History of agriculture

<h2 id="origins">Origins</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Neolithic_Revolution/P5tLdcgU">Neolithic Revolution</a>
<h3>Origin hypotheses</h3>

Scholars have developed a number of hypotheses to explain the historical origins of agriculture. Studies of the transition from <a href="/facts/Hunter-gatherer/ghnjoNbJ">hunter-gatherer</a> to agricultural societies indicate an antecedent period of intensification and increasing <a href="/facts/Sedentism/5lUa65CJ">sedentism</a>; examples are the <a href="/facts/Natufian_culture/NTzluLbW">Natufian culture</a> in the <a href="/facts/Levant/uuJLt3Af">Levant</a> and the Early Chinese Neolithic in China. Current models indicate that wild stands that had been harvested previously started to be planted, but were not immediately domesticated.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a>
Localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the <a href="/facts/Origins_of_agriculture_in_West_Asia/qfVgNhpC">origins of agriculture in the Levant</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a> When major climate change took place after the last <a href="/facts/Ice_age/agSMvAgX">ice age</a> (c. 11,000 BC), much of the earth became subject to long dry seasons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> These conditions favoured <a href="/facts/Annual_plant/SkPv72DA">annual plants</a> which die off in the long dry season, leaving a <a href="/facts/Dormancy/VqHprS5C">dormant</a> <a href="/facts/Seed/a4xGSLxJ">seed</a> or <a href="/facts/Tuber/wGw2Sbag">tuber</a>. An abundance of readily storable wild grains and <a href="/facts/Legume/x6s6gVHY">pulses</a> enabled hunter-gatherers in some areas to form the first settled villages at this time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a> Across Western Eurasia it was not until approximately 4,000 BC that farming societies completely replaced hunter-gatherers. These technologically advanced societies expanded faster in areas with less forest, pushing hunter-gatherers into denser woodlands. Only the middle-late Bronze Age and Iron Age societies were able to fully replace hunter-gatherers in their final stronghold located in the most densely forested areas. Unlike their Bronze and Iron Age counterparts, Neolithic societies couldn't establish themselves in dense forests, and Copper Age societies had only limited success.
<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a>

<h3>Early development</h3>
Further information: <a href="/facts/List_of_food_origins/WYCUlYX9">List of food origins</a>

Early people began altering communities of <a href="/facts/Flora/2xkcTn2d">flora</a> and <a href="/facts/Fauna/sMqPFxVD">fauna</a> for their own benefit through means such as <a href="/facts/Fire-stick_farming/tuBX0xn7">fire-stick farming</a> and <a href="/facts/Forest_gardening/99NHU3ux">forest gardening</a> very early.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a>
Wild <a href="/facts/Cereal/ao2WcFdM">grains</a> have been collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago, and possibly much longer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a> Exact dates are hard to determine, as people collected and ate seeds before domesticating them, and plant characteristics may have changed during this period without human selection. An example is the semi-tough <a href="/facts/Rachis/pqGhCDd5">rachis</a> and larger seeds of <a href="/facts/Cereal/ao2WcFdM">cereals</a> from just after the <a href="/facts/Younger_Dryas/q9PFsJ4H">Younger Dryas</a> (about 9500 BC) in the early <a href="/facts/Holocene/sppPgwW5">Holocene</a> in the <a href="/facts/Levant/uuJLt3Af">Levant</a> region of the <a href="/facts/Fertile_Crescent/KLHIjwQe">Fertile Crescent</a>. <a href="/facts/Monophyletic/pD8Yrrn6">Monophyletic</a> characteristics were attained without any human intervention, implying that apparent domestication of the cereal <a href="/facts/Rachis/pqGhCDd5">rachis</a> could have occurred quite naturally.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a>

Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent <a href="/facts/Centers_of_origin/sEExz83Q">centers of origin</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a> Some of the earliest known domestications were of animals. <a href="/facts/Domestic_pig/r8rtDBIH">Domestic pigs</a> had multiple centres of origin in Eurasia, including Europe, East Asia and Southwest Asia,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a> where <a href="/facts/Wild_boar/Sk8TgJkS">wild boar</a> were first domesticated about 10,500 years ago.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> <a href="/facts/Sheep/cjkJyI4f">Sheep</a> were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 11,000 BC and 9000 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a> <a href="/facts/Cattle/44qV9B6S">Cattle</a> were domesticated from the wild <a href="/facts/Aurochs/HnJHxa12">aurochs</a> in the areas of modern Turkey and India around 8500 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a> <a href="/facts/Camels/UGvEayFf">Camels</a> were domesticated relatively late, perhaps around 3000 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a>

It was not until after 9500 BC that the eight so-called <a href="/facts/Neolithic_founder_crops/6qmYVyuA">founder crops</a> of agriculture appear: first <a href="/facts/Emmer_wheat/htap49YH">emmer</a> and <a href="/facts/Einkorn_wheat/tQ3MtIJN">einkorn wheat</a>, then hulled <a href="/facts/Barley/GH7X2qtG">barley</a>, <a href="/facts/Pea/hlndxpId">peas</a>, <a href="/facts/Lentil/GUuCEt0o">lentils</a>, <a href="/facts/Vicia_ervilia/nIe0tTAr">bitter vetch</a>, <a href="/facts/Chick_pea/gRKRpqWp">chick peas</a> and <a href="/facts/Flax/rm28CMyJ">flax</a>. These eight crops occur more or less simultaneously on Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (<a href="/facts/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B/lXKgwW3K">PPNB</a>) sites in the <a href="/facts/Levant/uuJLt3Af">Levant</a>, although <a href="/facts/Wheat/lrk6HdV3">wheat</a> was the first to be grown and harvested on a significant scale.[dubious – discuss] At around the same time (9400 BC), <a href="/facts/Parthenocarpic/uxnMbHjs">parthenocarpic</a> <a href="/facts/Ficus/70M2tmEB">fig</a> trees were domesticated.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a>
Domesticated <a href="/facts/Rye/LwdwSNcp">rye</a> occurs in small quantities at some <a href="/facts/Neolithic/wRS0Bnh4">Neolithic</a> sites in (Asia Minor) Turkey, such as the <a href="/facts/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B/lXKgwW3K">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B</a> (c. 7600 – c. 6000 BC) Can Hasan III near <a href="/facts/%25C3%2587atalh%25C3%25B6y%25C3%25BCk/IGF4CjTc">Çatalhöyük</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a> but is otherwise absent until the <a href="/facts/Bronze_Age/c09qWcTt">Bronze Age</a> of central Europe, c. 1800–1500 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a> Claims of much earlier cultivation of rye, at the <a href="/facts/Epipalaeolithic/7EEq0h9M">Epipalaeolithic</a> site of <a href="/facts/Tell_Abu_Hureyra/ucneTPEx">Tell Abu Hureyra</a> in the <a href="/facts/Euphrates/RbCk68gt">Euphrates</a> valley of northern <a href="/facts/Syria/7pDXGzq8">Syria</a>, remain controversial.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a> Critics point to inconsistencies in the <a href="/facts/Radiocarbon/Ut8SBNNa">radiocarbon</a> dates, and identifications based solely on grain, rather than on <a href="/facts/Chaff/ED4wb3yK">chaff</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a>
By 8000 BC, farming was entrenched on the banks of the <a href="/facts/Nile/vGoXVUFH">Nile</a>. About this time, agriculture was developed independently in the Far East, probably in China, with rice rather than wheat as the primary crop. Maize was domesticated from the wild grass <a href="/facts/Teosinte/g2NwEeWr">teosinte</a> in southern Mexico by 6700 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a>
The <a href="/facts/Potato/F8jRVExs">potato</a> (8000 BC), <a href="/facts/Tomato/3d5Xsqw7">tomato</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> <a href="/facts/Capsicum/oqoEFu4F">pepper</a> (4000 BC), <a href="/facts/Squash_(fruit)/obYd9RFa">squash</a> (8000 BC) and several varieties of <a href="/facts/Legume/x6s6gVHY">bean</a> (8000 BC onwards) were domesticated in the New World.
Agriculture was independently developed on the island of <a href="/facts/New_Guinea/qB0bzfSH">New Guinea</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a> <a href="/facts/Banana/D6r2qPPq">Banana</a> cultivation of <a href="/facts/Musa_acuminata/VSlPt3QD">Musa acuminata</a>, including <a href="/facts/Hybrid_(biology)/pzVJ54xU">hybridization</a>, dates back to 5000 BC, and possibly to 8000 BC, in <a href="/facts/Papua_New_Guinea/RLaVlhFC">Papua New Guinea</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a>
<a href="/facts/Beekeeping/7mewsgqp">Bees were kept</a> for honey in the Middle East around 7000 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a> Archaeological evidence from various sites on the <a href="/facts/Iberian_peninsula/ztFXI8zt">Iberian peninsula</a> suggest the domestication of plants and animals between 6000 and 4500 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a> The <a href="/facts/C%25C3%25A9ide_Fields/WHHkKYIh">Céide Fields</a>, located in <a href="/facts/Ireland/35vYxXdP">Ireland</a> consist of extensive tracts of land enclosed by stone walls, these walls date to 3500 BC and is the oldest known field systems in europe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a> The <a href="/facts/Domestication_of_the_horse/XbRKqavo">horse was domesticated</a> in the <a href="/facts/Pontic_steppe/KzRVR1WW">Pontic steppe</a> around 4000 BC In <a href="/facts/Siberia/oaCoPEjF">Siberia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a> <a href="/facts/Cannabis/gjdsgtoh">Cannabis</a> was in use in China in Neolithic times and may have been domesticated there; it was in use both as a fibre for ropemaking and as a medicine in Ancient Egypt by about 2350 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a>

In northern <a href="/facts/China/lTjIXY5p">China</a>, <a href="/facts/Millet/y0DDfYPm">millet</a> was domesticated by early <a href="/facts/Sino-Tibetan/kfdM7pTx">Sino-Tibetan</a> speakers at around 8000 to 6000 BC, becoming the main crop of the <a href="/facts/Yellow_River/LajkLtUU">Yellow River</a> basin by 5500 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a> They were followed by <a href="/facts/Mung_bean/wAlAaUsW">mung</a>, <a href="/facts/Soybean/reNwxvo2">soy</a> and <a href="/facts/Azuki_bean/AaQz9D3x">azuki</a> beans.

In southern China, rice was domesticated in the <a href="/facts/Yangtze_River/f9A2h4rQ">Yangtze River</a> basin at around 11,500 to 6200 BC, along with the development of <a href="/facts/Wetland_agriculture/576DlKpn">wetland agriculture</a>, by early <a href="/facts/Austronesian_peoples/mMTl1M9J">Austronesian</a> and <a href="/facts/Hmong-Mien_languages/svdmRboR">Hmong-Mien</a>-speakers. Other food plants were also harvested, including <a href="/facts/Acorn/zvf2emQr">acorns</a>, <a href="/facts/Eleocharis_dulcis/5tdhd889">water chestnuts</a>, and <a href="/facts/Foxnut/hU2nmKIN">foxnuts</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> Rice cultivation was later spread to <a href="/facts/Island_Southeast_Asia/8Jk7HBF6">Maritime Southeast Asia</a> by the <a href="/facts/Austronesian_expansion/mMTl1M9J">Austronesian expansion</a>, starting at around 3,500 to 2,000 BC. This migration event also saw the introduction of cultivated and domesticated food plants from <a href="/facts/Taiwan/VcJoUD8w">Taiwan</a>, <a href="/facts/Island_Southeast_Asia/8Jk7HBF6">Maritime Southeast Asia</a>, and <a href="/facts/New_Guinea/qB0bzfSH">New Guinea</a> into the <a href="/facts/Pacific_Islands/AxJ5sXWp">Pacific Islands</a> as <a href="/facts/Canoe_plants/B50tyT0h">canoe plants</a>. Contact with <a href="/facts/Sri_Lanka/VtTBmysE">Sri Lanka</a> and <a href="/facts/Southern_India/XqkE3NdU">Southern India</a> by Austronesian sailors also led to an exchange of food plants which later became the origin of the valuable <a href="/facts/Spice_trade/Al4oz2x4">spice trade</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a> In the 1st millennium AD, Austronesian sailors also settled <a href="/facts/Madagascar/ez12IAcY">Madagascar</a> and the <a href="/facts/Comoros/b6HkaTRQ">Comoros</a>, bringing Southeast Asian and South Asian food plants with them to the <a href="/facts/East_Africa/WtsAyphI">East African</a> coast, including bananas and rice.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a> Rice was also spread southwards into <a href="/facts/Mainland_Southeast_Asia/5pknI7yy">Mainland Southeast Asia</a> by around 2000 to 1500 BC by the migrations of the early <a href="/facts/Austroasiatic_languages/htRcwIvn">Austroasiatic</a> and <a href="/facts/Kra-Dai/Spo2uVRm">Kra-Dai</a>-speakers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a>
In the <a href="/facts/Sahel/LEmEpoaR">Sahel</a> region of <a href="/facts/Africa/XkqQUP9s">Africa</a>, <a href="/facts/Sorghum/D1KNhtdT">sorghum</a> was domesticated by 3000 BC in Sudan<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a> and <a href="/facts/Pearl_millet/UuR51eR7">pearl millet</a> by 2500 BC in Mali.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a> <a href="/facts/Kola_nut/mlfXuXIk">Kola nut</a> and <a href="/facts/Coffee/Q4Ko2C7I">coffee</a> were also domesticated in Africa.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a> In <a href="/facts/New_Guinea/qB0bzfSH">New Guinea</a>, ancient <a href="/facts/Indigenous_people_of_New_Guinea/7ToQaqvJ">Papuan peoples</a> began practicing agriculture around 7000 BC, domesticating <a href="/facts/Sugarcane/925qszH4">sugarcane</a> and <a href="/facts/Taro/VS4naoHU">taro</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a> In the <a href="/facts/Indus_Valley/7vTRHA4t">Indus Valley</a> from the eighth millennium BC onwards at <a href="/facts/Mehrgarh/7JfFIqW5">Mehrgarh</a>, 2-row and 6-row barley were cultivated, along with einkorn, emmer, and durum wheats, and dates. In the earliest levels of Merhgarh, wild game such as <a href="/facts/Gazelle/ED9FUptd">gazelle</a>, <a href="/facts/Swamp_deer/A63FQV1T">swamp deer</a>, <a href="/facts/Blackbuck/e7tWEhXV">blackbuck</a>, <a href="/facts/Chital/froTT8Re">chital</a>, <a href="/facts/Onager/vasweQrg">wild ass</a>, wild goat, wild sheep, <a href="/facts/Boar/Sk8TgJkS">boar</a>, and <a href="/facts/Nilgai/PdNfqobf">nilgai</a> were all hunted for food. These are successively replaced by domesticated sheep, goats, and humped <a href="/facts/Zebu/edRUVltw">zebu</a> cattle by the fifth millennium BC, indicating the gradual transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a>
<a href="/facts/Maize/lJ6c5xMH">Maize</a> and <a href="/facts/Squash_(plant)/obYd9RFa">squash</a> were domesticated in <a href="/facts/Mesoamerica/cFjUFklr">Mesoamerica</a>; <a href="/facts/Potato/F8jRVExs">potatoes</a> in South America, and <a href="/facts/Sunflower/KIv0oR5w">sunflowers</a> in the Eastern Woodlands of North America.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a>

<h2 id="civilizations">Civilizations</h2>
<h3>Sumer</h3>

See also: <a href="/facts/Neolithic_Revolution/P5tLdcgU">Neolithic Revolution</a>
<a href="/facts/Sumer/bxRz093q">Sumerian</a> farmers grew the cereals <a href="/facts/Barley/GH7X2qtG">barley</a> and <a href="/facts/Wheat/lrk6HdV3">wheat</a>, starting to live in villages from about 8000 BC. Given the low rainfall of the region, agriculture relied on the <a href="/facts/Tigris/Rc8Ka6k8">Tigris</a> and <a href="/facts/Euphrates/RbCk68gt">Euphrates</a> rivers. Irrigation canals leading from the rivers permitted the growth of cereals in large enough quantities to support cities. The first ploughs appear in <a href="/facts/Pictograph/6HmoV1u6">pictographs</a> from Uruk around 3000 BC; seed-ploughs that funneled seed into the ploughed furrow appear on <a href="/facts/Seal_(emblem)/GPW9xYc8">seals</a> around 2300 BC. Vegetable crops included <a href="/facts/Chickpea/gRKRpqWp">chickpeas</a>, <a href="/facts/Lentil/GUuCEt0o">lentils</a>, peas, beans, <a href="/facts/Onion/2ajXf00d">onions</a>, <a href="/facts/Garlic/NschLR1S">garlic</a>, <a href="/facts/Lettuce/o68aNEJX">lettuce</a>, <a href="/facts/Leek/5f7HXCfS">leeks</a> and <a href="/facts/Mustard_plant/wCTpahzP">mustard</a>. They grew fruits including <a href="/facts/Date_(fruit)/YweezMHb">dates</a>, grapes, apples, melons, and figs. Alongside their farming, Sumerians also caught fish and hunted <a href="/facts/Fowl/zePmLrup">fowl</a> and <a href="/facts/Gazelle/ED9FUptd">gazelle</a>. The meat of sheep, goats, cows and poultry was eaten, mainly by the elite. Fish was preserved by drying, salting and smoking.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a>

<h3>Ancient Egypt</h3>

Main article: <a href="/facts/Ancient_Egyptian_agriculture/Lx5CFSIx">Ancient Egyptian agriculture</a>
The civilization of <a href="/facts/Ancient_Egypt/BDsEGK4g">Ancient Egypt</a> was indebted to the <a href="/facts/Nile_River/vGoXVUFH">Nile River</a> and its dependable seasonal flooding. The river's predictability and the fertile soil allowed the Egyptians to build an empire on the basis of great agricultural wealth. Egyptians were among the first peoples to practice agriculture on a large scale, starting in the pre-dynastic period from the end of the Paleolithic into the Neolithic, between around 10,000 BC and 4000 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a> This was made possible with the development of basin irrigation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a> Their staple food crops were grains such as wheat and barley, alongside industrial crops such as <a href="/facts/Flax/rm28CMyJ">flax</a> and <a href="/facts/Papyrus/RMbJNcXu">papyrus</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a> Archaeological evidence also suggests that the spread of agriculture in Egypt was facilitated by farming communities associated with the playa lakes of the Sahara some 6,500 years ago.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a>

<h3>Indian Subcontinent</h3>
See also: <a href="/facts/History_of_agriculture_in_the_Indian_subcontinent/jPsdlyIQ">History of agriculture in the Indian subcontinent</a> and <a href="/facts/Agriculture_in_the_Indus_Valley_Civilisation/6xM4aK23">Agriculture in the Indus Valley Civilisation</a>
<a href="/facts/Jujube/VXXRm594">Jujube</a> was domesticated in the <a href="/facts/Indian_subcontinent/0XUWGXpx">Indian subcontinent</a> by 9000 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a> Barley and wheat cultivation – along with the domestication of cattle, primarily sheep and goats – followed in <a href="/facts/Mehrgarh/7JfFIqW5">Mehrgarh culture</a> by 8000–6000 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a> This period also saw the first domestication of the <a href="/facts/Elephant/6prrEFFK">elephant</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a> <a href="/facts/Pastoral_farming/aMPEynCG">Pastoral farming</a> in <a href="/facts/India_(Herodotus)/U0Gnygoj">India</a> included threshing, planting crops in rows – either of two or of six – and storing grain in <a href="/facts/Granary/zABS5kRh">granaries</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a> <a href="/facts/Cotton/efXRcjbn">Cotton</a> was cultivated by the 5th–4th millennium BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a> By the 5th millennium BC, agricultural communities became widespread in <a href="/facts/Kashmir/Rok34JM5">Kashmir</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a> Irrigation was developed in the <a href="/facts/Indus_Valley_Civilisation/6xM4aK23">Indus Valley Civilisation</a> by around 4500 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a> The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, leading to more thoroughly planned settlements which used <a href="/facts/Drainage/thEd3nfB">drainage</a> and <a href="/facts/Sanitary_sewer/qMKCIW6M">sewers</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a> Archeological evidence of an animal-drawn <a href="/facts/Plough/LBIosnV6">plough</a> dates back to 2500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a>

<h3>Ancient China</h3>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Agriculture_in_China/2qX5QD1Q">Agriculture in China</a> and <a href="/facts/Agriculture_(Chinese_mythology)/FVQNwIJ1">Agriculture (Chinese mythology)</a>

Records from the <a href="/facts/Warring_States_period/8P3avwna">Warring States</a>, <a href="/facts/Qin_dynasty/TeBU8Nh3">Qin dynasty</a>, and <a href="/facts/Han_dynasty/hanfxS9D">Han dynasty</a> provide a picture of early <a href="/facts/Agriculture_in_China/2qX5QD1Q">Chinese agriculture</a> from the 5th century BC to 2nd century AD which included a nationwide <a href="/facts/Granary/zABS5kRh">granary</a> system and widespread use of <a href="/facts/Sericulture/tW1uTTtf">sericulture</a>. An important early Chinese book on agriculture is the <a href="/facts/Qimin_Yaoshu/bksXleEN">Qimin Yaoshu</a> of AD 535, written by Jia Sixie.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a> Jia's writing style was straightforward and lucid relative to the elaborate and allusive writing typical of the time. Jia's book was also very long, with over one hundred thousand written <a href="/facts/Chinese_characters/5pn1PFvj">Chinese characters</a>, and it quoted many other Chinese books that were written previously, but no longer survive.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a> The contents of Jia's 6th century book include sections on land preparation, seeding, cultivation, orchard management, forestry, and animal husbandry. The book also includes peripherally related content covering trade and culinary uses for crops.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a> The work and the style in which it was written proved influential on later Chinese <a href="/facts/Agronomist/9EvBW7jo">agronomists</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Wang_Zhen_(official)/jkjeS3mP">Wang Zhen</a> and his groundbreaking Nong Shu of 1313.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a>

For agricultural purposes, the Chinese had innovated the <a href="/facts/Hydraulic/KSIqLovc">hydraulic</a>-powered <a href="/facts/Trip_hammer/SEdYDjtJ">trip hammer</a> by the 1st century BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a> Although it found other purposes, its main function to pound, decorticate, and polish grain that otherwise would have been done manually. The Chinese also began using the square-pallet <a href="/facts/Chain_pump/mJKluWdg">chain pump</a> by the 1st century AD, powered by a <a href="/facts/Waterwheel/7xwQDxrP">waterwheel</a> or <a href="/facts/Oxen/BHUFavVC">oxen</a> pulling an on a system of mechanical wheels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a> Although the chain pump found use in <a href="/facts/Public_works/SXrgjojz">public works</a> of providing water for urban and palatial <a href="/facts/Pipeline_transport/gEmKcFhD">pipe systems</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a> it was used largely to lift water from a lower to higher elevation in filling <a href="/facts/Irrigation/RWX5PEgK">irrigation</a> <a href="/facts/Canal/pBE8LsJx">canals</a> and <a href="/facts/Channel_(geography)/zanMS2Ek">channels</a> for <a href="/facts/Arable_land/pTSyNmdg">farmland</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a> By the end of the <a href="/facts/Han_dynasty/hanfxS9D">Han dynasty</a> in the late 2nd century, <a href="/facts/Heavy_plough/LBIosnV6">heavy ploughs</a> had been developed with iron ploughshares and <a href="/facts/Mouldboard/LBIosnV6">mouldboards</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108">108</a> These slowly spread west, revolutionizing farming in Northern Europe by the 10th century. (<a href="/facts/Thomas_Glick/GnUdrrdJ">Thomas Glick</a>, however, argues for a development of the Chinese plough as late as the 9th century, implying its spread east from similar designs known in Italy by the 7th century.)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109">109</a>
Asian rice was domesticated 8,200–13,500 years ago in China, with a single genetic origin from the wild rice <a href="/facts/Oryza_rufipogon/KPb7bs4B">Oryza rufipogon</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110">110</a> in the <a href="/facts/Pearl_River_(China)/qDmYo6yf">Pearl River</a> valley region of China. Rice cultivation then spread to South and Southeast Asia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111">111</a>

<h3>Ancient Greece and Hellenistic world</h3>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Agriculture_in_ancient_Greece/QemUBMhq">Agriculture in ancient Greece</a>

The major cereal crops of the <a href="/facts/Ancient_Mediterranean/JBq8vEX9">ancient Mediterranean</a> region were wheat, <a href="/facts/Emmer/htap49YH">emmer</a>, and barley, while common vegetables included peas, beans, <a href="/facts/Vicia_faba/KPxa7j4I">fava</a>, and olives, dairy products came mostly from sheep and goats, and meat, which was consumed on rare occasion for most people, usually consisted of pork, beef, and lamb.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112">112</a> <a href="/facts/Agriculture_in_ancient_Greece/QemUBMhq">Agriculture in ancient Greece</a> was hindered by the <a href="/facts/Topography/SS8Bx4t9">topography</a> of <a href="/facts/Mainland_Greece/LFa0Xlxu">mainland Greece</a> that only allowed for roughly 10% of the land to be cultivated properly, necessitating the specialised exportation of <a href="/facts/Cooking_oil/FwHp4QXg">oil</a> and <a href="/facts/History_of_wine/IURqJop1">wine</a> and importation of grains from <a href="/facts/Thrace/26TVWCL0">Thrace</a> (centered in what is now <a href="/facts/History_of_Bulgaria/Kxl6EQME">Bulgaria</a>) and the <a href="/facts/Colonies_in_antiquity/ng1XxwlR">Greek colonies</a> of <a href="/facts/Pontic_Greeks/WaxbHESS">Pontic Greeks</a> near the <a href="/facts/Black_Sea/M0rLKvge">Black Sea</a>. During the <a href="/facts/Hellenistic_period/q6BgQsaF">Hellenistic period</a>, the <a href="/facts/Ptolemaic_dynasty/xqbNcghq">Ptolemaic Empire</a> controlled <a href="/facts/Ptolemaic_Kingdom/sAg88Lvs">Egypt</a>, <a href="/facts/Cyprus/t9wL6lVK">Cyprus</a>, <a href="/facts/Phoenicia/6GXLneNU">Phoenicia</a>, and <a href="/facts/Cyrenaica/w624AyBA">Cyrenaica</a>, major grain-producing regions that mainland <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greece/PTVBrWXq">Greeks</a> depended on for subsistence, while the Ptolemaic <a href="/facts/Grain_trade/ICzwqp6R">grain market</a> also played a critical role in <a href="/facts/Rise_of_Rome/Han0FRLT">the rise</a> of the <a href="/facts/Roman_Republic/Han0FRLT">Roman Republic</a>. In the <a href="/facts/Seleucid_Empire/NSYMLBYa">Seleucid Empire</a>, Mesopotamia was a crucial area for the production of wheat, while <a href="/facts/Nomad/R9KGKP72">nomadic</a> <a href="/facts/Animal_husbandry/aJforlQp">animal husbandry</a> was also practiced in other parts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113">113</a>

<h3>Roman Empire</h3>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Roman_agriculture/IJnqnrVh">Roman agriculture</a>

In the <a href="/facts/Greco-Roman_world/17Wzn8n0">Greco-Roman world</a> of <a href="/facts/Classical_antiquity/JBq8vEX9">Classical antiquity</a>, <a href="/facts/Roman_agriculture/IJnqnrVh">Roman agriculture</a> was built on techniques originally pioneered by the Sumerians, transmitted to them by subsequent cultures, with a specific emphasis on the cultivation of crops for trade and export. <a href="/facts/Ancient_Rome/cGqIuxPd">The Romans</a> laid the groundwork for the <a href="/facts/Manorial/bvqYxBcJ">manorial</a> economic system, involving <a href="/facts/Serfdom/HyajBMeR">serfdom</a>, which flourished in the Middle Ages. The farm sizes in <a href="/facts/History_of_Rome/smHKeaPY">Rome</a> can be divided into three categories. Small farms were from 18 to 88 iugera (one iugerum is equal to about 0.65 acre). Medium-sized farms were from 80 to 500 iugera (singular <a href="/facts/Iugerum/5daR2H7e">iugerum</a>). Large estates (called <a href="/facts/Latifundia/7cJTWyvk">latifundia</a>) were over 500 iugera. <a href="/facts/Roman_Empire/l4E1aUuV">The Romans</a> had four systems of farm management: direct work by the owner and his family; slaves doing work under the supervision of slave managers; <a href="/facts/Tenant_farmer/bA22DeDG">tenant farming</a> or <a href="/facts/Sharecropping/J0DshurW">sharecropping</a> in which the owner and a tenant divide up a farm's produce; and situations in which a farm was leased to a tenant.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114">114</a>

<h3>The Americas</h3>
Agricultural history took a different path from the <a href="/facts/Old_World/jt02swyQ">Old World</a> as the Americas lacked large-seeded, easily domesticated grains (such as wheat and barley) and large domestic animals that could be used for agricultural labor. Rather than the practice which developed in the Old World of sowing a field with a single crop, pre-historic American agriculture usually consisted of cultivating many crops close to each other utilizing only hand labor. Moreover, agricultural areas in the Americas lacked the uniformity of the east–west area of <a href="/facts/Mediterranean_climate/gGsJAKE5">Mediterranean</a> and <a href="/facts/Semi-arid_climate/XnSYao1E">semi-arid climates</a> in southern Europe and southwestern Asia, but instead had a north–south pattern with a variety of different climatic zones in close proximity to each other. This fostered the domestication of many different plants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115">115</a>
At the time of first contact between the Europeans and the Americans, the Europeans practiced "extensive agriculture, based on the plough and draught animals," with tenants under landlords, but also forced labor or slavery, while the <a href="/facts/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas/LG2r6wXm">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a> practiced "intensive agriculture, based on human labour."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116">116</a> Europeans wanted control of land for the grazing of their livestock and property rights for the control of production. Though they were impressed with the productivity of traditional farming techniques, they saw no connection to their system and were dismissive of Native American practices as "gardening" rather than a commercializable enterprise.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117">117</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118">118</a> Due to several thousand years of selective breeding, <a href="/facts/Maize/lJ6c5xMH">maize</a>, the hemisphere's most important crop, was more productive than Old World grain crops. Maize produced two and one-half times more calories per acre than wheat and barley.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119">119</a>

<h4>South America</h4>
See also: <a href="/facts/Incan_agriculture/Lr1PHQhg">Incan agriculture</a>, <a href="/facts/History_of_agriculture_in_Chile/TufKrakm">History of agriculture in Chile</a>, and <a href="/facts/Pre-Columbian_agriculture_in_the_Amazon_Basin/NS3cJ3Vy">Pre-Columbian agriculture in the Amazon Basin</a>

The earliest known areas of possible agriculture in the Americas dating to about 9000 BC are in <a href="/facts/Colombia/nl7r8Q2u">Colombia</a>, near present-day <a href="/facts/Pereira%2c_Colombia/UUc4trwp">Pereira</a>, and by the <a href="/facts/Las_Vegas_culture_(archaeology)/C1Uopotz">Las Vegas</a> culture in <a href="/facts/Ecuador/Tdv7czY4">Ecuador</a> on the <a href="/facts/Santa_Elena_Province/GMwAs2HG">Santa Elena peninsula</a>. The plants cultivated (or manipulated by humans) were <a href="/facts/Goeppertia_allouia/FdLR2Llb">lerén</a> (Calathea allouia), <a href="/facts/Maranta_arundinacea/Y9HxUvjj">arrowroot</a> (Maranta arundinacea), <a href="/facts/Squash_(plant)/obYd9RFa">squash</a> (Cucurbita species), and <a href="/facts/Calabash/mKnq7gHN">bottle gourd</a> (Lagenaria siceraria). All are plants of humid climates and their existence at this time on the semi-arid Santa Elena peninsula may be evidence that they were transplanted there from more humid environments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120">120</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121">121</a> In another study, this area of South America was identified as one of the four oldest places of origin for agriculture, along with the Fertile Crescent, China, and Mesoamerica, dated between 6200 BC and 10000 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122">122</a> (To facilitate comprehension by readers, <a href="/facts/Radiocarbon_dating/qjNglhKP">Radiocarbon calibrated BP</a> dates in the above sources have been converted to BC.)
In the Andes region, with civilizations including the <a href="/facts/Incan_agriculture/Lr1PHQhg">Inca</a>, the major crop was the <a href="/facts/Potato/F8jRVExs">potato</a>, domesticated between 8000 and 5000 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123">123</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124">124</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125">125</a> <a href="/facts/Coca/wWM86JDa">Coca</a>, still a major crop to this day, was domesticated in the Andes, as were the <a href="/facts/Peanut/dMd0XWsu">peanut</a>, <a href="/facts/Tomato/3d5Xsqw7">tomato</a>, <a href="/facts/Tobacco/bTD4RUPQ">tobacco</a>, and <a href="/facts/Pineapple/LIAWHdQm">pineapple</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126">126</a> <a href="/facts/Cotton/efXRcjbn">Cotton</a> was domesticated in <a href="/facts/Peru/dBt7XrYD">Peru</a> by 4200 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127">127</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128">128</a> <a href="/facts/Incan_animal_husbandry/PQTfwln9">Animals were also domesticated</a>, including <a href="/facts/Llama/k8q7YN1H">llamas</a>, <a href="/facts/Alpaca/RPNA1y3K">alpacas</a>, and <a href="/facts/Guinea_pig/gRXC2qNN">guinea pigs</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129">129</a> The people of the <a href="/facts/Inca_Empire/GjNowI6t">Inca Empire</a> of South America grew large surpluses of food which they stored in buildings called <a href="/facts/Qullqa/adzjarQo">Qullqas</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130">130</a>
The most important crop domesticated in the <a href="/facts/Amazon_Basin/kVk5XeHA">Amazon Basin</a> and tropical lowlands was probably <a href="/facts/Cassava/KvjKQDkV">cassava</a>, (<a href="/facts/Manihot_esculenta/KvjKQDkV">Manihot esculenta</a>), which was domesticated before 7000 BCE, likely in the <a href="/facts/Rond%25C3%25B4nia/3HFenrxQ">Rondônia</a> and <a href="/facts/Mato_Grosso/D42euwun">Mato Grosso</a> states of <a href="/facts/Brazil/QHkG46GL">Brazil</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131">131</a> The <a href="/facts/Guaitecas_Archipelago/7wQ6cN4V">Guaitecas Archipelago</a> in modern Chile was the southern limit of <a href="/facts/Pre-Hispanic/0Ntjleee">Pre-Hispanic</a> agriculture near 44° South latitude,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132">132</a> as noted by the mention of the cultivation of <a href="/facts/Potatoes_of_Chilo%25C3%25A9/Gr6NWpAX">Chiloé potatoes</a> by a Spanish expedition in 1557.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133">133</a>

<h4>Mesoamerica</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Agriculture_in_Mesoamerica/6DTB8GDx">Agriculture in Mesoamerica</a>

In Mesoamerica, wild <a href="/facts/Teosinte/g2NwEeWr">teosinte</a> was transformed through human selection into the ancestor of modern maize, about 7,000 BC. It gradually spread across North America and to South America and was the most important crop of Native Americans at the time of European exploration.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134">134</a> Other Mesoamerican crops include hundreds of varieties of locally domesticated <a href="/facts/Squash_(plant)/obYd9RFa">squash</a> and <a href="/facts/Bean/LPqkC1qW">beans</a>, while <a href="/facts/Theobroma_cacao/3jj5bp6p">cocoa</a>, also domesticated in the region, was a major crop.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135">135</a> The <a href="/facts/Turkey_(bird)/wcWbq1PN">turkey</a>, one of the most important poultry birds, was probably domesticated in Mexico or the U.S. Southwest.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136">136</a>
In <a href="/facts/Mesoamerica/cFjUFklr">Mesoamerica</a>, the <a href="/facts/Aztec/Tn5vj064">Aztecs</a> were active farmers and had an agriculturally focused economy. The land around <a href="/facts/Lake_Texcoco/HWPLRrbp">Lake Texcoco</a> was fertile, but not large enough to produce the amount of food needed for the population of their expanding empire. The Aztecs developed irrigation systems, formed <a href="/facts/Terrace_(agriculture)/L5yTzpdk">terraced</a> hillsides, fertilized their soil, and developed <a href="/facts/Chinampa/0nfn5rCA">chinampas</a> or artificial islands, also known as "floating gardens". The <a href="/facts/Maya_civilization/JMynpRSR">Mayas</a> between 400 BC to 900 AD used extensive canal and raised field systems to farm swampland on the <a href="/facts/Yucat%25C3%25A1n_Peninsula/xGAcABhC">Yucatán Peninsula</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137">137</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138">138</a>

<h4>North America</h4>
Further information: <a href="/facts/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States/e7PdDWL4">History of agriculture in the United States</a>, <a href="/facts/Eastern_Agricultural_Complex/bnVpJ5fF">Eastern Agricultural Complex</a>, <a href="/facts/Prehistoric_agriculture_on_the_Great_Plains/zyj1ksxs">Prehistoric agriculture on the Great Plains</a>, and <a href="/facts/Prehistoric_agriculture_in_the_Southwestern_United_States/VxP4eerm">Prehistoric agriculture in the Southwestern United States</a>

The indigenous people of the <a href="/facts/Eastern_Agricultural_Complex/bnVpJ5fF">Eastern U.S. domesticated numerous crops</a>. <a href="/facts/Sunflowers/KIv0oR5w">Sunflowers</a>, <a href="/facts/Tobacco/bTD4RUPQ">tobacco</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139">139</a> varieties of squash and <a href="/facts/Chenopodium/P5nEag14">Chenopodium</a>, as well as crops no longer grown, including <a href="/facts/Iva_annua/H2WzNfpL">marsh elder</a> and <a href="/facts/Hordeum_pusillum/ed3r9W09">little barley</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140">140</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141">141</a> Wild foods including <a href="/facts/Wild_rice/bVRC2Nga">wild rice</a> and <a href="/facts/Maple_sugar/3CuaUsof">maple sugar</a> were harvested.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142">142</a> The domesticated <a href="/facts/Strawberry/M4oa6zJ9">strawberry</a> is a hybrid of a Chilean and a North American species, developed by breeding in Europe and North America.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143">143</a> Two major crops, <a href="/facts/Pecan/JnaYpv9I">pecans</a> and <a href="/facts/Concord_grape/J6cwBlBl">Concord grapes</a>, were used extensively in prehistoric times but do not appear to have been domesticated until the 19th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144">144</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145">145</a>
The <a href="/facts/Agriculture_in_the_prehistoric_Southwest/VxP4eerm">indigenous people in what is now California</a> and the Pacific Northwest practiced various forms of <a href="/facts/Forest_gardening/99NHU3ux">forest gardening</a> and <a href="/facts/Fire-stick_farming/tuBX0xn7">fire-stick farming</a> in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, and wetlands, ensuring that desired food and medicine plants continued to be available. The <a href="/facts/Native_American_use_of_fire/5ATSfddJ">natives controlled fire</a> on a regional scale to create a low-intensity <a href="/facts/Fire_ecology/zABpjqff">fire ecology</a> which prevented larger, catastrophic fires and <a href="/facts/Sustainable_agriculture/XLdTEVAC">sustained a low-density agriculture</a> in loose rotation; a sort of "wild" <a href="/facts/Permaculture/auIYtKK3">permaculture</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146">146</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147">147</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148">148</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149">149</a>
A system of <a href="/facts/Companion_planting/G9EaDj8j">companion planting</a> called <a href="/facts/Three_Sisters_(agriculture)/Rboj4Ybk">the Three Sisters</a> was <a href="/facts/Agriculture_on_the_prehistoric_Great_Plains/zyj1ksxs">developed in North America</a>. Three crops that complemented each other were planted together: <a href="/facts/Winter_squash/hr0LYlqU">winter squash</a>, <a href="/facts/Maize/lJ6c5xMH">maize</a> (corn), and climbing <a href="/facts/Bean/LPqkC1qW">beans</a> (typically <a href="/facts/Phaseolus_acutifolius/9N4XARqu">tepary beans</a> or <a href="/facts/Phaseolus_vulgaris/1Lozghuk">common beans</a>). The maize provides a structure for the beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the <a href="/facts/Nitrogen/Nf1QpGDz">nitrogen</a> to the soil that the other plants use, and the squash spreads along the ground, blocking the <a href="/facts/Sunlight/WPkJRC7s">sunlight</a>, helping prevent the establishment of <a href="/facts/Weed/Dog4Ifol">weeds</a>. The squash leaves also act as a "living <a href="/facts/Mulch/MXaQnlGK">mulch</a>".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:150" href="#fn:150">150</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:151" href="#fn:151">151</a>

<h3>Sub-Saharan Africa</h3>

In the Sahel region, civilizations such as the <a href="/facts/Mali_Empire/gPpY8YQC">Mali</a> and <a href="/facts/Songhai_Empire/aU6uPAen">Songhai</a> empires cultivated <a href="/facts/Sorghum/D1KNhtdT">sorghum</a> and <a href="/facts/Pearl_millet/UuR51eR7">pearl millet</a>, which were domesticated between 3000 and 2500 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:152" href="#fn:152">152</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:153" href="#fn:153">153</a> The <a href="/facts/Donkey/xkn4K2IJ">donkey</a> was domesticated in <a href="/facts/Nubia/Hmc5JIHK">Nubia</a> at approximately 5000 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:154" href="#fn:154">154</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:155" href="#fn:155">155</a> Archaeological evidence suggests that <a href="/facts/Sanga_cattle/vlwaIXdu">Sanga cattle</a> may have been independently domesticated in <a href="/facts/East_Africa/WtsAyphI">East Africa</a> at around 1600 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:156" href="#fn:156">156</a>
In the tropical region of <a href="/facts/West_Africa/oV8Dk0kp">West Africa</a>, crops such as <a href="/facts/Black-eyed_pea/M3XuzzWk">black-eyed peas</a>, <a href="/facts/Sea_Island_red_pea/C2WoR7gU">Sea Island red peas</a>, <a href="/facts/Yam_(vegetable)/b0E3kuD1">yams</a>, <a href="/facts/Kola_nut/mlfXuXIk">kola nuts</a>, <a href="/facts/Jollof_rice/RtwGsdz2">Jollof rice</a> and <a href="/facts/Kokoro_(vegetable)/djvCf65x">kokoro</a> were domesticated between 3000 and 1000 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:157" href="#fn:157">157</a> The coastal region of West Africa is often referred to as the "Yam Belt", due to its high production of yams.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:158" href="#fn:158">158</a> The <a href="/facts/Domestic_guineafowl/r48SvM2v">guineafowl</a> is a poultry bird that was domesticated in West Africa, and while the time of the guineafowl's domestication remains unclear, there is evidence that it was present in <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greece/PTVBrWXq">Ancient Greece</a> during the 5th century BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:159" href="#fn:159">159</a>
Several species of <a href="/facts/Coffee/Q4Ko2C7I">coffee</a> were also domesticated throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, with <a href="/facts/Coffea_arabica/noXPsKj4">Coffea arabica</a> originating in <a href="/facts/Ethiopia/LVujNp5v">Ethiopia</a> and serving as the main production of modern-day coffee since the late 15th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:160" href="#fn:160">160</a>

<h3>Oceania</h3>
<h4>Australia</h4>

Main article: <a href="/facts/Fire-stick_farming/tuBX0xn7">Fire-stick farming</a>See also: <a href="/facts/Dark_Emu/EXECJxlc">Dark Emu</a>
<a href="/facts/Indigenous_Australians/9XfEQEgq">Indigenous Australians</a> were predominately nomadic <a href="/facts/Hunter-gatherers/ghnjoNbJ">hunter-gatherers</a>. Due to the policy of <a href="/facts/Terra_nullius/bgHpP6Lf">terra nullius</a>, Aboriginals were regarded as not having been capable of sustained agriculture. However, the current consensus is that various agricultural methods were employed by the indigenous people.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:161" href="#fn:161">161</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:162" href="#fn:162">162</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:163" href="#fn:163">163</a>
In two regions of Central Australia, the central west coast and eastern central Australia, forms of agriculture were practiced. People living in permanent settlements of over 200 residents sowed or planted on a large scale and stored the harvested food. The Nhanda and Amangu of the central west coast grew yams (<a href="/facts/Dioscorea/0cg8rwBu">Dioscorea hastifolia</a>), while various groups in eastern central Australia (the Corners Region) planted and harvested bush onions (yaua – <a href="/facts/Cyperus_bulbosus/l3jc7df6">Cyperus bulbosus</a>), native millet (cooly, tindil – <a href="/facts/Panicum_decompositum/uMkNgKUq">Panicum decompositum</a>) and a <a href="/facts/Sporocarp_(ferns)/4pELrGMm">sporocarp</a>, ngardu (<a href="/facts/Marsilea_drummondii/1krWTjWB">Marsilea drummondii</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:164" href="#fn:164">164</a>: 281–304 <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:165" href="#fn:165">165</a>
Indigenous Australians used systematic burning, <a href="/facts/Fire-stick_farming/tuBX0xn7">fire-stick farming</a>, to enhance natural productivity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:166" href="#fn:166">166</a> In the 1970s and 1980s archaeological research in south west Victoria established that the <a href="/facts/Gunditjmara/Cv4bxIeP">Gunditjmara</a> and other groups had developed sophisticated eel farming and fish trapping systems over a period of nearly 5,000 years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:167" href="#fn:167">167</a> The archaeologist <a href="/facts/Harry_Lourandos/0RhAlVC6">Harry Lourandos</a> suggested in the 1980s that there was evidence of 'intensification' in progress across Australia,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:168" href="#fn:168">168</a> a process that appeared to have continued through the preceding 5,000 years. These concepts led the historian <a href="/facts/Bill_Gammage/Dl3DwReN">Bill Gammage</a> to argue that in effect the whole continent was a managed landscape.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:169" href="#fn:169">169</a>
Torres Strait Islanders are now known to have planted <a href="/facts/Banana/D6r2qPPq">bananas</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:170" href="#fn:170">170</a>

<h4>Pacific Islands</h4>
In <a href="/facts/New_Guinea/qB0bzfSH">New Guinea</a>, archaeological evidence suggests that agriculture independently emerged around 7,000 years ago with the domestication of crops such as bananas and <a href="/facts/Taro/VS4naoHU">taro</a>. Pigs and chickens were imported to New Guinea, which were later innovated by other Pacific Island nations, such as those in <a href="/facts/Polynesia/rVSckqmD">Polynesia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:171" href="#fn:171">171</a>

<h2 id="middle-ages-and-early-modern-period">Middle Ages and Early Modern period</h2>
<h3>Europe</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages/E7JnEsQz">Agriculture in the Middle Ages</a>
The <a href="/facts/Middle_Ages/RqzEKB9v">Middle Ages</a> saw further improvements in agriculture. <a href="/facts/Monastery/t8MRXpsM">Monasteries</a> spread throughout <a href="/facts/Europe/DTAtrKfh">Europe</a> and became important centers for the collection of knowledge related to agriculture and forestry. The <a href="/facts/Manorial_system/bvqYxBcJ">manorial system</a> allowed large landowners to control their land and its laborers, in the form of <a href="/facts/Peasant/LpXfJ1HH">peasants</a> or <a href="/facts/Serf/HyajBMeR">serfs</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:172" href="#fn:172">172</a> During the medieval period, the <a href="/facts/Arab_world/F8Jouq98">Arab world</a> was critical in the exchange of crops and technology between the European, Asia and African continents. Besides transporting numerous crops, they introduced the concept of summer irrigation to Europe and developed the beginnings of the <a href="/facts/Plantation/jucwoWpV">plantation</a> system of <a href="/facts/Sugarcane/925qszH4">sugarcane</a> growing through the use of slaves for intensive cultivation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:173" href="#fn:173">173</a>

By AD 900, developments in <a href="/facts/Smelting/Ghdvhlga">iron smelting</a> allowed for increased production in Europe, leading to developments in the production of agricultural implements such as <a href="/facts/Plough/LBIosnV6">ploughs</a>, <a href="/facts/Hand_tool/RSzN3Voa">hand tools</a> and <a href="/facts/Horse_shoe/5gXPTqFB">horse shoes</a>. The <a href="/facts/Carruca/nxWKFXQP">carruca</a> heavy plough improved on the earlier <a href="/facts/Scratch_plough/u2VncBAv">scratch plough</a>, with the adoption of the Chinese <a href="/facts/Mouldboard_plough/LBIosnV6">mouldboard plough</a> to turn over the heavy, wet soils of northern Europe. This led to the clearing of northern European forests and an increase in agricultural production, which in turn led to an increase in population.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:174" href="#fn:174">174</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:175" href="#fn:175">175</a> At the same time, some farmers in Europe moved from a two field <a href="/facts/Crop_rotation/yeqbveKE">crop rotation</a> to a three-field crop rotation in which one field of three was left fallow every year. This resulted in increased productivity and nutrition, as the change in rotations permitted <a href="/facts/Nitrogen-fixing/TeLoBpWS">nitrogen-fixing</a> <a href="/facts/Legumes/x6s6gVHY">legumes</a> such as peas, lentils and beans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:176" href="#fn:176">176</a> Improved <a href="/facts/Horse_harness/e3etPlGP">horse harnesses</a> and the <a href="/facts/Whippletree_(mechanism)/oKceuQKu">whippletree</a> further improved cultivation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:177" href="#fn:177">177</a>
<a href="/facts/Watermill/UTvzQY8S">Watermills</a> were introduced by the Romans, but were improved throughout the Middle Ages, along with <a href="/facts/Windmill/D7rzFXT2">windmills</a>, and used to grind grains into flour, to cut wood and to process flax and wool.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:178" href="#fn:178">178</a>
Crops included wheat, <a href="/facts/Rye/LwdwSNcp">rye</a>, barley and <a href="/facts/Oats/wn3vnCnT">oats</a>. Peas, beans, and <a href="/facts/Vetches/qmeT2Kq7">vetches</a> became common from the 13th century onward as a <a href="/facts/Fodder_crop/b4Hw0Lq0">fodder crop</a> for animals and also for their <a href="/facts/Nitrogen-fixation/TeLoBpWS">nitrogen-fixation</a> fertilizing properties. Crop yields peaked in the 13th century, and stayed more or less steady until the 18th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:179" href="#fn:179">179</a> Though the limitations of medieval farming were once thought to have provided a ceiling for the population growth in the Middle Ages, recent studies have shown that the technology of medieval agriculture was always sufficient for the needs of the people under normal circumstances,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:180" href="#fn:180">180</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:181" href="#fn:181">181</a> and that it was only during exceptionally harsh times, such as the <a href="/facts/Great_Famine_of_1315%25E2%2580%25931317/osRobvLM">terrible weather of 1315–17</a>, that the needs of the population could not be met.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:182" href="#fn:182">182</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:183" href="#fn:183">183</a>

<h3>Arab world</h3>

Main article: <a href="/facts/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution/fyzPl7cJ">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a>
From the 8th century to the 14th century, the <a href="/facts/Islamic_Golden_Age/yAeG2rBA">Islamic world</a> underwent a transformation in agricultural practice, described by the historian Andrew Watson as the <a href="/facts/Arab_agricultural_revolution/fyzPl7cJ">Arab agricultural revolution</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:184" href="#fn:184">184</a> This transformation was driven by a number of factors including the diffusion of many crops and plants along Muslim trade routes, the spread of more advanced farming techniques, and an agricultural-economic system which promoted increased yields and efficiency. The shift in agricultural practice changed the economy, <a href="/facts/Population_distribution/SAI9lJq9">population distribution</a>, vegetation cover, agricultural production, population levels, <a href="/facts/Urbanization/GQq0oqft">urban growth</a>, the distribution of the labour force, cooking, diet, and clothing across the Islamic world. Muslim traders covered much of the <a href="/facts/Old_World/jt02swyQ">Old World</a>, and trade enabled the diffusion of many crops, plants and farming techniques across the region, as well as the adaptation of crops, plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:185" href="#fn:185">185</a> This diffusion introduced major crops to Europe by way of <a href="/facts/Al-Andalus/JTNmWTzP">Al-Andalus</a>, along with the techniques for their cultivation and cuisine. Sugar cane, rice, and cotton were among the major crops transferred, along with <a href="/facts/Citrus/6FqG38Dk">citrus</a> and other fruit trees, nut trees, vegetables such as <a href="/facts/Aubergine/UTRtUSsd">aubergine</a>, <a href="/facts/Spinach/PwxrL0o0">spinach</a> and <a href="/facts/Chard/LGNbp1KG">chard</a>, and the use of imported spices such as <a href="/facts/Cumin/wjrsUDk9">cumin</a>, <a href="/facts/Coriander/v4Sa5K4T">coriander</a>, <a href="/facts/Nutmeg/ufqkrJKU">nutmeg</a> and <a href="/facts/Cinnamon/Aag9baI6">cinnamon</a>. Intensive irrigation, <a href="/facts/Crop_rotation/yeqbveKE">crop rotation</a>, and agricultural manuals were widely adopted. Irrigation, partly based on Roman technology, made use of <a href="/facts/Noria/wp8VyrVf">noria</a> water wheels, <a href="/facts/Water_mill/UTvzQY8S">water mills</a>, dams and reservoirs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:186" href="#fn:186">186</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:187" href="#fn:187">187</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:188" href="#fn:188">188</a>

<h3>Columbian exchange</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Columbian_exchange/xaYrED8p">Columbian exchange</a>
After 1492, a <a href="/facts/Columbian_exchange/xaYrED8p">global exchange</a> of previously local crops and livestock breeds occurred. Maize, potatoes, <a href="/facts/Sweet_potatoes/CFN3IMdj">sweet potatoes</a> and <a href="/facts/Manioc/KvjKQDkV">manioc</a> were the key crops that spread from the New World to the Old, while varieties of wheat, barley, rice and <a href="/facts/Turnip/dIkKUdIG">turnips</a> traveled from the Old World to the New. There had been few livestock species in the New World, with horses, cattle, sheep and goats being completely unknown before their arrival with Old World settlers. Crops moving in both directions across the <a href="/facts/Atlantic_Ocean/EI4uChIb">Atlantic Ocean</a> caused population growth around the world and a lasting effect on many cultures in the <a href="/facts/Early_modern_period/hhpHM721">Early Modern period</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:189" href="#fn:189">189</a> 
Maize and cassava were introduced from Brazil into Africa by Portuguese traders in the 16th century,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:190" href="#fn:190">190</a> becoming staple foods, replacing native African crops.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:191" href="#fn:191">191</a> After its introduction from South America to Spain in the late 1500s, the potato became a staple crop throughout Europe by the late 1700s. The potato allowed farmers to produce more food, and initially added variety to the European diet. The increased supply of food reduced disease, increased births and reduced mortality, causing a population boom throughout the <a href="/facts/British_Empire/hrsz0j7A">British Empire</a>, the US and Europe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:192" href="#fn:192">192</a> The introduction of the potato also brought about the first intensive use of fertilizer, in the form of <a href="/facts/Guano/5qlRUtsV">guano</a> imported to Europe from Peru, and the first artificial pesticide, in the form of an <a href="/facts/Arsenic/k1c4f44D">arsenic</a> compound used to fight <a href="/facts/Colorado_potato_beetle/NV6TJ53V">Colorado potato beetles</a>. Before the adoption of the potato as a major crop, the dependence on grain had caused repetitive regional and national famines when the crops failed, including 17 major famines in England between 1523 and 1623. The resulting dependence on the potato however caused the <a href="/facts/European_Potato_Failure/2doAvmdw">European Potato Failure</a>, a disastrous crop failure from <a href="/facts/Potato_blight/cSnNMCEg">disease</a> that resulted in widespread <a href="/facts/Great_Famine_(Ireland)/pn4ByRj8">famine and the death of over one million people in Ireland alone</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:193" href="#fn:193">193</a>

<h2 id="modern-agriculture">Modern agriculture</h2>
See also: <a href="/facts/History_of_agricultural_science/mKJw1xR8">History of agricultural science</a>
<h3>British agricultural revolution</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/British_Agricultural_Revolution/JCXGhnwU">British Agricultural Revolution</a>
See also: <a href="/facts/List_of_agricultural_machinery/gM2wW1YN">List of agricultural machinery</a> and <a href="/facts/Mechanised_agriculture/cwCcMRQC">Mechanised agriculture</a>

Between the 17th century and the mid-19th century, Britain saw a large increase in agricultural productivity and net output. New agricultural practices like <a href="/facts/Enclosure/CxtadnNY">enclosure</a>, mechanization, <a href="/facts/Four-field_crop_rotation/yeqbveKE">four-field crop rotation</a> to maintain soil nutrients, and <a href="/facts/Selective_breeding/CAkkM2UG">selective breeding</a> enabled an <a href="/facts/Malthusian_trap/jbR6UF1B">unprecedented population growth</a> to 5.7 million in 1750, freeing up a significant percentage of the workforce, and thereby helped drive the <a href="/facts/Industrial_Revolution/B6E3Fasm">Industrial Revolution</a>. The productivity of wheat went up from 19 US bushels (670 L; 150 US dry gal; 150 imp gal) per <a href="/facts/Acre/FDPa5k4G">acre</a> in 1720 to around 30 US bushels (1,100 L; 240 US dry gal; 230 imp gal) by 1840, marking a major turning point in history.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:194" href="#fn:194">194</a>

Advice on more productive techniques for farming began to appear in England in the mid-17th century, from writers such as <a href="/facts/Samuel_Hartlib/XvaQ1VLR">Samuel Hartlib</a>, <a href="/facts/Walter_Blith/qrWm6rH9">Walter Blith</a> and others.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:195" href="#fn:195">195</a> The main problem in sustaining agriculture in one place for a long time was the depletion of nutrients, most importantly nitrogen levels, in the soil. To allow the soil to regenerate, productive land was often let fallow and, in some places, <a href="/facts/Crop_rotation/yeqbveKE">crop rotation</a> was used. The Dutch four-field rotation system was popularised by the British agriculturist <a href="/facts/Charles_Townshend%2c_2nd_Viscount_Townshend/lL4actQH">Charles Townshend</a> in the 18th century. The system (wheat, turnips, barley and clover) opened up a fodder crop and grazing crop allowing livestock to be bred year-round. The use of clover was especially important as the legume roots replenished soil nitrates.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:196" href="#fn:196">196</a>
The mechanisation and rationalisation of agriculture was another important factor. <a href="/facts/Robert_Bakewell_(farmer)/gopWnD25">Robert Bakewell</a> and <a href="/facts/Thomas_Coke%2c_1st_Earl_of_Leicester_(seventh_creation)/gwrgxuCq">Thomas Coke</a> introduced <a href="/facts/Selective_breeding/CAkkM2UG">selective breeding</a> and initiated a process of inbreeding to maximise desirable traits from the mid 18th century, such as the <a href="/facts/New_Leicester/efcIGghB">New Leicester</a> sheep. Machines were invented to improve the efficiency of various agricultural operation, such as <a href="/facts/Jethro_Tull_(agriculturist)/pTRHb3J1">Jethro Tull</a>'s <a href="/facts/Seed_drill/pSmuEkUE">seed drill</a> of 1701 that mechanised seeding at the correct depth and spacing and <a href="/facts/Andrew_Meikle/aFvqqNeR">Andrew Meikle</a>'s <a href="/facts/Threshing_machine/dE9Sdhuj">threshing machine</a> of 1784. Ploughs were steadily improved, from Joseph Foljambe's <a href="/facts/Plough/LBIosnV6">Rotherham iron plough</a> in 1730<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:197" href="#fn:197">197</a> to <a href="/facts/James_Small_(inventor)/Xf6QuNT6">James Small</a>'s improved "Scots Plough" metal in 1763. In 1789 <a href="/facts/Ransomes%2c_Sims_%2526_Jefferies/2KrWRdw1">Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies</a> was producing 86 plough models for different soils.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:198" href="#fn:198">198</a> Powered farm machinery began with <a href="/facts/Richard_Trevithick/Y7vGWsGf">Richard Trevithick</a>'s <a href="/facts/Stationary_steam_engine/l8HmqYSq">stationary steam engine</a>, used to drive a threshing machine, in 1812.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:199" href="#fn:199">199</a> Mechanisation spread to additional farm uses throughout the 19th century. The first petrol-driven <a href="/facts/Tractor/gNc7kb4a">tractor</a> was built in America by <a href="/facts/John_Froelich/cHNvKJNn">John Froelich</a> in 1892.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:200" href="#fn:200">200</a>
<a href="/facts/John_Bennet_Lawes/S1mTKxqL">John Bennet Lawes</a> began the scientific investigation of fertilization at the <a href="/facts/Rothamsted_Experimental_Station/IkxPnlCd">Rothamsted Experimental Station</a> in 1843. He investigated the impact of inorganic and organic fertilizers on crop yield and founded one of the first artificial fertilizer manufacturing factories in 1842. Fertilizer, in the shape of <a href="/facts/Sodium_nitrate/8WteItRf">sodium nitrate</a> deposits in <a href="/facts/Chile/uEyTfEcx">Chile</a>, was imported to Britain by <a href="/facts/John_Thomas_North/vm2om3uY">John Thomas North</a> as well as <a href="/facts/Guano/5qlRUtsV">guano</a> (birds droppings). The first commercial process for fertilizer production was the obtaining of <a href="/facts/Super_phosphate/ftYnngg5">phosphate</a> from the dissolution of <a href="/facts/Coprolite/VX4K6BNX">coprolites</a> in <a href="/facts/Sulphuric_acid/Wom6fymJ">sulphuric acid</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:201" href="#fn:201">201</a>

<h3>20th century</h3>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Intensive_farming/dHGtp0Im">Intensive farming</a>

<a href="/facts/Dan_Albone/IaAufTj0">Dan Albone</a> constructed the first commercially successful gasoline-powered general-purpose tractor in 1901, and the 1923 <a href="/facts/International_Harvester/PrpmEJyu">International Harvester</a> <a href="/facts/Farmall/zK3avobw">Farmall</a> tractor marked a major point in the replacement of draft animals (particularly horses) with machines. Since that time, self-propelled mechanical harvesters (<a href="/facts/Combine_harvester/g28hasTJ">combines</a>), <a href="/facts/Planter_(farm_implement)/NK77YmuL">planters</a>, <a href="/facts/Transplanter/JUo93Jf4">transplanters</a> and other equipment have been developed, further revolutionizing agriculture.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:202" href="#fn:202">202</a> These inventions allowed farming tasks to be done with a speed and on a scale previously impossible, leading modern farms to output much greater volumes of high-quality produce per land unit.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:203" href="#fn:203">203</a>

The <a href="/facts/Haber_process/DMlVT2WP">Haber-Bosch method</a> for synthesizing <a href="/facts/Ammonium_nitrate/aSc96wBX">ammonium nitrate</a> represented a major breakthrough and allowed <a href="/facts/Crop_yields/hmE59fhk">crop yields</a> to overcome previous constraints. It was first patented by German chemist <a href="/facts/Fritz_Haber/cj5QTJKT">Fritz Haber</a>. In 1910 <a href="/facts/Carl_Bosch/3NwIre59">Carl Bosch</a>, while working for German chemical company <a href="/facts/BASF/cdtGr0TK">BASF</a>, successfully commercialized the process and secured further patents. In the years after <a href="/facts/World_War_II/2efV5L1U">World War II</a>, the use of synthetic fertilizer increased rapidly, in sync with the increasing world population.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:204" href="#fn:204">204</a>
<a href="/facts/Collective_farming/lSyD3fCR">Collective farming</a> was widely practiced in the Soviet Union, the <a href="/facts/Eastern_Bloc/12f32hA7">Eastern Bloc</a> countries, China, and Vietnam, starting in the 1930s in the Soviet Union; one result was the <a href="/facts/Soviet_famine_of_1932%25E2%2580%259333/qB1sW2A8">Soviet famine of 1932–33</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:205" href="#fn:205">205</a> Another consequence occurred during the <a href="/facts/Great_Leap_Forward/ubBCxR5x">Great Leap Forward</a> in China initiated by <a href="/facts/Mao_Tse-tung/tU9LMYH3">Mao Tse-tung</a> that resulted in the <a href="/facts/Great_Chinese_Famine/QCWPVcxm">Great Chinese Famine</a> from 1959 to 1961 and ultimately reshaped the thinking of <a href="/facts/Deng_Xiaoping/qloJ6G8m">Deng Xiaoping</a>.
In the past century agriculture has been characterized by increased productivity, the substitution of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labour, <a href="/facts/Water_pollution/SCUhUYqB">water pollution</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:206" href="#fn:206">206</a> and <a href="/facts/Farm_subsidies/V9aXphAk">farm subsidies</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:207" href="#fn:207">207</a> Other applications of scientific research since 1950 in agriculture include <a href="/facts/Gene_manipulation/vwdlDR61">gene manipulation</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:208" href="#fn:208">208</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:209" href="#fn:209">209</a> <a href="/facts/Hydroponics/g96g3ypl">hydroponics</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:210" href="#fn:210">210</a> and the development of economically viable <a href="/facts/Biofuel/RWu7b6Y3">biofuels</a> such as <a href="/facts/Ethanol_fuel/E1m7CDM4">ethanol</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:211" href="#fn:211">211</a>
The number of people involved in farming in industrial countries fell radically from 24 percent of the American population to 1.5 percent in 2002. The number of farms also decreased, and their ownership became more concentrated; for example, between 1967 and 2002, one million pig farms in America consolidated into 114,000, with 80 percent of the production on factory farms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:212" href="#fn:212">212</a> According to the <a href="/facts/Worldwatch_Institute/FBWjale5">Worldwatch Institute</a>, 74 percent of the world's poultry, 43 percent of beef, and 68 percent of eggs are produced this way.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:213" href="#fn:213">213</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:214" href="#fn:214">214</a>
Famines however continued to sweep the globe through the 20th century. Through the effects of climatic events, government policy, war and crop failure, millions of people died in each of at least ten famines between the 1920s and the 1990s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:215" href="#fn:215">215</a>

<h3>Green Revolution</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Green_Revolution/sB1gbDxN">Green Revolution</a>

The Green Revolution was a series of research, development, and <a href="/facts/Technology_transfer/PVLwHDq1">technology transfer</a> initiatives between the 1940s and the late 1970s. It increased agriculture production around the world, especially from the late 1960s. The initiatives, led by <a href="/facts/Norman_Borlaug/cQUgH45u">Norman Borlaug</a> and credited with saving over a billion people from starvation, involved the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and <a href="/facts/Pesticide/Uhf4KnwJ">pesticides</a> to farmers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:216" href="#fn:216">216</a>
Synthetic nitrogen, mined <a href="/facts/Rock_phosphate/nX6Cqkcc">rock phosphate</a>, pesticides, and mechanization have greatly increased crop yields in the early 20th century. Increased supply of <a href="/facts/Grain/C00uWDPs">grains</a> has also led to cheaper livestock. Further, global yield increases were experienced later in the 20th century when high-yield varieties of common staple grains such as rice, wheat, and corn were introduced as a part of the Green Revolution. The Green Revolution exported the technologies (including pesticides and synthetic nitrogen) of the developed world to the developing world. <a href="/facts/Thomas_Malthus/fNoDNncG">Thomas Malthus</a> famously predicted that the Earth would not be able to support its growing population. Still, technologies such as the Green Revolution have allowed the world to produce a food surplus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:217" href="#fn:217">217</a>
Although the Green Revolution significantly increased rice yields in Asia, yield leveled off. The genetic "yield potential" has increased for wheat, but the yield potential for rice has not increased since 1966, and the yield potential for maize has "barely increased in 35 years". It takes only a decade or two for <a href="/facts/Herbicide_resistance/FN93bvrk">herbicide-resistant</a> weeds to emerge, and insects become <a href="/facts/Insecticide_resistance/FvetsYFQ">resistant to insecticides</a> within about a decade, delayed somewhat by crop rotation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:218" href="#fn:218">218</a>

<h3>Organic agriculture</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Organic_farming/Rce4nxdU">Organic farming</a>
For most of its history, agriculture has been <a href="/facts/Organic_agriculture/Rce4nxdU">organic</a>, without synthetic <a href="/facts/Fertilisers/ysh3r6NJ">fertilisers</a> or <a href="/facts/Pesticides/Uhf4KnwJ">pesticides</a>, and without <a href="/facts/GMOs/6emCmpsc">GMOs</a>. With the advent of chemical agriculture, <a href="/facts/Rudolf_Steiner/rlBuWUCB">Rudolf Steiner</a> called for farming without synthetic pesticides, and his Agriculture Course of 1924 laid the foundation for <a href="/facts/Biodynamic_agriculture/Q3cE0jrK">biodynamic agriculture</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:219" href="#fn:219">219</a> <a href="/facts/Lord_Northbourne/ajQNy3Tv">Lord Northbourne</a> developed these ideas and presented his manifesto of <a href="/facts/Organic_farming/Rce4nxdU">organic farming</a> in 1940. This became a worldwide movement, and organic farming is now practiced in many countries.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:220" href="#fn:220">220</a>

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Agricultural_expansion/Su0wI5YR">Agricultural expansion</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture/ru4tQClx">Effects of climate change on agriculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Farming%2flanguage_dispersal_hypothesis/mSfQap2t">Farming/language dispersal hypothesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Green_Revolution/sB1gbDxN">Green Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Historical_hydroculture/kghbgpF0">Historical hydroculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/History_of_cotton/MNKwI0BG">History of cotton</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/History_of_fertilizer/xyz3xESE">History of fertilizer</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/History_of_gardening/GJ7SIlxw">History of gardening</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/History_of_sugar/NpGlfxE3">History of sugar</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/History_of_the_potato/qrEBN072">History of the potato</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Rural_history/wwEypghf">Rural history</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2>
<h3>Surveys</h3>
<ul><li>Civitello, Linda. Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People (Wiley, 2011) <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Cuisine-Culture-History-Food-People/dp/0470403713/">excerpt</a></li>
<li>Federico, Giovanni. Feeding the World: An Economic History of Agriculture 1800–2000 (Princeton UP, 2005) highly quantitative</li>
<li>Grew, Raymond. <a href="https://www.questia.com/read/99923753?title=Food%20in%20Global%20History">Food in Global History</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110604193653/https://www.questia.com/read/99923753?title=Food%20in%20Global%20History">Archived</a> 2011-06-04 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a> (1999)</li>
<li>Heiser, Charles B. Seed to Civilization: The Story of Food (W.H. Freeman, 1990)</li>
<li>Herr, Richard, ed. Themes in Rural History of the Western World (Iowa State UP, 1993)</li>
<li>Kiple, Kenneth F., and Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas, eds. The Cambridge world history of food (2 vol Cambridge University Press, 2000) <a href="http://ktp.isam.org.tr/pdficn/098209ic.pdf">online</a>.</li>
<li>Mazoyer, Marcel, and Laurence Roudart. A History of World Agriculture: From the Neolithic Age to the Current Crisis (Monthly Review Press, 2006) Marxist perspective.</li>
<li>Pilcher, Jeffrey M. Food in world history (Routledge, 2023).</li>
<li>Prentice, E. Parmalee. <a href="https://archive.today/20121214194357/http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;cc=chla;q1=history;rgn=title;view=toc;idno=2727319">Hunger and History: The Influence of Hunger on Human History</a> (Harper, 1939)</li>
<li>Tauger, Mark. Agriculture in World History (Routledge, 2008)</li>
<li>Toussaint-Samat, Maguelonne. A history of food ( John Wiley & Sons, 2009), 800+ pp. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QmevzbQ0AsIC&dq=+%27%27Food+in+world+history%27%27+&pg=PR13">online</a></li>
<li>Whayne Jeannie, ed. (2024). <a href="https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/56212">The Oxford Handbook of Agricultural History</a>. <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-092416-4. ; covers historiographical traditions within geographic regions across the world.</li></ul>
<h3>Premodern</h3>
<ul><li>Bakels, C.C. The Western European Loess Belt: Agrarian History, 5300 BC – AD 1000 (Springer, 2009)</li>
<li>Barker, Graeme, and Candice Goucher, eds. The Cambridge World History: Volume 2, A World with Agriculture, 12000 BCE–500 CE. (Cambridge UP, 2015)</li>
<li>Bowman, Alan K. and Rogan, Eugene, eds. Agriculture in Egypt: From Pharaonic to Modern Times (Oxford UP, 1999)</li>
<li>Cohen, M.N. The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture (Yale UP, 1977)</li>
<li>Crummey, Donald and Stewart, C.C., eds. Modes of Production in Africa: The Precolonial Era (Sagem 1981)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Jared_Diamond/a0akbLKQ">Diamond, Jared</a>. <a href="/facts/Guns%2c_Germs%2c_and_Steel/2axQru0x">Guns, Germs, and Steel</a> (W.W. Norton, 1997)</li>
<li>Duncan-Jones, Richard. Economy of the Roman Empire (Cambridge UP, 1982)</li>
<li>Habib, Irfan. Agrarian System of Mughal India (Oxford UP, 3rd ed. 2013)</li>
<li>Harris, D.R., ed. The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia, (Routledge, 1996)</li>
<li>Isager, Signe and Jens Erik Skydsgaard. Ancient Greek Agriculture: An Introduction (Routledge, 1995)</li>
<li>Lee, Mabel Ping-hua. <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.227">The economic history of china: with special reference to agriculture</a> (Columbia University, 1921)</li>
<li>Murray, Jacqueline. The First European Agriculture (Edinburgh UP, 1970)</li>
<li>Oka, H-I. Origin of Cultivated Rice (Elsevier, 2012)</li>
<li>Price, T.D. and A. Gebauer, eds. Last Hunters – First Farmers: New Perspectives on the Prehistoric Transition to Agriculture (1995)</li>
<li>Srivastava, Vinod Chandra, ed. History of Agriculture in India (5 vols., 2014). From 2000 BC to present.</li>
<li>Stevens, C.E. "Agriculture and Rural Life in the Later Roman Empire" in Cambridge Economic History of Europe, Vol. I, The Agrarian Life of the Middle Ages (Cambridge UP, 1971)</li>
<li>Teall, John L. (1959). "The grain supply of the Byzantine Empire, 330–1025". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 13: 87–139. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1291130">10.2307/1291130</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1291130">1291130</a>.</li>
<li>Yasuda, Y., ed. The Origins of Pottery and Agriculture (SAB, 2003) [ISBN missing]</li></ul>
<h3>Modern</h3>
<ul><li>Collingham, E.M. The Taste of War: World War Two and the Battle for Food (Penguin, 2012)[ISBN missing]</li>
<li>Kerridge, Erik. "The Agricultural Revolution Reconsidered." Agricultural History ( 1969) 43:4, 463–475. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4617724">4617724</a>, in Britain, 1750–1850</li>
<li>Ludden, David, ed. <a href="https://www.questia.com/library/book/an-agrarian-history-of-south-asia-by-david-ludden.jsp">New Cambridge History of India: An Agrarian History of South Asia</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110604193046/https://www.questia.com/library/book/an-agrarian-history-of-south-asia-by-david-ludden.jsp">Archived</a> 2011-06-04 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a> (Cambridge, 1999).</li>
<li>McNeill, William H. (1999). "How the Potato Changed the World's History". Social Research. 66 (1): 67–83. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40971302">40971302</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22416329">22416329</a>.</li>
<li>Manning, Richard (2005). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=woam4BS6TaYC">Against the Grain: How Agriculture Has Hijacked Civilization</a>. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4668-2342-6.</li>
<li>Mintz, Sidney. Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (Penguin, 1986)</li>
<li>Reader, John. Propitious Esculent: The Potato in World History (Heinemann, 2008) a standard scholarly history</li>
<li>Salaman, Redcliffe N. The History and Social Influence of the Potato (Cambridge, 2010)</li></ul>
<h3>Europe</h3>
<ul><li>Ambrosoli, Mauro. The Wild and the Sown: Botany and Agriculture in Western Europe, 1350–1850 (Cambridge UP, 1997)</li>
<li>Brassley, Paul, Yves Segers, and Leen Van Molle, eds. War, Agriculture, and Food: Rural Europe from the 1930s to the 1950s (Routledge, 2012)</li>
<li>Brown, Jonathan. Agriculture in England: A Survey of Farming, 1870–1947 (Manchester UP, 1987)</li>
<li>Clark, Gregory (2007). <a href="https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/31320/1/50512257X.pdf">"The long march of history: Farm wages, population, and economic growth, England 1209–1869"</a> (PDF). Economic History Review. 60 (1): 97–135. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.2006.00358.x">10.1111/j.1468-0289.2006.00358.x</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154325999">154325999</a>.</li>
<li>Dovring, Folke, ed. Land and labor in Europe in the twentieth century: a comparative survey of recent agrarian history (Springer, 1965)</li>
<li>Gras, Norman. <a href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2845579">A history of agriculture in Europe and America</a> (Crofts, 1925)</li>
<li>Harvey, Nigel. The Industrial Archaeology of Farming in England and Wales (HarperCollins, 1980)</li>
<li>Hoffman, Philip T. Growth in a Traditional Society: The French Countryside, 1450–1815 (Princeton UP, 1996)</li>
<li>Hoyle, Richard W., ed. The Farmer in England, 1650–1980 (Routledge, 2013) <a href="http://ehr.oxfordjournals.org/content/130/544/757.short">online review</a>[dead link]</li>
<li>Kussmaul, Ann. A General View of the Rural Economy of England, 1538–1840 (Cambridge University Press, 1990)</li>
<li>Langdon, John. Horses, Oxen and Technological Innovation: The Use of Draught Animals in English Farming from 1066 to 1500 (Cambridge UP, 1986)</li>
<li>McNeill, William H. (1948). "The Introduction of the Potato into Ireland". Journal of Modern History. 21 (3): 218–221. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F237272">10.1086/237272</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1876068">1876068</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145099646">145099646</a>.</li>
<li>Moon, David. The Plough that Broke the Steppes: Agriculture and Environment on Russia's Grasslands, 1700–1914 (Oxford UP, 2014)</li>
<li>Slicher van Bath, B.H. The Agrarian History of Western Europe, AD 500–1850 (Edward Arnold, reprint, 1963)</li>
<li>Thirsk, Joan, et al. The Agrarian History of England and Wales (Cambridge University Press, 8 vols., 1978)</li>
<li>Williamson, Tom. Transformation of Rural England: Farming and the Landscape 1700–1870 (Liverpool UP, 2002)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Ina_Zweiniger-Bargielowska/q3HSxs6F">Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Ina</a>, Rachel Duffett, and Alain Drouard, eds. Food and war in twentieth century Europe (Ashgate, 2011)</li></ul>
<h3>North America</h3>
<ul><li>Bidwell, Percy Wells, and John I. Falconer. History of agriculture in the northern United States, 1620–1860 (1925), massive scholarly history. <a href="https://archive.org/details/historyofagricul00bidw/page/n8/mode/2up">online</a></li>
<li>Cochrane, Willard W. The Development of American Agriculture: A Historical Analysis (University of Minnesota P, 1993)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Gilbert_Fite/z46VyS74">Fite, Gilbert C.</a> (1983). <a href="https://doi.org/10.17077%2F0003-4827.8923">"American Farmers: The New Minority"</a>. Annals of Iowa. 46 (7): 553–555. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.17077%2F0003-4827.8923">10.17077/0003-4827.8923</a>.</li>
<li>Gras, Norman. <a href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2845579">A History of Agriculture in Europe and America</a>, (F.S. Crofts, 1925)</li>
<li>Gray, L.C. History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860 (P. Smith, 1933) <a href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;cc=chla;q1=gray;rgn=book%20author;view=toc;idno=2944804_1944">Volume I online</a>; <a href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;cc=chla;q1=gray;rgn=book%20author;view=toc;idno=2944804_1945">Vol. 2</a></li>
<li>Hart, John Fraser. The Changing Scale of American Agriculture. (University of Virginia Press, 2004)</li>
<li>Hurt, R. Douglas. American Agriculture: A Brief History (Purdue UP, 2002)</li>
<li>Mundlak, Yair (2005). "Economic Growth: Lessons from Two Centuries of American Agriculture". Journal of Economic Literature. 43 (4): 989–1024. <a href="/facts/CiteSeerX_(identifier)/SceDmd3c">CiteSeerX</a> <a href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.582.8537">10.1.1.582.8537</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2F002205105775362005">10.1257/002205105775362005</a>.</li>
<li>O'Sullivan, Robin. American Organic: A Cultural History of Farming, Gardening, Shopping, and Eating (University Press of Kansas, 2015)</li>
<li>Rasmussen, Wayne D., ed. Readings in the history of American agriculture (University of Illinois Press, 1960)</li>
<li>Robert, Joseph C. <a href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=3136323">The story of tobacco in America</a> (University of North Carolina Press, 1949)</li>
<li>Russell, Howard. A Long Deep Furrow: Three Centuries of Farming In New England (UP of New England, 1981)</li>
<li>Russell, Peter A. How Agriculture Made Canada: Farming in the Nineteenth Century (McGill-Queen's UP, 2012)</li>
<li>Schafer, Joseph. <a href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2712484">The social history of American agriculture</a> (Da Capo, 1970 [1936])</li>
<li>Schlebecker John T. Whereby we thrive: A history of American farming, 1607–1972 (Iowa State UP, 1972)</li>
<li>Weeden, William Babcock. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JUJaNzIMr44C&pg=PA1">Economic and Social History of New England, 1620–1789</a> (Houghton, Mifflin, 1891)</li></ul>
<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>
<ul><li><a href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/">"The Core Historical Literature of Agriculture"</a> from <a href="/facts/Cornell_University_Library/96DawNc6">Cornell University Library</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">"The Development of Agriculture". National Geographic. 2022-07-08. Archived from the original on 2023-01-30. Retrieved 2023-01-30. <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/development-agriculture" target="_blank">https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/development-agriculture</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Mercader, J. (December 2009). "Mozambican grass seed consumption during the Middle Stone Age". Science. 326 (5960): 1680–1683. Bibcode:2009Sci...326.1680M. doi:10.1126/science.1173966. PMID 20019285. S2CID 44865552. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Snir, Ainit (2015). "The Origin of Cultivation and Proto-Weeds, Long before Neolithic Farming". PLOS ONE. 10 (7): e0131422. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1031422S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0131422. PMC 4511808. PMID 26200895. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4511808" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4511808</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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</ol>

History of agriculture open-in-new

History of agriculture