Geomorphology

<h2 id="overview">Overview</h2>

<a href="/facts/Earth/HLLmDfj0">Earth</a>'s surface is modified by a combination of surface processes that shape landscapes, and geologic processes that cause <a href="/facts/Tectonic_uplift/fUV9G289">tectonic uplift</a> and <a href="/facts/Subsidence/EIwtz9w9">subsidence</a>, and shape the <a href="/facts/Coastal_geography/Mqks9KGW">coastal geography</a>. Surface processes comprise the action of water, wind, ice, <a href="/facts/Wildfire/LU3797A0">wildfire</a>, and life on the surface of the Earth, along with chemical reactions that form <a href="/facts/Soil/5Ddpr3QM">soils</a> and alter material properties, the stability and rate of change of <a href="/facts/Topography/SS8Bx4t9">topography</a> under the force of <a href="/facts/Gravity/bqAN7DdQ">gravity</a>, and other factors, such as (in the very recent past) human alteration of the landscape. Many of these factors are strongly mediated by <a href="/facts/Climate/f57XrNFU">climate</a>. Geologic processes include the uplift of <a href="/facts/Mountain_range/L7vxtr7A">mountain ranges</a>, the growth of <a href="/facts/Volcano/c2M5upml">volcanoes</a>, <a href="/facts/Isostasy/GaRMFQNP">isostatic</a> changes in land surface elevation (sometimes in response to surface processes), and the formation of deep <a href="/facts/Sedimentary_basin/dVkfKMrB">sedimentary basins</a> where the surface of the Earth drops and is filled with material <a href="/facts/Erosion/gaGJXy0W">eroded</a> from other parts of the landscape. The Earth's surface and its topography therefore are an intersection of <a href="/facts/Climate/f57XrNFU">climatic</a>, <a href="/facts/Hydrology/Xh727cnE">hydrologic</a>, and <a href="/facts/Biology/1M1ee3pB">biologic</a> action with geologic processes, or alternatively stated, the intersection of the Earth's <a href="/facts/Lithosphere/1mqaxASd">lithosphere</a> with its <a href="/facts/Hydrosphere/RbJmcSX6">hydrosphere</a>, <a href="/facts/Atmosphere/oUpLaGRF">atmosphere</a>, and <a href="/facts/Biosphere/P1ltA4sb">biosphere</a>.
The broad-scale topographies of the Earth illustrate this intersection of surface and subsurface action. Mountain belts are <a href="/facts/Tectonic_uplift/fUV9G289">uplifted</a> due to geologic processes. <a href="/facts/Denudation/VpfyfhxE">Denudation</a> of these high uplifted regions produces <a href="/facts/Sediment/zsIH1A6U">sediment</a> that is transported and <a href="/facts/Deposition_(geology)/qxjlY8KL">deposited</a> elsewhere within the landscape or off the coast.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2">2</a> On progressively smaller scales, similar ideas apply, where individual landforms evolve in response to the balance of additive processes (uplift and deposition) and subtractive processes (<a href="/facts/Subsidence/EIwtz9w9">subsidence</a> and <a href="/facts/Erosion/gaGJXy0W">erosion</a>). Often, these processes directly affect each other: ice sheets, water, and sediment are all loads that change topography through <a href="/facts/Flexural_isostasy/P5oFxben">flexural isostasy</a>. Topography can modify the local climate, for example through <a href="/facts/Orographic_precipitation/avly8ef3">orographic precipitation</a>, which in turn modifies the topography by changing the hydrologic regime in which it evolves. Many geomorphologists are particularly interested in the potential for <a href="/facts/Climate_change_feedback/N4nHNlPo">feedbacks</a> between climate and <a href="/facts/Erosion_and_tectonics/ShDxqzuH">tectonics</a>, mediated by geomorphic processes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a>
In addition to these broad-scale questions, geomorphologists address issues that are more specific or more local. Glacial geomorphologists investigate glacial deposits such as <a href="/facts/Moraine/NUoWIpka">moraines</a>, <a href="/facts/Esker/kHE6JL82">eskers</a>, and proglacial <a href="/facts/Lake/YP0xxn0E">lakes</a>, as well as <a href="/facts/Erosion/gaGJXy0W">glacial erosional</a> features, to build chronologies of both small <a href="/facts/Glacier/8GrKVUSS">glaciers</a> and large <a href="/facts/Ice_sheet/j3QpYSeK">ice sheets</a> and understand their motions and effects upon the landscape. <a href="/facts/Fluvial/nkLrSheo">Fluvial</a> geomorphologists focus on <a href="/facts/River/GxdjEX21">rivers</a>, how they <a href="/facts/Sediment_transport/3uLEbcPG">transport sediment</a>, <a href="/facts/River_channel_migration/I4PyapbQ">migrate across the landscape</a>, <a href="/facts/Bedrock_river/dxcjSoWM">cut into bedrock</a>, respond to environmental and tectonic changes, and interact with humans. Soils geomorphologists investigate soil profiles and chemistry to learn about the history of a particular landscape and understand how climate, biota, and rock interact. Other geomorphologists study how <a href="/facts/Hill/wnUG3lUL">hillslopes</a> form and change. Still others investigate the relationships between <a href="/facts/Ecology/YE8upuJU">ecology</a> and geomorphology. Because geomorphology is defined to comprise everything related to the surface of the Earth and its modification, it is a broad field with many facets.
Geomorphologists use a wide range of techniques in their work. These may include fieldwork and field data collection, the interpretation of remotely sensed data, geochemical analyses, and the numerical modelling of the physics of landscapes. Geomorphologists may rely on <a href="/facts/Geochronology/U8hRTGwL">geochronology</a>, using dating methods to measure the rate of changes to the surface.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a> Terrain measurement techniques are vital to quantitatively describe the form of the Earth's surface, and include <a href="/facts/Differential_GPS/qBGqMBqo">differential GPS</a>, remotely sensed <a href="/facts/Digital_terrain_model/LMWSPfex">digital terrain models</a> and <a href="/facts/Lidar/b9SPUmLM">laser scanning</a>, to quantify, study, and to generate illustrations and maps.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a>
Practical applications of geomorphology include <a href="/facts/Natural_hazard/hxEjceDk">hazard</a> assessment (such as <a href="/facts/Landslide/sXSzA31e">landslide</a> prediction and <a href="/facts/Landslide_mitigation/knoqY5Kk">mitigation</a>), river control and <a href="/facts/Stream_restoration/t8DJLknK">stream restoration</a>, and coastal protection. 
Planetary geomorphology studies landforms on other terrestrial planets such as Mars. Indications of effects of <a href="/facts/Aeolian_processes/HpjdrW4l">wind</a>, <a href="/facts/Fluvial/nkLrSheo">fluvial</a>, <a href="/facts/Glacial/alIAm38r">glacial</a>, <a href="/facts/Mass_wasting/CKURKaMQ">mass wasting</a>, <a href="/facts/Impact_event/fbWu9Q4p">meteor impact</a>, <a href="/facts/Tectonics/jPcFacFP">tectonics</a> and <a href="/facts/Types_of_volcanic_eruptions/AwqpzdaG">volcanic</a> processes are studied.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> This effort not only helps better understand the geologic and atmospheric history of those planets but also extends geomorphological study of the Earth. Planetary geomorphologists often use <a href="/facts/Terrestrial_Analogue_Sites/vdQUf7Rd">Earth analogues</a> to aid in their study of surfaces of other planets.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a>

<h2 id="history">History</h2>

Other than some notable exceptions in antiquity, geomorphology is a relatively young science, growing along with interest in other aspects of the <a href="/facts/Earth_sciences/rQsXCSbM">earth sciences</a> in the mid-19th century. This section provides a very brief outline of some of the major figures and events in its development.

<h3>Ancient geomorphology</h3>
The study of landforms and the evolution of the Earth's surface can be dated back to scholars of <a href="/facts/Classical_Greece/WoUfexFx">Classical Greece</a>. In the 5th century BC, <a href="/facts/Greek_historiography/u8RHRN5u">Greek historian</a> <a href="/facts/Herodotus/hTgRSAnv">Herodotus</a> argued from observations of soils that the <a href="/facts/Nile_delta/ItjnDeVk">Nile delta</a> was actively growing into the <a href="/facts/Mediterranean_Sea/Vr2pzVbM">Mediterranean Sea</a>, and estimated its age.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> In the 4th century BC, <a href="/facts/List_of_Greek_philosophers/e05Q2VvV">Greek philosopher</a> <a href="/facts/Aristotle/U2bDlBFW">Aristotle</a> <a href="/facts/Meteorology_(Aristotle)/B9quWHQw">speculated</a> that due to <a href="/facts/Sediment_transport/3uLEbcPG">sediment transport</a> into the sea, eventually those seas would fill while the land lowered. He claimed that this would mean that land and water would eventually swap places, whereupon the process would begin again in an endless cycle.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> The <a href="/facts/Encyclopedia_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity/HyVQBVDl">Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity</a> published in <a href="/facts/Arabic_language/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a> at <a href="/facts/Basra/eA5CacwL">Basra</a> during the 10th century also discussed the cyclical changing positions of land and sea with rocks breaking down and being washed into the sea, their sediment eventually rising to form new continents.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> The medieval <a href="/facts/Persian_people/4GhM3jl2">Persian</a> <a href="/facts/Muslim/W2ukq4pg">Muslim</a> scholar <a href="/facts/Ab%25C5%25AB_Rayh%25C4%2581n_al-B%25C4%25ABr%25C5%25ABn%25C4%25AB/4XbTzrYl">Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī</a> (973–1048), after observing rock formations at the mouths of rivers, hypothesized that the <a href="/facts/Indian_Ocean/Kv0crwKG">Indian Ocean</a> once covered all of <a href="/facts/Indian_subcontinent/0XUWGXpx">India</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> In his <a href="/facts/De_Natura_Fossilium/dMFveQGf">De Natura Fossilium</a> of 1546, German <a href="/facts/Metallurgist/1SANyxX4">metallurgist</a> and <a href="/facts/Mineralogist/MeIK9lx9">mineralogist</a> <a href="/facts/Georgius_Agricola/FXprFXAK">Georgius Agricola</a> (1494–1555) wrote about erosion and natural <a href="/facts/Weathering/uSYGlv0H">weathering</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a>
Another early theory of geomorphology was devised by <a href="/facts/Song_dynasty/FxV5bXS5">Song dynasty</a> <a href="/facts/History_of_China/TNqRSvQ4">Chinese</a> scientist and statesman <a href="/facts/Shen_Kuo/GKqhbxHd">Shen Kuo</a> (1031–1095). This was based on <a href="/facts/Dream_Pool_Essays/JaKAXLPd">his observation</a> of <a href="/facts/Ocean/8W8lYgjD">marine</a> <a href="/facts/Fossil/by7NzIA1">fossil</a> shells in a <a href="/facts/Stratum/w5D4VAwa">geological stratum</a> of a mountain hundreds of miles from the <a href="/facts/Pacific_Ocean/bdxgXRVM">Pacific Ocean</a>. Noticing <a href="/facts/Bivalvia/IQDxHVc8">bivalve</a> shells running in a horizontal span along the cut section of a cliffside, he theorized that the cliff was once the pre-historic location of a seashore that had shifted hundreds of miles over the centuries. He inferred that the land was reshaped and formed by <a href="/facts/Soil_erosion/pbwuyY5H">soil erosion</a> of the mountains and by deposition of <a href="/facts/Silt/HAxJkhDP">silt</a>, after observing strange natural erosions of the <a href="/facts/Taihang_Mountains/5vSWV0Um">Taihang Mountains</a> and the <a href="/facts/Yandangshan/Fg6ClB2y">Yandang Mountain</a> near <a href="/facts/Wenzhou/8WBEBLM5">Wenzhou</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a> Furthermore, he promoted the theory of gradual <a href="/facts/Climate_change_(general_concept)/D3X6Ulbu">climate change</a> over centuries of time once ancient <a href="/facts/Petrified/kKTUvuDB">petrified</a> <a href="/facts/Bamboo/wGPJ2cEA">bamboos</a> were found to be preserved underground in the dry, northern climate zone of Yanzhou, which is now modern day <a href="/facts/Yan%2527an/3myDQnga">Yan'an</a>, <a href="/facts/Shaanxi/tNvSEe3v">Shaanxi</a> province.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> Previous <a href="/facts/Chinese_literature/X2MEqrzo">Chinese authors</a> also presented ideas about changing landforms. <a href="/facts/Scholar-official/Jtw4hjyU">Scholar-official</a> <a href="/facts/Du_Yu/Jp7k1zDj">Du Yu</a> (222–285) of the <a href="/facts/Western_Jin_dynasty/prdhqA8X">Western Jin dynasty</a> predicted that two monumental stelae recording his achievements, one buried at the foot of a mountain and the other erected at the top, would eventually change their relative positions over time as would hills and valleys.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a> <a href="/facts/Chinese_alchemy/o1tMsQXE">Daoist alchemist</a> <a href="/facts/Ge_Hong/W562qy7a">Ge Hong</a> (284–364) created a fictional dialogue where the <a href="/facts/Magu_(deity)/nhcxA8Da">immortal Magu</a> explained that the territory of the <a href="/facts/East_China_Sea/LpC6wxIu">East China Sea</a> was once a land filled with <a href="/facts/Morus_(plant)/F2Kr7Lr5">mulberry trees</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a>

<h3>Early modern geomorphology</h3>
The term geomorphology seems to have been first used by <a href="/facts/Laumann/Lr2erxHA">Laumann</a> in an 1858 work written in German. Keith Tinkler has suggested that the word came into general use in English, German and French after <a href="/facts/John_Wesley_Powell/BSKLp7HP">John Wesley Powell</a> and <a href="/facts/W._J._McGee/QlBX7yTx">W. J. McGee</a> used it during the International Geological Conference of 1891.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> <a href="/facts/John_Edward_Marr/j5bXdU4k">John Edward Marr</a> in his The Scientific Study of Scenery<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> considered his book as, 'an Introductory Treatise on Geomorphology, a subject which has sprung from the union of Geology and Geography'.
An early popular geomorphic model was the geographical cycle or <a href="/facts/Cycle_of_erosion/8xmXBPdo">cycle of erosion</a> model of broad-scale landscape evolution developed by <a href="/facts/William_Morris_Davis/G03MAc6k">William Morris Davis</a> between 1884 and 1899.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a> It was an elaboration of the <a href="/facts/Uniformitarianism_(science)/CNs0H7jS">uniformitarianism</a> theory that had first been proposed by <a href="/facts/James_Hutton/Y8HUhQIu">James Hutton</a> (1726–1797).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> With regard to <a href="/facts/Valley/gKmvE6L1">valley</a> forms, for example, uniformitarianism posited a sequence in which a river runs through a flat terrain, gradually carving an increasingly deep valley, until the <a href="/facts/Side_valley/NFX172Vz">side valleys</a> eventually erode, flattening the terrain again, though at a lower elevation. It was thought that <a href="/facts/Tectonic_uplift/fUV9G289">tectonic uplift</a> could then start the cycle over. In the decades following Davis's development of this idea, many of those studying geomorphology sought to fit their findings into this framework, known today as "Davisian".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a> Davis's ideas are of historical importance, but have been largely superseded today, mainly due to their lack of predictive power and qualitative nature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a>
In the 1920s, <a href="/facts/Walther_Penck/ByjCFIR6">Walther Penck</a> developed an alternative model to Davis's.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a> Penck thought that landform evolution was better described as an alternation between ongoing processes of uplift and denudation, as opposed to Davis's model of a single uplift followed by decay.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a> He also emphasised that in many landscapes slope evolution occurs by backwearing of rocks, not by Davisian-style surface lowering, and his science tended to emphasise surface process over understanding in detail the surface history of a given locality. Penck was German, and during his lifetime his ideas were at times rejected vigorously by the English-speaking geomorphology community.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> His early death, Davis' dislike for his work, and his at-times-confusing writing style likely all contributed to this rejection.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a>
Both Davis and Penck were trying to place the study of the evolution of the Earth's surface on a more generalized, globally relevant footing than it had been previously. In the early 19th century, authors – especially in Europe – had tended to attribute the form of landscapes to local <a href="/facts/Climate/f57XrNFU">climate</a>, and in particular to the specific effects of <a href="/facts/Glaciation/alIAm38r">glaciation</a> and <a href="/facts/Periglacial/sWDGDrCw">periglacial</a> processes. In contrast, both Davis and Penck were seeking to emphasize the importance of evolution of landscapes through time and the generality of the Earth's surface processes across different landscapes under different conditions.
During the early 1900s, the study of regional-scale geomorphology was termed "physiography".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> Physiography later was considered to be a contraction of "physical" and "geography", and therefore synonymous with <a href="/facts/Physical_geography/NByHKLCQ">physical geography</a>, and the concept became embroiled in controversy surrounding the appropriate concerns of that discipline. Some geomorphologists held to a geological basis for physiography and emphasized a concept of <a href="/facts/Physiographic_regions_of_the_world/CQetSpAb">physiographic regions</a> while a conflicting trend among geographers was to equate physiography with "pure morphology", separated from its geological heritage. In the period following World War II, the emergence of process, climatic, and quantitative studies led to a preference by many earth scientists for the term "geomorphology" in order to suggest an analytical approach to landscapes rather than a descriptive one.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a>

<h3>Climatic geomorphology</h3>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Climatic_geomorphology/a2uJHen6">Climatic geomorphology</a>
During the age of <a href="/facts/New_Imperialism/2wXKdxn7">New Imperialism</a> in the late 19th century European explorers and scientists traveled across the globe bringing descriptions of landscapes and landforms. As geographical knowledge increased over time these observations were systematized in a search for regional patterns. Climate emerged thus as prime factor for explaining landform distribution at a grand scale. The rise of climatic geomorphology was foreshadowed by the work of <a href="/facts/Wladimir_K%25C3%25B6ppen/zfC8NKfx">Wladimir Köppen</a>, <a href="/facts/Vasily_Dokuchaev/tNENK8dQ">Vasily Dokuchaev</a> and <a href="/facts/Andreas_Franz_Wilhelm_Schimper/xvBQg6pu">Andreas Schimper</a>. <a href="/facts/William_Morris_Davis/G03MAc6k">William Morris Davis</a>, the leading geomorphologist of his time, recognized the role of climate by complementing his "normal" temperate climate <a href="/facts/Cycle_of_erosion/8xmXBPdo">cycle of erosion</a> with arid and glacial ones.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a> Nevertheless, interest in climatic geomorphology was also a reaction against <a href="/facts/Cycle_of_erosion/8xmXBPdo">Davisian geomorphology</a> that was by the mid-20th century considered both un-innovative and dubious.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a> Early climatic geomorphology developed primarily in <a href="/facts/Continental_Europe/EXR4F23f">continental Europe</a> while in the English-speaking world the tendency was not explicit until L.C. Peltier's 1950 publication on a <a href="/facts/Periglaciation/sWDGDrCw">periglacial</a> cycle of erosion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a>
Climatic geomorphology was criticized in a 1969 <a href="/facts/Review_article/zJb444sS">review article</a> by process geomorphologist <a href="/facts/David_Stoddart_(geographer)/U34WRHVP">D.R. Stoddart</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> The criticism by Stoddart proved "devastating" sparking a decline in the popularity of climatic geomorphology in the late 20th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a> Stoddart criticized climatic geomorphology for applying supposedly "trivial" methodologies in establishing landform differences between morphoclimatic zones, being linked to <a href="/facts/Cycle_of_erosion/8xmXBPdo">Davisian geomorphology</a> and by allegedly neglecting the fact that physical laws governing processes are the same across the globe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a> In addition some conceptions of climatic geomorphology, like that which holds that chemical weathering is more rapid in tropical climates than in cold climates proved to not be straightforwardly true.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a>

<h3>Quantitative and process geomorphology</h3>

Geomorphology was started to be put on a solid quantitative footing in the middle of the 20th century. Following the early work of <a href="/facts/Grove_Karl_Gilbert/0GxCdM0n">Grove Karl Gilbert</a> around the turn of the 20th century,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a> a group of mainly American natural scientists, <a href="/facts/Geologists/vGc0tBHB">geologists</a> and <a href="/facts/Hydraulic_engineers/atT6tL89">hydraulic engineers</a> including <a href="/facts/William_Walden_Rubey/jWMX5lru">William Walden Rubey</a>, <a href="/facts/Ralph_Alger_Bagnold/ANRMACUJ">Ralph Alger Bagnold</a>, <a href="/facts/Hans_Albert_Einstein/Pob3TRHK">Hans Albert Einstein</a>, Frank Ahnert, <a href="/facts/John_Tilton_Hack/k2VmhrVJ">John Hack</a>, <a href="/facts/Luna_Leopold/C1GTphK4">Luna Leopold</a>, <a href="/facts/Shields_parameter/qyb8Rm4n">A. Shields</a>, Thomas Maddock, <a href="/facts/Arthur_Strahler/NocNCqLm">Arthur Strahler</a>, Stanley Schumm, and Ronald Shreve began to research the form of landscape elements such as <a href="/facts/River/GxdjEX21">rivers</a> and <a href="/facts/Mass_wasting/CKURKaMQ">hillslopes</a> by taking systematic, direct, quantitative measurements of aspects of them and investigating the <a href="/facts/Scaling_law/DhAjYwwz">scaling</a> of these measurements.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> These methods began to allow prediction of the past and future behavior of landscapes from present observations, and were later to develop into the modern trend of a highly quantitative approach to geomorphic problems. Many groundbreaking and widely cited early geomorphology studies appeared in the <a href="/facts/Bulletin_of_the_Geological_Society_of_America/NkPov3X4">Bulletin of the Geological Society of America</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a> and received only few citations prior to 2000 (they are examples of <a href="/facts/Paper_with_delayed_recognition/kN632Fq3">"sleeping beauties"</a>)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a> when a marked increase in quantitative geomorphology research occurred.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a>
Quantitative geomorphology can involve <a href="/facts/Fluid_dynamics/y7uzSCfg">fluid dynamics</a> and <a href="/facts/Solid_mechanics/e1Yq50IS">solid mechanics</a>, <a href="/facts/Geomorphometry/ywBb4d0A">geomorphometry</a>, laboratory studies, field measurements, theoretical work, and full <a href="/facts/Landscape_evolution_model/Tqgg6enx">landscape evolution modeling</a>. These approaches are used to understand <a href="/facts/Weathering/uSYGlv0H">weathering</a> and <a href="/facts/Pedogenesis/sJty93z9">the formation of soils</a>, <a href="/facts/Sediment_transport/3uLEbcPG">sediment transport</a>, landscape change, and the interactions between climate, tectonics, erosion, and deposition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a>
In Sweden <a href="/facts/Filip_Hjulstr%25C3%25B6m/GqQBRwVV">Filip Hjulström</a>'s doctoral thesis, "The River Fyris" (1935), contained one of the first quantitative studies of geomorphological processes ever published. His students followed in the same vein, making quantitative studies of mass transport (<a href="/facts/Anders_Rapp/ksLE3rxT">Anders Rapp</a>), fluvial transport (<a href="/facts/%25C3%2585ke_Sundborg/3BI0FVWd">Åke Sundborg</a>), delta deposition (<a href="/facts/Valter_Axelsson/5xSghH6n">Valter Axelsson</a>), and coastal processes (<a href="/facts/John_O._Norrman/E10hLCAY">John O. Norrman</a>). This developed into "the <a href="/facts/Uppsala_University/zQbWhyqc">Uppsala</a> School of <a href="/facts/Physical_Geography/NByHKLCQ">Physical Geography</a>".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a>

<h3>Contemporary geomorphology</h3>
Today, the field of geomorphology encompasses a very wide range of different approaches and interests.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a> Modern researchers aim to draw out quantitative "laws" that govern Earth surface processes, but equally, recognize the uniqueness of each landscape and environment in which these processes operate. Particularly important realizations in contemporary geomorphology include:

1) that not all landscapes can be considered as either "stable" or "perturbed", where this perturbed state is a temporary displacement away from some ideal target form. Instead, dynamic changes of the landscape are now seen as an essential part of their nature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a>
2) that many geomorphic systems are best understood in terms of the <a href="/facts/Stochastic_process/Ng1n1dnB">stochasticity</a> of the processes occurring in them, that is, the probability distributions of event magnitudes and return times.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a> This in turn has indicated the importance of <a href="/facts/Chaos_theory/LTC17vsF">chaotic determinism</a> to landscapes, and that landscape properties are best considered <a href="/facts/Statistics/DNPsKGYU">statistically</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a> The same processes in the same landscapes do not always lead to the same end results.
According to <a href="/facts/Karna_Lidmar-Bergstr%25C3%25B6m/RxNpPEzc">Karna Lidmar-Bergström</a>, <a href="/facts/Regional_geography/uNDmqqGg">regional geography</a> is since the 1990s no longer accepted by mainstream scholarship as a basis for geomorphological studies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a>
Albeit having its importance diminished, <a href="/facts/Climatic_geomorphology/a2uJHen6">climatic geomorphology</a> continues to exist as field of study producing relevant research. More recently concerns over <a href="/facts/Global_warming/rEN4BDE7">global warming</a> have led to a renewed interest in the field.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a> 
Despite considerable criticism, the <a href="/facts/Cycle_of_erosion/8xmXBPdo">cycle of erosion</a> model has remained part of the science of geomorphology.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> The model or theory has never been proved wrong,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a> but neither has it been proven.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a> The inherent difficulties of the model have instead made geomorphological research to advance along other lines.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a> In contrast to its disputed status in geomorphology, the cycle of erosion model is a common approach used to establish <a href="/facts/Denudation_chronology/lSaEILve">denudation chronologies</a>, and is thus an important concept in the science of <a href="/facts/Historical_geology/qL8xt06t">historical geology</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a> While acknowledging its shortcomings, modern geomorphologists <a href="/facts/Andrew_Goudie_(geographer)/yljd25qp">Andrew Goudie</a> and <a href="/facts/Karna_Lidmar-Bergstr%25C3%25B6m/RxNpPEzc">Karna Lidmar-Bergström</a> have praised it for its elegance and pedagogical value respectively.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a>

<h2 id="processes">Processes</h2>

Geomorphically relevant processes generally fall into
(1) the production of <a href="/facts/Regolith/EdXuHK56">regolith</a> by <a href="/facts/Weathering/uSYGlv0H">weathering</a> and <a href="/facts/Erosion/gaGJXy0W">erosion</a>,
(2) the <a href="/facts/Sediment_transport/3uLEbcPG">transport</a> of that material, and
(3) its eventual <a href="/facts/Deposition_(geology)/qxjlY8KL">deposition</a>. Primary surface processes responsible for most topographic features include <a href="/facts/Wind/Nt0QIu5B">wind</a>, <a href="/facts/Wave/fU0HH6St">waves</a>, <a href="/facts/Weathering/uSYGlv0H">chemical dissolution</a>, <a href="/facts/Mass_wasting/CKURKaMQ">mass wasting</a>, <a href="/facts/Groundwater/JYM2IDS2">groundwater</a> movement, <a href="/facts/Surface_water/KQCY5RcY">surface water</a> flow, <a href="/facts/Glacier/8GrKVUSS">glacial action</a>, <a href="/facts/Tectonism/jPcFacFP">tectonism</a>, and <a href="/facts/Volcanism/0s6p1eFJ">volcanism</a>. Other more exotic geomorphic processes might include <a href="/facts/Periglacial/sWDGDrCw">periglacial</a> (freeze-thaw) processes, salt-mediated action, changes to the seabed caused by marine currents, seepage of fluids through the seafloor or extraterrestrial impact.

<h3>Aeolian processes</h3>

<a href="/facts/Aeolian_processes/HpjdrW4l">Aeolian processes</a> pertain to the activity of the <a href="/facts/Wind/Nt0QIu5B">winds</a> and more specifically, to the winds' ability to shape the surface of the <a href="/facts/Earth/HLLmDfj0">Earth</a>. Winds may erode, transport, and deposit materials, and are effective agents in regions with sparse <a href="/facts/Vegetation/nAHr9kjk">vegetation</a> and a large supply of fine, unconsolidated <a href="/facts/Sediment/zsIH1A6U">sediments</a>. Although water and mass flow tend to mobilize more material than wind in most environments, aeolian processes are important in arid environments such as <a href="/facts/Desert/Mknp4bXq">deserts</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a>

<h3>Biological processes</h3>

The interaction of living organisms with landforms, or <a href="/facts/Biogeomorphology/W5DdMGRc">biogeomorphologic processes</a>, can be of many different forms, and is probably of profound importance for the terrestrial geomorphic system as a whole. Biology can influence very many geomorphic processes, ranging from <a href="/facts/Biogeochemical/LuEFpDum">biogeochemical</a> processes controlling <a href="/facts/Chemical_weathering/uSYGlv0H">chemical weathering</a>, to the influence of mechanical processes like <a href="/facts/Burrowing/vgY0GpEH">burrowing</a> and <a href="/facts/Tree_throw/abthkUrg">tree throw</a> on soil development, to even controlling global erosion rates through modulation of climate through carbon dioxide balance. Terrestrial landscapes in which the role of biology in mediating surface processes can be definitively excluded are extremely rare, but may hold important information for understanding the geomorphology of other planets, such as <a href="/facts/Geography_of_Mars/3wAjhe8b">Mars</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a>

<h3>Fluvial processes</h3>

Main article: <a href="/facts/Fluvial/nkLrSheo">Fluvial</a>
See also: <a href="/facts/Hack%2527s_law/2uzx70Xo">Hack's law</a> and <a href="/facts/Sediment_transport/3uLEbcPG">Sediment transport</a>
Rivers and streams are not only conduits of water, but also of <a href="/facts/Sediment/zsIH1A6U">sediment</a>. The water, as it flows over the channel bed, is able to mobilize sediment and transport it downstream, either as <a href="/facts/Bed_load/KJPvcXkA">bed load</a>, <a href="/facts/Suspended_load/ecP7M4Pq">suspended load</a> or <a href="/facts/Dissolved_load/qvaL7MYJ">dissolved load</a>. The rate of sediment transport depends on the availability of sediment itself and on the river's <a href="/facts/Discharge_(hydrology)/aFeFEHpC">discharge</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a> Rivers are also capable of eroding into rock and forming new sediment, both from their own beds and also by coupling to the surrounding hillslopes. In this way, rivers are thought of as setting the base level for large-scale landscape evolution in nonglacial environments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a> Rivers are key links in the connectivity of different landscape elements.
As rivers flow across the landscape, they generally increase in size, merging with other rivers. The network of rivers thus formed is a <a href="/facts/Drainage_system_(geomorphology)/jKbaE9PN">drainage system</a>. These systems take on four general patterns: dendritic, radial, rectangular, and trellis. Dendritic happens to be the most common, occurring when the underlying stratum is stable (without faulting). Drainage systems have four primary components: <a href="/facts/Drainage_basin/lzsx0XJS">drainage basin</a>, alluvial valley, delta plain, and receiving basin. Some geomorphic examples of fluvial landforms are <a href="/facts/Alluvial_fan/NFIlTrMF">alluvial fans</a>, <a href="/facts/Oxbow_lake/FU3pYv6T">oxbow lakes</a>, and <a href="/facts/Fluvial_terrace/2CSEIJfG">fluvial terraces</a>.

<h3>Glacial processes</h3>

<a href="/facts/Glacier/8GrKVUSS">Glaciers</a>, while geographically restricted, are effective agents of landscape change. The gradual movement of <a href="/facts/Ice/BGvkKFjD">ice</a> down a valley causes <a href="/facts/Abrasion_(geology)/0eNupssY">abrasion</a> and <a href="/facts/Plucking_(glaciation)/Df7sN2Re">plucking</a> of the underlying <a href="/facts/Rock_(geology)/FXCJkmop">rock</a>. Abrasion produces fine sediment, termed <a href="/facts/Glacial_flour/cwN4I9IK">glacial flour</a>. The debris transported by the glacier, when the glacier recedes, is termed a <a href="/facts/Moraine/NUoWIpka">moraine</a>. Glacial erosion is responsible for U-shaped valleys, as opposed to the V-shaped valleys of fluvial origin.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a>
The way glacial processes interact with other landscape elements, particularly hillslope and fluvial processes, is an important aspect of <a href="/facts/Plio-Pleistocene/5TN9Vb6Y">Plio-Pleistocene</a> landscape evolution and its sedimentary record in many high mountain environments. Environments that have been relatively recently glaciated but are no longer may still show elevated landscape change rates compared to those that have never been glaciated. Nonglacial geomorphic processes which nevertheless have been conditioned by past glaciation are termed <a href="/facts/Paraglacial/A3ByoSeF">paraglacial</a> processes. This concept contrasts with <a href="/facts/Periglacial/sWDGDrCw">periglacial</a> processes, which are directly driven by formation or melting of ice or frost.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a>

<h3>Hillslope processes</h3>

<a href="/facts/Soil/5Ddpr3QM">Soil</a>, <a href="/facts/Regolith/EdXuHK56">regolith</a>, and <a href="/facts/Rock_(geology)/FXCJkmop">rock</a> move downslope under the force of <a href="/facts/Gravity/bqAN7DdQ">gravity</a> via <a href="/facts/Downhill_creep/5YSUVJlF">creep</a>, <a href="/facts/Landslide/sXSzA31e">slides</a>, flows, topples, and falls. Such <a href="/facts/Mass_wasting/CKURKaMQ">mass wasting</a> occurs on both terrestrial and submarine slopes, and has been observed on <a href="/facts/Earth/HLLmDfj0">Earth</a>, <a href="/facts/Mars/AQGtVvz0">Mars</a>, <a href="/facts/Venus/pADnueP6">Venus</a>, <a href="/facts/Titan_(moon)/lg0l9PCH">Titan</a> and <a href="/facts/Iapetus_(moon)/W9PCus81">Iapetus</a>.
Ongoing hillslope processes can change the topology of the hillslope surface, which in turn can change the rates of those processes. Hillslopes that steepen up to certain critical thresholds are capable of shedding extremely large volumes of material very quickly, making hillslope processes an extremely important element of landscapes in tectonically active areas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a>
On the Earth, biological processes such as <a href="/facts/Burrowing/vgY0GpEH">burrowing</a> or <a href="/facts/Tree_throw/abthkUrg">tree throw</a> may play important roles in setting the rates of some hillslope processes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a>

<h3>Igneous processes</h3>
Both <a href="/facts/Volcanic/c2M5upml">volcanic</a> (eruptive) and <a href="/facts/Plutonic/Wl6xaY1a">plutonic</a> (intrusive) igneous processes can have important impacts on geomorphology. The action of volcanoes tends to rejuvenize landscapes, covering the old land surface with <a href="/facts/Lava/q2an5SVN">lava</a> and <a href="/facts/Tephra/fYHmdLu1">tephra</a>, releasing <a href="/facts/Pyroclastic_flow/72eP2PtH">pyroclastic</a> material and forcing rivers through new paths. The cones built by eruptions also build substantial new topography, which can be acted upon by other surface processes. Plutonic rocks intruding then solidifying at depth can cause both uplift or subsidence of the surface, depending on whether the new material is denser or less dense than the rock it displaces.

<h3>Tectonic processes</h3>
See also: <a href="/facts/Erosion_and_tectonics/ShDxqzuH">Erosion and tectonics</a>
<a href="/facts/Plate_tectonics/RtRG5lY4">Tectonic</a> effects on geomorphology can range from scales of millions of years to minutes or less. The effects of tectonics on landscape are heavily dependent on the nature of the underlying <a href="/facts/Bedrock/mn9WCgtX">bedrock</a> fabric that more or less controls what kind of local morphology tectonics can shape. <a href="/facts/Earthquake/NGjIzagw">Earthquakes</a> can, in terms of minutes, submerge large areas of land forming new wetlands. <a href="/facts/Isostatic_rebound/3bv6f1B6">Isostatic rebound</a> can account for significant changes over hundreds to thousands of years, and allows erosion of a mountain belt to promote further erosion as mass is removed from the chain and the belt uplifts. Long-term plate tectonic dynamics give rise to <a href="/facts/Orogeny/XrvRMpsw">orogenic belts</a>, large mountain chains with typical lifetimes of many tens of millions of years, which form focal points for high rates of fluvial and hillslope processes and thus long-term sediment production.
Features of deeper <a href="/facts/Mantle_(geology)/RpDdtjCr">mantle</a> dynamics such as <a href="/facts/Mantle_plume/wLXJ0Q4a">plumes</a> and <a href="/facts/Delamination_(geology)/TIvaDoXF">delamination</a> of the lower lithosphere have also been hypothesised to play important roles in the long term (> million year), large scale (thousands of km) evolution of the Earth's topography (see <a href="/facts/Dynamic_topography/WLVWG18d">dynamic topography</a>). Both can promote surface uplift through isostasy as hotter, less dense, mantle rocks displace cooler, denser, mantle rocks at depth in the Earth.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a>

<h3>Marine processes</h3>
Marine processes are those associated with the action of waves, marine currents and seepage of fluids through the seafloor. <a href="/facts/Mass_wasting/CKURKaMQ">Mass wasting</a> and submarine <a href="/facts/Landslide/sXSzA31e">landsliding</a> are also important processes for some aspects of marine geomorphology.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a> Because ocean basins are the ultimate sinks for a large fraction of terrestrial sediments, depositional processes and their related forms (e.g., sediment fans, <a href="/facts/Deltas/fmWuaRqX">deltas</a>) are particularly important as elements of marine geomorphology.

<h2 id="overlap-with-other-fields">Overlap with other fields</h2>
There is a considerable overlap between geomorphology and other fields. Deposition of material is extremely important in <a href="/facts/Sedimentology/X6BES3hG">sedimentology</a>. <a href="/facts/Weathering/uSYGlv0H">Weathering</a> is the chemical and physical disruption of earth materials in place on exposure to atmospheric or near surface agents, and is typically studied by <a href="/facts/Soil_science/nJ9SxpEE">soil scientists</a> and environmental <a href="/facts/Chemist/N09K7Bdm">chemists</a>, but is an essential component of geomorphology because it is what provides the material that can be moved in the first place. <a href="/facts/Civil_engineering/avh5kEq2">Civil</a> and <a href="/facts/Environmental_engineering/He7fly74">environmental</a> engineers are concerned with erosion and sediment transport, especially related to <a href="/facts/Canal/pBE8LsJx">canals</a>, <a href="/facts/Slope_stability/8eRhdoTL">slope stability</a> (and <a href="/facts/Natural_hazard/hxEjceDk">natural hazards</a>), <a href="/facts/Water_quality/PcEERmpX">water quality</a>, coastal environmental management, transport of contaminants, and <a href="/facts/Stream_restoration/t8DJLknK">stream restoration</a>. Glaciers can cause extensive erosion and deposition in a short period of time, making them extremely important entities in the high latitudes and meaning that they set the conditions in the headwaters of mountain-born streams; <a href="/facts/Glaciology/dSElvpIj">glaciology</a> therefore is important in geomorphology.

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Bioerosion/Rkj1tV62">Bioerosion</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Biogeology/Q1ouMghD">Biogeology</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Biogeomorphology/W5DdMGRc">Biogeomorphology</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Biorhexistasy/ePqe9NNd">Biorhexistasy</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/British_Society_for_Geomorphology/fcA3PvB9">British Society for Geomorphology</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Coastal_biogeomorphology/B9H0p5Cg">Coastal biogeomorphology</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Coastal_erosion/nIj8kCHP">Coastal erosion</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Concepts_and_Techniques_in_Modern_Geography/Rc5SaJa7">Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Drainage_system_(geomorphology)/jKbaE9PN">Drainage system (geomorphology)</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Erosion_prediction/I6dkLtFv">Erosion prediction</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Geologic_modelling/Em1YUS35">Geologic modelling</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Geomorphometry/ywBb4d0A">Geomorphometry</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Geotechnics/Nw55uq9R">Geotechnics</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Hack%2527s_law/2uzx70Xo">Hack's law</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Hydrology/Xh727cnE">Hydrologic modeling</a>, <a href="/facts/Behavioral_modeling_in_hydrology/N57ue6Jw">behavioral modeling in hydrology</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_landforms/kpx9gKmj">List of landforms</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Orogeny/XrvRMpsw">Orogeny</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Physiographic_regions_of_the_world/CQetSpAb">Physiographic regions of the world</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Sediment_transport/3uLEbcPG">Sediment transport</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Soil_morphology/WoF7fRBo">Soil morphology</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Soils_retrogression_and_degradation/eBMdjPI5">Soils retrogression and degradation</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Stream_capture/fIP0gs4G">Stream capture</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Thermochronology/Pf6c83VM">Thermochronology</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Richard_Chorley/243f0fJB">Chorley, Richard J.</a>; Stanley Alfred Schumm; David E. Sugden (1985). Geomorphology. London: Methuen. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-416-32590-4.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/United_States_National_Research_Council/AdYmBBGV">Committee on Challenges and Opportunities in Earth Surface Processes, National Research Council</a> (2010). Landscapes on the Edge: New Horizons for Research on Earth's Surface. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-309-14024-9.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Bernhard_Edmaier/vshTPomt">Edmaier, Bernhard</a> (2004). Earthsong. London: <a href="/facts/Phaidon_Press/J9KhwNcE">Phaidon Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7148-4451-0.</li>
<li><a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/13.7/2014/09/14/347048876/envisioning-landscapes-of-our-very-distant-future">Ialenti, Vincent. "Envisioning Landscapes of Our Very Distant Future"</a> NPR Cosmos & Culture. 9/2014.</li>
<li>Kondolf, G. Mathias; Hervé Piégay (2003). Tools in fluvial geomorphology. New York: <a href="/facts/Wiley_(publisher)/53g3LqJc">Wiley</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-471-49142-2.</li>
<li>Scheidegger, Adrian E. (2004). Morphotectonics. Berlin: Springer. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-540-20017-8.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Michael_Selby/P659JFoC">Selby, Michael John</a> (1985). <a href="https://archive.org/details/earthschangingsu00selb">Earth's changing surface: an introduction to geomorphology</a>. Oxford: <a href="/facts/Clarendon_Press/CYyTzzWG">Clarendon Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-823252-0.</li>
<li>Charlton, Ro (2008). Fundamentals of fluvial geomorphology. London: <a href="/facts/Routledge/aSwcES11">Routledge</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-33454-9.</li>
<li>Anderson, R.S.; Anderson, S.P. (2011). Geomorphology: The Mechanics and Chemistry of Landscapes. Cambridge: <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0521519786.</li>
<li>Bierman, P.R.; Montgomery, D.R. Key Concepts in Geomorphology. New York: <a href="/facts/W._H._Freeman/sJ3zg32G">W. H. Freeman</a>, 2013. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 1429238607.</li>
<li>Ritter, D.F.; Kochel, R.C.; Miller, J.R.. Process Geomorphology. London: Waveland Pr Inc, 2011. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 1577666690.</li>
<li>Hargitai H., Page D., Canon-Tapia E. and Rodrigue C.M..; Classification and Characterization of Planetary Landforms. in: Hargitai H, Kereszturi Á, eds, Encyclopedia of Planetary Landforms. Cham: Springer 2015 <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4614-3133-6</li></ul>
<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>
<ul><li> Media related to Geomorphology at Wikimedia Commons</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180417113332/http://www.ugb.org.br/home/artigos/classicos/Davis_1899.pdf">The Geographical Cycle, or the Cycle of Erosion (1899)</a></li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130808060641/http://disc.gsfc.nasa.gov/geomorphology/index.shtml">Geomorphology from Space (NASA)</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.geomorphology.org.uk/">British Society for Geomorphology</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

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<li id="fn:18">Rafferty, John P. (2012). Geological Sciences; Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, pp. 6–8. ISBN 9781615305445 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Needham, Joseph. (1959). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Cambridge University Press. pp. 603–618. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" target="_blank">/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:21">Rafferty, John P. (2012). Geological Sciences; Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, p. 6. ISBN 9781615305445 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Rafferty, John P. (2012). Geological Sciences; Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, p. 9. ISBN 9781615305445 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Schottenhammer, Angela. "The 'China Seas' in world history: A general outline of the role of Chinese and East Asian maritime space from its origins to c. 1800", Journal of Marine and Island Cultures, (Volume 1, Issue 2, 2012): 63-86. ISSN 2212-6821, p. 72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imic.2012.11.002. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imic.2012.11.002" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imic.2012.11.002</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Tinkler, Keith J. (1985). A short history of geomorphology. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 4. ISBN 978-0389205449. <a href="978-0389205449" target="_blank">978-0389205449</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Marr, J.E. (1900). The Scientific Study of Scenery. Methuen. p. v. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fhVHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR5" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=fhVHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR5</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Bierman, Paul R., and David R. Montgomery. Key Concepts in Geomorphology. Macmillan Higher Education, 2014. <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:36">Twidale, C.R.; Lageat, Y. (1994). "Climatic geomorphology: a critique". Progress in Physical Geography. 18 (3): 319–334. Bibcode:1994PrPG...18..319T. doi:10.1177/030913339401800302. S2CID 129518705. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Rowland_Twidale" target="_blank">/wiki/Charles_Rowland_Twidale</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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</ol>

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