536, doi:10.2307/499185, JSTOR 499185, S2CID 191370973 <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F499185" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F499185</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:77">O'Connor 1993, pp. 49f.; Lancaster 1999, p. 426 - O'Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:78">Coulton 1974, pp. 16, 19 - Coulton, J. J. (1974), "Lifting in Early Greek Architecture", The Journal of Hellenic Studies, 94: 1–19, doi:10.2307/630416, JSTOR 630416, S2CID 162973494 <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F630416" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F630416</a> <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:79">Lancaster 1999, p. 426 - Lancaster, Lynne (1999), "Building Trajan's Column", American Journal of Archaeology, 103 (3): 419–439, doi:10.2307/506969, JSTOR 506969, S2CID 192986322 <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F506969" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F506969</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:80">Lancaster 1999, pp. 426−432 - Lancaster, Lynne (1999), "Building Trajan's Column", American Journal of Archaeology, 103 (3): 419–439, doi:10.2307/506969, JSTOR 506969, S2CID 192986322 <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F506969" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F506969</a> <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:81">Ruprechtsberger 1999, p. 17 - Ruprechtsberger, Erwin M. (1999), "Vom Steinbruch zum Jupitertempel von Heliopolis/Baalbek (Libanon)", Linzer Archäologische Forschungen, 30: 7–56 <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:82">Ruprechtsberger 1999, p. 15 - Ruprechtsberger, Erwin M. (1999), "Vom Steinbruch zum Jupitertempel von Heliopolis/Baalbek (Libanon)", Linzer Archäologische Forschungen, 30: 7–56 <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:83">Ruprechtsberger 1999, pp. 18–20 - Ruprechtsberger, Erwin M. (1999), "Vom Steinbruch zum Jupitertempel von Heliopolis/Baalbek (Libanon)", Linzer Archäologische Forschungen, 30: 7–56 <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:84">Adam 1977, p. 52 - Adam, Jean-Pierre (1977), "À propos du trilithon de Baalbek: Le transport et la mise en oeuvre des mégalithes", Syria, 54 (1/2): 31–63, doi:10.3406/syria.1977.6623 <a href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fsyria.1977.6623" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fsyria.1977.6623</a> <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:85">Adam 1977, pp. 52–63 - Adam, Jean-Pierre (1977), "À propos du trilithon de Baalbek: Le transport et la mise en oeuvre des mégalithes", Syria, 54 (1/2): 31–63, doi:10.3406/syria.1977.6623 <a href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fsyria.1977.6623" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fsyria.1977.6623</a> <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:86">Adam 1977, p. 52 - Adam, Jean-Pierre (1977), "À propos du trilithon de Baalbek: Le transport et la mise en oeuvre des mégalithes", Syria, 54 (1/2): 31–63, doi:10.3406/syria.1977.6623 <a href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fsyria.1977.6623" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fsyria.1977.6623</a> <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:87">Lancaster 2008, pp. 258f. - Lancaster, Lynne (2008), "Roman Engineering and Construction", in Oleson, John Peter (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, pp. 256–284, ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1 <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:88">Lancaster 2008, pp. 258f. - Lancaster, Lynne (2008), "Roman Engineering and Construction", in Oleson, John Peter (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, pp. 256–284, ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1 <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:89">Davies, Hemsoll & Jones 1987, pp. 150f., fn. 47 - Davies, Paul; Hemsoll, David; Jones, Mark Wilson (1987), "The Pantheon: Triumph of Rome or Triumph of Compromise?", Art History, 10 (2): 133–153, doi:10.1111/j.1467-8365.1987.tb00247.x <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8365.1987.tb00247.x" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8365.1987.tb00247.x</a> <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:90">Scaife 1953, p. 37 - Scaife, C. H. O. (1953), "The Origin of Some Pantheon Columns", The Journal of Roman Studies, 43: 37, doi:10.2307/297777, JSTOR 297777, S2CID 161273729 <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F297777" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F297777</a> <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:91">Maxfield 2001, p. 158 - Maxfield, Valerie A. (2001), "Stone Quarrying in the Eastern Desert with Particular Reference to Mons Claudianus and Mons Porphyrites", in Mattingly, David J.; Salmon, John (eds.), Economies Beyond Agriculture in the Classical World, Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 9, London: Routledge, pp. 143–170, ISBN 0-415-21253-7 <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:92">Adam 1977, pp. 50f. - Adam, Jean-Pierre (1977), "À propos du trilithon de Baalbek: Le transport et la mise en oeuvre des mégalithes", Syria, 54 (1/2): 31–63, doi:10.3406/syria.1977.6623 <a href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fsyria.1977.6623" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fsyria.1977.6623</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:93">Heidenreich & Johannes 1971, p. 63 - Heidenreich, Robert; Johannes, Heinz (1971), Das Grabmal Theoderichs zu Ravenna, Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:94">Habachi & Vogel 2000, pp. 103–113 - Habachi, Labib; Vogel, Carola (2000), Die unsterblichen Obelisken Ägyptens, Mainz: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, ISBN 3-8053-2658-0 <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:95">Raepsaet & Tolley 1993, p. 246; Lewis 2001b, p. 10; Werner 1997, p. 109 - Raepsaet, G.; Tolley, M. (1993), "Le Diolkos de l'Isthme à Corinthe: son tracé, son fonctionnement", Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, 117 (1): 233–261, doi:10.3406/bch.1993.1679 <a href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fbch.1993.1679" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fbch.1993.1679</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:96">Lewis 2001b, pp. 10, 12 - Lewis, M. J. T. (2001b), "Railways in the Greek and Roman world", in Guy, A.; Rees, J. (eds.), Early Railways. A Selection of Papers from the First International Early Railways Conference (PDF), pp. 8–19, archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721083013/http://www.sciencenews.gr/docs/diolkos.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20110721083013/http://www.sciencenews.gr/docs/diolkos.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:97">Verdelis 1957, p. 526; Cook 1979, p. 152; Drijvers 1992, p. 75; Raepsaet & Tolley 1993, p. 256; Lewis 2001b, p. 11 - Verdelis, Nikolaos (1957), "Le diolkos de L'Isthme", Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, 81 (1): 526–529, doi:10.3406/bch.1957.2388 <a href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fbch.1957.2388" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fbch.1957.2388</a> <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:98">Hodge 1960, p. 39 - Hodge, A. Trevor (1960), The Woodwork of Greek Roofs, Cambridge University Press <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:99">Klein 1998, p. 338 - Klein, Nancy L. (1998), "Evidence for West Greek Influence on Mainland Greek Roof Construction and the Creation of the Truss in the Archaic Period", Hesperia, 67 (4): 335–374, doi:10.2307/148449, JSTOR 148449 <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F148449" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F148449</a> <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:100">Ulrich 2007, p. 148f. - Ulrich, Roger B. (2007), Roman Woodworking, New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-10341-0 <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:101">Grewe 1998, p. 97 - Grewe, Klaus (1998), Licht am Ende des Tunnels. Planung und Trassierung im antiken Tunnelbau, Mainz: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, ISBN 3-8053-2492-8 <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:102">Grewe 1998, p. 96 - Grewe, Klaus (1998), Licht am Ende des Tunnels. Planung und Trassierung im antiken Tunnelbau, Mainz: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, ISBN 3-8053-2492-8 <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:103">Grewe 1998, p. 92 - Grewe, Klaus (1998), Licht am Ende des Tunnels. Planung und Trassierung im antiken Tunnelbau, Mainz: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, ISBN 3-8053-2492-8 <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:104">Grewe 1998, pp. 124–127 - Grewe, Klaus (1998), Licht am Ende des Tunnels. Planung und Trassierung im antiken Tunnelbau, Mainz: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, ISBN 3-8053-2492-8 <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:105">Döring 2007, p. 25 - Döring, Mathias (2007), "Wasser für Gadara. 94 km langer antiker Tunnel im Norden Jordaniens entdeckt" (PDF), Querschnitt (21), Darmstadt University of Applied Sciences: 24–35, archived from the original (PDF) on 11 January 2016, retrieved 12 September 2012 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160111182937/https://publikationen.h-da.de/downloadByDMID.skat?dmid=ID1480820_11158167&filename=querschnitt_21.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20160111182937/https://publikationen.h-da.de/downloadByDMID.skat?dmid=ID1480820_11158167&filename=querschnitt_21.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:105" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:106">Döring 2007, p. 27 - Döring, Mathias (2007), "Wasser für Gadara. 94 km langer antiker Tunnel im Norden Jordaniens entdeckt" (PDF), Querschnitt (21), Darmstadt University of Applied Sciences: 24–35, archived from the original (PDF) on 11 January 2016, retrieved 12 September 2012 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160111182937/https://publikationen.h-da.de/downloadByDMID.skat?dmid=ID1480820_11158167&filename=querschnitt_21.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20160111182937/https://publikationen.h-da.de/downloadByDMID.skat?dmid=ID1480820_11158167&filename=querschnitt_21.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:106" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:107">Döring 2007, pp. 31–32 - Döring, Mathias (2007), "Wasser für Gadara. 94 km langer antiker Tunnel im Norden Jordaniens entdeckt" (PDF), Querschnitt (21), Darmstadt University of Applied Sciences: 24–35, archived from the original (PDF) on 11 January 2016, retrieved 12 September 2012 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160111182937/https://publikationen.h-da.de/downloadByDMID.skat?dmid=ID1480820_11158167&filename=querschnitt_21.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20160111182937/https://publikationen.h-da.de/downloadByDMID.skat?dmid=ID1480820_11158167&filename=querschnitt_21.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:107" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:108">Grewe 1998, pp. 82–87 - Grewe, Klaus (1998), Licht am Ende des Tunnels. Planung und Trassierung im antiken Tunnelbau, Mainz: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, ISBN 3-8053-2492-8 <a href="#fnref:108" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:109">Burns 1971, p. 173; Apostol 2004, p. 33 - Burns, Alfred (1971), "The Tunnel of Eupalinus and the Tunnel Problem of Hero of Alexandria", Isis, 62 (2): 172–185, doi:10.1086/350729, S2CID 145064628 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F350729" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1086%2F350729</a> <a href="#fnref:109" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:110">Grewe 1998, pp. 87–89 - Grewe, Klaus (1998), Licht am Ende des Tunnels. Planung und Trassierung im antiken Tunnelbau, Mainz: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, ISBN 3-8053-2492-8 <a href="#fnref:110" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:111">Ulrich 2007, p. 148f. - Ulrich, Roger B. (2007), Roman Woodworking, New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-10341-0 <a href="#fnref:111" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:112">Ulrich 2007, p. 148f. - Ulrich, Roger B. (2007), Roman Woodworking, New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-10341-0 <a href="#fnref:112" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:113">Greene 2000, p. 39 - Greene, Kevin (2000), "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered", The Economic History Review, New Series, 53 (1): 29–59, doi:10.1111/1468-0289.00151, hdl:10.1111/1468-0289.00151 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-0289.00151" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-0289.00151</a> <a href="#fnref:113" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:114">Wilson 2002, pp. 11–12 - Wilson, Andrew (2002), "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", The Journal of Roman Studies, 92: 1–32, doi:10.2307/3184857, JSTOR 3184857, S2CID 154629776 <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3184857" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3184857</a> <a href="#fnref:114" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:115">Wilson 2001, pp. 231–236; Wilson 2002, pp. 12–14 - Wilson, Andrew (2001), "Water-Mills at Amida: Ammianus Marcellinus 18.8.11" (PDF), The Classical Quarterly, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 231–236, doi:10.1093/cq/51.1.231 <a href="http://users.ox.ac.uk/~corp0057/water-mills%20at%20amida.pdf" target="_blank">http://users.ox.ac.uk/~corp0057/water-mills%20at%20amida.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:115" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:116">Jones 1993, pp. 28–31; Beckmann 2002, pp. 353–356 - Jones, Mark Wilson (1993), "One Hundred Feet and a Spiral Stair: The Problem of Designing Trajan's Column", Journal of Roman Archaeology, 6: 23–38, doi:10.1017/S1047759400011454, S2CID 250348951 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1047759400011454" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1047759400011454</a> <a href="#fnref:116" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:117">Lewis 2001a, pp. 242, 245 - Lewis, M. J. T. (2001a), Surveying Instruments of Greece and Rome, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-79297-5 <a href="#fnref:117" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

List of Greek and Roman architectural records open-in-new

List of Greek and Roman architectural records