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<h2 id="etymology">Etymology</h2> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Beowulf_and_Middle-earth/dHM3kqS1">Beowulf and Middle-earth</a></p> <p>The Anglo-Saxon word <i>orc</i>, which Tolkien used, is generally thought to be derived from the <a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Latin</a> word/name <i>Orcus</i>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> though Tolkien expressed doubt about this.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> The term <i>orcus</i> is glossed as "<i>orc, þyrs, oððe hel-deofol</i>"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> ("Goblin, spectre, or hell-devil") in the 10th century <a href="/facts/Old_English/9rsmQG2a">Old English</a> <i><a href="/facts/Cleopatra_Glossaries/AbqcpJTn">Cleopatra Glossaries</a></i>, about which <a href="/facts/Thomas_Wright_(antiquarian)/rYMBFsuc">Thomas Wright</a> wrote: "<a href="/facts/Orcus/3X41fFyr">Orcus</a> was the name for <a href="/facts/Pluto_(mythology)/o89QounF">Pluto</a>, the god of the infernal regions, hence we can easily understand the explanation of <i><a href="/facts/Hell/2nIkoYTB">hel</a>-<a href="/facts/Devil/4FBx2qpz">deofol</a></i>. <i>Orc</i>, in Anglo-Saxon, like <i><a href="/facts/J%25C3%25B6tunn/B1DenNuW">thyrs</a></i>, means a spectre, or goblin."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p><p>The term is used just once in <i><a href="/facts/Beowulf/hqbQ7cCQ">Beowulf</a></i>, as the plural compound <i>orcneas</i>, in the sense of a tribe of monstrous beings descended from <a href="/facts/Cain/5U5vXdYK">Cain</a>, alongside the <a href="/facts/Elf/7GB9V6qp">elves</a> and <a href="/facts/J%25C3%25B6tunn/B1DenNuW">ettins</a> (giants), who were condemned by God: </p> <table><tbody><tr><td><i>þanon untydras ealle onwocon</i><i>eotenas ond ylfe ond orcneas</i><i>swylce gigantas þa wið gode wunnon</i><i>lange þrage he him ðæs lean forgeald</i>—<i>Beowulf</i>, Fitt I, vv. 111–14<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a></td><td>Thence all evil broods were born,ogres and elves and evil spirits—the giants also, who long time fought with God,for which he gave them their reward—<a href="/facts/John_Richard_Clark_Hall/qIXjtmGM">John R. Clark Hall</a>, tr. (1901)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The meaning of <i>Orcneas</i> is uncertain. <a href="/facts/Frederick_Klaeber/K8pfVYbw">Frederick Klaeber</a> suggested it consisted of <i>orc</i> < L. <i>orcus</i> "the underworld" + <i>neas</i> "corpses", to which the translation "evil spirits" failed to do justice.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> It is generally supposed to contain an element <i>-né</i>, cognate to <a href="/facts/Gothic_language/14Hrn0o2">Gothic</a> <i>naus</i> and <a href="/facts/Old_Norse/3dIvgsm5">Old Norse</a> <i>nár</i>, both meaning 'corpse'.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> If <i>*orcné</i> is to be glossed as <i>orcus</i> 'corpse', then the compound word can be construed as "demon-corpses",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> or "corpse from Orcus (i.e. the underworld)".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> Hence <i>orc-neas</i> may have been some sort of <a href="/facts/Undead/Gcj3IwQ5">walking dead</a> monster, a product of ancient <a href="/facts/Necromancy/NLkPGRxI">necromancy</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> or a <a href="/facts/Zombie/LR5MoBP8">zombie</a>-like creature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="tolkien">Tolkien</h2> <p>The term "orc" is used only once in the first edition of Tolkien's 1937 <i><a href="/facts/The_Hobbit/Tt5fpB1m">The Hobbit</a></i>, which preferred the term "goblins". "Orc" was later used ubiquitously in <i>The Lord of the Rings</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> The "orc-" element occurs in the sword name <a href="/facts/Orcrist/Y7weesRW">Orcrist</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> which is given as its Elvish language name,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> and glossed as "Goblin-cleaver".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> </p> <h3>Stated etymology</h3> <p>Tolkien began the more modern use of the English term "orc" to denote a race of <a href="/facts/Evil_in_Middle-earth/1MQCxq8T">evil</a> humanoid beings. His earliest <a href="/facts/Elvish_language/hbRJlh1G">Elvish</a> dictionaries include the entry <i>Ork (orq-)</i> "monster", "ogre", "demon", together with <i>orqindi</i> and "ogresse". He sometimes used the plural form <i>orqui</i> in his early texts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> He stated that the Elvish words for orc were derived from a root <i>ruku</i>, "fear, horror"; in <a href="/facts/Quenya/ahhAHBkb">Quenya</a>, <i>orco</i>, plural <i>orkor</i>; in <a href="/facts/Sindarin/8VhrCuh6">Sindarin</a> <i>orch</i>, plurals <i>yrch</i> and <i>Orchoth</i> (as a class).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> They had similar names in other <a href="/facts/Middle-earth/HCQrvKQe">Middle-earth</a> languages: <i>uruk</i> in Black Speech;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> in the language of the Drúedain <i>gorgûn</i>, "ork-folk"; in <a href="/facts/Khuzdul/JLWst9lT">Khuzdul</a> <i>rukhs</i>, plural <i>rakhâs</i>; and in the language of Rohan and in the <a href="/facts/Westron/w0gEl7eo">Common Speech</a>, <i>orka</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> </p><p>Tolkien stated in a <a href="/facts/The_Letters_of_J._R._R._Tolkien/Idx2k23C">letter</a> to the novelist <a href="/facts/Naomi_Mitchison/0VKR5Y6n">Naomi Mitchison</a> that his orcs had been influenced by <a href="/facts/George_MacDonald/U7DEbqPR">George MacDonald</a>'s <i><a href="/facts/The_Princess_and_the_Goblin/vdUqgmJV">The Princess and the Goblin</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> He explained that his word "orc" was "derived from Old English <i>orc</i> 'demon', but only because of its phonetic suitability",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> and </p> <blockquote><p>I originally took the word from Old English <i>orc</i> (<i>Beowulf</i> 112 <i>orc-neas</i> and the gloss <i>orc</i>: <i>þyrs</i> ('ogre'), <i>heldeofol</i> ('hell-devil')).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> This is supposed not to be connected with <a href="/facts/Modern_English/etWbLYRj">modern English</a> <i>orc</i>, <i>ork</i>, a name applied to various sea-beasts of the dolphin order".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a></p></blockquote> <p>Tolkien also observed a similarity with the <a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Latin</a> word <i><a href="/facts/Orcus/3X41fFyr">orcus</a></i>, noting that "the word used in translation of Q[uenya] <i>urko</i>, S[indarin] <i>orch</i> is Orc. But that is because of the similarity of the ancient English word <i>orc</i>, 'evil spirit or bogey', to the Elvish words. There is possibly no connection between them".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> </p> <h3>Description</h3> <p>Orcs are of human shape, and of varying size.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> They are depicted as ugly and filthy, with a taste for human flesh. They are fanged, bow-legged and long-armed. Most are small and avoid daylight.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> </p><p>By the <a href="/facts/Third_Age/JcID0C1T">Third Age</a>, a new breed of orc had emerged, the Uruk-hai, larger and more powerful, and no longer afraid of daylight.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> Orcs eat meat, including the flesh of <a href="/facts/Men_(Middle-earth)/6VfBb9T0">Men</a>, and may indulge in <a href="/facts/Human_cannibalism/hHsL6AuD">cannibalism</a>: in <i><a href="/facts/The_Two_Towers/EsmGe6lb">The Two Towers</a></i>, Grishnákh, an orc from <a href="/facts/Mordor/Goa0Eh16">Mordor</a>, claims that the <a href="/facts/Isengard/aePdCwVJ">Isengard</a> orcs eat orc-flesh. Whether that is true or spoken in malice is uncertain: an orc flings <a href="/facts/Peregrin_Took/xd9NSDK8">Peregrin Took</a> stale bread and a "strip of raw dried flesh ... the flesh of he dared not guess what creature".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> </p><p>Half-orcs appear in <i>The Lord of the Rings</i>, created by interbreeding of orcs and Men;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> they were able to go in sunlight.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> The "sly Southerner" in <i>The Fellowship of the Ring</i> looks "more than half like a goblin";<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> similar but more orc-like hybrids appear in <i>The Two Towers</i> "man-high, but with goblin-faces, sallow, leering, squint-eyed."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> </p> <p>In <a href="/facts/Peter_Jackson/bBA5NchM">Peter Jackson</a>'s <a href="/facts/Lord_of_The_Rings_(film_franchise)/LR5Q0xn9"><i>Lord of the Rings</i> films</a>, the actors playing orcs are made up with masks designed to make them look evil. After a disagreement with the film producer <a href="/facts/Harvey_Weinstein/ezQPdTzS">Harvey Weinstein</a>, Jackson had one of the masks made to resemble Weinstein, as an insult to him.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> </p> <h3>Orkish language</h3> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Black_Speech/9qACMqKV">Black Speech</a></p> <p>The Orcs had no language of their own, merely a pidgin of many various languages. However, individual tribes developed dialects that differed so widely that <a href="/facts/Westron/w0gEl7eo">Westron</a>, often with a crude accent, was used as a common language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> When <a href="/facts/Sauron/Jat03nTw">Sauron</a> returned to power in Mordor in the <a href="/facts/Third_Age/JcID0C1T">Third Age</a>, Black Speech was used by the captains of his armies and by his servants in his tower of <a href="/facts/Barad-d%25C3%25BBr/M6J22ybq">Barad-dûr</a>. A sample of debased Black Speech can be found in <i><a href="/facts/The_Two_Towers/EsmGe6lb">The Two Towers</a></i>, where a "yellow-fanged" guard Orc of Mordor curses Uglúk of Isengard (an Uruk-hai chief) with the words "Uglúk u bagronk sha pushdug Saruman-glob búbhosh skai!" In <i><a href="/facts/The_Peoples_of_Middle-earth/tzXqhIsC">The Peoples of Middle-earth</a></i>, Tolkien gives the translation: "Uglúk to the cesspool, sha! the dungfilth; the great Saruman-fool, skai!"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> However, in a note published in <i><a href="/facts/Vinyar_Tengwar/mTuRrfWb">Vinyar Tengwar</a></i> he gives an alternative translation: "Uglúk to the dung-pit with stinking Saruman-filth, pig-guts, gah!"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> Alexander Nemirovsky [ru] speculated that Tolkien might have drawn upon the language of the ancient <a href="/facts/Hittites/jqG8LbLK">Hittites</a> and <a href="/facts/Hurrians/x0FD6nay">Hurrians</a> for Black Speech.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> </p> <h3>In-fiction origins</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Tolkien%2527s_moral_dilemma/NvoKjDhY">Tolkien's moral dilemma</a></p> <p>The origins of orcs were explained in multiple inconsistent ways by Tolkien.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> Early works depict them as creations of <a href="/facts/Morgoth/b9JsEtWs">Morgoth</a>, mimicking the forms of the Children of Ilúvatar.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> Alternatively, as in <i>The Silmarillion</i>, they may have been <a href="/facts/Elf_(Middle-earth)/FccW53tg">East Elves</a>, enslaved, tortured, and bred by Morgoth;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> or, perhaps the <a href="/facts/Avari_(Middle-earth)/eUrqjRXx">Avari</a>, the Elves who refused to go to <a href="/facts/Aman_(Middle-earth)/S1D14dCm">Aman</a>, turned "evil and savage in the wild".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> </p><p>The orcs "multiplied" like Elves and Men, meaning that they <a href="/facts/Sexual_reproduction/hmsXy53s">reproduced sexually</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> Tolkien stated in a letter dated 21 October 1963 to a Mrs. Munsby that "there must have been orc-women".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> In <i><a href="/facts/The_Fall_of_Gondolin/vt43BAdg">The Fall of Gondolin</a></i> Morgoth made them of slime by sorcery, "bred from the heats and slimes of the earth".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> Or, they were "<i>beasts</i> of humanized shape": possibly Elves mated with beasts, and later Men.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> Elsewhere, Tolkien wrote that they could have been fallen <a href="/facts/Maia_(Middle-earth)/bIMrpkAz">Maiar</a> – perhaps a kind called <i>Boldog</i>, like lesser <a href="/facts/Balrog/aBfQHVns">Balrogs</a> – or corrupted Men.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> </p><p>Shippey writes that the orcs in <i>The Lord of the Rings</i> were almost certainly created just to equip Middle-earth with a continual supply of enemies who one could kill without compunction,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> or in Tolkien's words from <i><a href="/facts/The_Monsters_and_the_Critics/LeLv58o3">The Monsters and the Critics</a></i> to serve as "the infantry of the old war" ready to be slaughtered.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a> Shippey states that orcs nevertheless share the human concept of good and evil, with a familiar sense of <a href="/facts/Morality/CSjHHvff">morality</a>, though he notes that, like many people, orcs are quite unable to apply their morals to themselves. Shippey suggests that Tolkien, as a Catholic, took it as a given that "evil cannot make, only mock", so orcs could not have an equal and opposite morality to that of men or elves.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> In a 1954 letter, Tolkien wrote that orcs were "fundamentally a race of 'rational incarnate' creatures, though horribly corrupted, if no more so than many Men to be met today".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> The scholar of English literature <a href="/facts/Robert_Tally/LPpQ8o6E">Robert Tally</a> wrote in <i><a href="/facts/Mythlore/vQA3wDaK">Mythlore</a></i> that despite the uniform presentation of orcs as "loathsome, ugly, cruel, feared, and especially terminable", Tolkien could not resist "the urge to flesh out and 'humanize' these inhuman creatures from time to time", in the process giving them their own morality.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> Shippey notes that in <i>The Two Towers</i>, the orc Gorbag disapproves of the "regular elvish trick" (an immoral act) of abandoning a comrade, as he wrongly supposes <a href="/facts/Sam_Gamgee/bh8PtDjC">Sam Gamgee</a> has done to <a href="/facts/Frodo_Baggins/fQ3CvWH0">Frodo Baggins</a>. Shippey describes the implied concept of evil as <a href="/facts/Boethian/9k2rqLps">Boethian</a> – that evil is the absence of good. He notes, however, that Tolkien did not agree with that concept of evil; Tolkien believed that evil had to be actively fought, with war if necessary. That is something that Shippey describes as representing the <a href="/facts/Manichean/fUWQUj6q">Manichean</a> position – that evil coexists with good, and is at least equally as powerful.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> </p> The origins and morality of Orcs: the Catholic Tolkien's dilemma<table><tbody><tr><th></th><th scope="col">Created evil?</th><th scope="col">Like animals?</th><th scope="col">Created good, but fallen?</th></tr><tr><td>Origin of orcsaccording to Tolkien</td><td>"Brooded" by <a href="/facts/Morgoth/b9JsEtWs">Morgoth</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a></td><td>"Beasts of humanized shape"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a></td><td>Fallen <a href="/facts/Maia_(Middle-earth)/bIMrpkAz">Maiar</a>, or corrupted Men/Elves<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Moral implication</td><td>Orcs are wholly <a href="/facts/Evil/hentrls5">evil</a> (unlike Men).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a></td><td>Orcs have no power of <a href="/facts/Speech/WEelhfTs">speech</a> and <a href="/facts/Morality/CSjHHvff">morality</a>.</td><td>Orcs have morality just like Men.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Resulting problem</td><td colspan="2">Orcs like Gorbag have a moral sense (even if they cannot keep to it) and can speak, which conflicts with their being wholly evil or not even sentient. Since evil cannot make, only mock, orcs cannot have an equal and opposite morality to Men.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a></td><td>Orcs should be treated with mercy, where possible.</td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Orcs and race</h3> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Tolkien_and_race/y3gPpd8n">Tolkien and race</a></p> <p>Writers including Andrew O'Hehir and the literary critic Jenny Turner have likened Tolkien's descriptions of orcs to racial stereotypes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a> In a private letter, Tolkien describes orcs as:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> </p> <blockquote><p>squat, broad, flat-nosed, sallow-skinned, with wide mouths and slant eyes: in fact degraded and repulsive versions of the (to Europeans) least lovely Mongol-types.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a></p></blockquote> <p>Writing for <a href="/facts/Salon.com/xMmIfyXQ">Salon.com</a>, the journalist Andrew O'Hehir describes Tolkien's orcs as "a subhuman race [...] that is morally irredeemable and deserves only death". He adds that they are "dark-skinned and slant-eyed, and although they possess reason, speech, social organization and, as Shippey mentions, a sort of moral sensibility, they are inherently evil."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> O'Hehir concludes that while Tolkien's own description of orcs is a revealing representation of the "<a href="/facts/Other_(philosophy)/ar6kEVTe">Other</a>", it is "also the product of his background and era" and that Tolkien was not consciously "a racist or an <a href="/facts/Anti-Semite/kUpfFkqx">anti-Semite</a>", mentioning Tolkien's letters to this effect.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a> Turner, in the <i><a href="/facts/London_Review_of_Books/fxaXVJzS">London Review of Books</a></i>, repeats O'Hehir's statement that orcs are "by design and intention a northern European's paranoid caricature of the races he has dimly heard about", and adds similar caveats, writing: "Tolkien does not appear to have been half as crackers on these topics [of race and race purity] as many others were. He sublimated the anxieties, perhaps, in his books."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a> </p><p>Tally says the orcs are a <a href="/facts/Demonization_of_enemy/qBomgwj5">demonized enemy</a>, despite Tolkien's own objections to demonization of the enemy in the two World Wars.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a> In a letter to his son, <a href="/facts/Christopher_Tolkien/fIM8mUU5">Christopher</a>, who was serving in the <a href="/facts/Royal_Air_Force/P10CbL5H">RAF</a> in the Second World War, Tolkien wrote of orcs as appearing on both sides of the conflict: </p> <blockquote><p>Yes, I think the orcs as real a creation as anything in 'realistic' fiction ... only in real life they are on both sides, of course. For 'romance' has grown out of 'allegory', and its wars are still derived from the 'inner war' of allegory in which good is on one side and various modes of badness on the other. In real (exterior) life men are on both sides: which means a motley alliance of orcs, beasts, demons, plain naturally honest men, and angels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a></p></blockquote> <p>Scholars of English literature William N. Rogers II and Michael R. Underwood note that a widespread element of late 19th century Western culture was fear of moral decline and degeneration; this led to <a href="/facts/Eugenics/e7w6aSUV">eugenics</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a> In <i>The Two Towers</i>, the <a href="/facts/Ent/6shkaQCt">Ent</a> <a href="/facts/Treebeard/PEYUH17S">Treebeard</a> says:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a> </p> <blockquote><p>It is a mark of evil things that came in the Great Darkness that they cannot abide the Sun; but <a href="/facts/Saruman/cUT08FUA">Saruman</a>'s orcs can endure it, even if they hate it. I wonder what he has done? Are they <a href="/facts/Men_(Middle-earth)/6VfBb9T0">Men</a> he has ruined, or has he blended the races of orcs and Men? That would be a black evil!<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a></p></blockquote> <p>The journalist David Ibata writes that the interpretations of orcs in <a href="/facts/Peter_Jackson/bBA5NchM">Peter Jackson</a>'s <a href="/facts/Lord_of_The_Rings_(film_franchise)/LR5Q0xn9"><i>Lord of the Rings</i> films</a> look much like "the worst depictions of the Japanese drawn by American and British illustrators during <a href="/facts/World_War_II/2efV5L1U">World War II</a>".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a> The Germanic studies scholar <a href="/facts/Sandra_Ballif_Straubhaar/kucvWcnJ">Sandra Ballif Straubhaar</a> writes that there is evidence in Tolkien's writing of "a kind of racism perhaps not unremarkable in a mid-twentieth century Western man", but that this is often overstated, and must be balanced against the "polycultured, polylingual world" that is "absolutely central" to Middle-earth, as well as Tolkien's own "appalled objection" to those seeking to use his work to uphold racist ideas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="other-fiction">Other fiction</h2> <p>As a response to the type-casting of orcs as generic evil characters or antagonists, some novels portray events from the point of view of the orcs, or make them more sympathetic characters. <a href="/facts/Mary_Gentle/HUSKTIfT">Mary Gentle</a>'s 1992 novel <i><a href="/facts/Grunts!/elMSTxup">Grunts!</a></i> presents orcs as generic infantry, used as metaphorical cannon-fodder.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a> A series of books by <a href="/facts/Stan_Nicholls/XzSlPpls">Stan Nicholls</a>, <i><a href="/facts/Orcs%3a_First_Blood/CjkVbVRt">Orcs: First Blood</a></i>, focuses on the conflicts between orcs and humans from the orcs' point of view.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a> In <a href="/facts/Terry_Pratchett/N7RAL6zr">Terry Pratchett</a>'s <i><a href="/facts/Discworld/N9cMfEX0">Discworld</a></i> series, orcs are close to extinction; in his <i><a href="/facts/Unseen_Academicals/DwhcN4zP">Unseen Academicals</a></i>, it is said that "When the Evil Emperor wanted fighters he got some of the Igors to turn goblins into orcs" to be used as weapons in a Great War, "encouraged" by whips and beatings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="in-games">In games</h2> <p>Orcs based on <i>The Lord of the Rings</i> have become a fixture of <a href="/facts/Fantasy/gkujmhJg">fantasy</a> fiction and <a href="/facts/Role-playing_game/bN0QjhPs">role-playing games</a>. </p> <h3><i>Dungeons & Dragons</i></h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Orc_(Dungeons_%2526_Dragons)/PMVplCFa">Orc (Dungeons & Dragons)</a></p> <p>In the fantasy tabletop role-playing game <i><a href="/facts/Dungeons_%2526_Dragons/1FQKcQSL">Dungeons & Dragons</a></i> (<i>D&D</i>), orcs are creatures in the game, and somewhat based upon those described by Tolkien.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a> These <i>D&D</i> orcs are implemented in the game rules as a multi-<a href="/facts/Tribe/Jn8tFmPf">tribed</a> race of hostile and bestial <a href="/facts/Humanoid/hTPy3T6J">humanoids</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a> </p><p>The <i>D&D</i> orcs are endowed with muscular frames, large canine teeth like boar's tusks, and snouts rather than human-like noses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110"><sup>110</sup></a> While a pug-nose ("flat-nosed"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111"><sup>111</sup></a>) was attributable to Tolkien's written correspondence, the pig-headed (pig-faced<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112"><sup>112</sup></a>) look was imparted on the orc by the <i>D&D</i> original edition (1974).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113"><sup>113</sup></a> It was later modified from bald-headed to hairy in subsequent editions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114"><sup>114</sup></a> In the third version of the game the orc became gray-skinned,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115"><sup>115</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116"><sup>116</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117"><sup>117</sup></a> even though a complicated color-palleted description of a (non-gray) orc had been implemented in the <i><a href="/facts/Monster_Manual/uGjjBX0e">Monster Manual</a></i> for the first edition (1977).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118"><sup>118</sup></a> Newer versions seem to have dropped references to skin-color.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119"><sup>119</sup></a> </p><p>Early versions of the game introduced the "half-orc" as race.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120"><sup>120</sup></a> The orc was described in the first edition of <i>Monster Manual</i> (<i><a href="/facts/Op._cit./ldpXjFla">op. cit.</a></i>), as a fiercely competitive bully, a tribal creature often dwelling and building underground;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121"><sup>121</sup></a> in newer editions, orcs (though still described as sometimes inhabiting cavern complexes) had been shifted to become more prone to non-subterranean habitation as well, adapting captured villages into communities, for instance.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122"><sup>122</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123"><sup>123</sup></a> The mythology and attitudes of the orcs are described in detail in <i><a href="/facts/Dragon_(magazine)/8tzJHJec">Dragon</a></i> #62 (June 1982), in <a href="/facts/Roger_E._Moore/x4CbY9Bh">Roger E. Moore</a>'s article, "The Half-Orc Point of View".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124"><sup>124</sup></a> </p><p>The orc for the <i>D&D</i> offshoot <i><a href="/facts/Pathfinder_RPG/5fnBUCsc">Pathfinder RPG</a></i> are detailed in the 2008 book <i>Classic Monsters Revisited</i> issued by the game's publisher <a href="/facts/Paizo_Publishing/sGlAuvkz">Paizo</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125"><sup>125</sup></a> </p> <h3><i>Warhammer</i></h3> <p><a href="/facts/Games_Workshop/zMc0gy2l">Games Workshop</a>'s <i><a href="/facts/Warhammer_Fantasy_(setting)/BHEkMsaB">Warhammer</a></i> universe features cunning and brutal orcs in a fantasy setting, who are driven not so much by a need to do evil as to obtain fulfilment through the act of war.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126"><sup>126</sup></a> In the <i><a href="/facts/Warhammer_40%2c000/5RNFJfFm">Warhammer 40,000</a></i> series of science-fiction games, they are a green-skinned alien species, called <a href="/facts/Ork_(Warhammer_40%2c000)/Squnv4zt">Orks</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127"><sup>127</sup></a> </p> <h3><i>Warcraft</i></h3> <p><a href="/facts/Orc_(Warcraft)/IaybNgwa">Orcs</a> are an important race in <i><a href="/facts/Warcraft/MYYjIyuD">Warcraft</a></i>, a high fantasy franchise created by <a href="/facts/Blizzard_Entertainment/aK5GGcN7">Blizzard Entertainment</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128"><sup>128</sup></a> Several orc characters from the <i>Warcraft</i> universe are playable heroes in their crossover multiplayer game <i><a href="/facts/Heroes_of_the_Storm/WDHfRMtq">Heroes of the Storm</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129"><sup>129</sup></a> </p> <h3>Other products</h3> <p>The orc features in numerous <i><a href="/facts/Magic%3a_The_Gathering/opgT6NDV">Magic: The Gathering</a></i> collectible cards, in the 1993 game series published by <a href="/facts/Wizards_of_the_Coast/QNYRhAT8">Wizards of the Coast</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130"><sup>130</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131"><sup>131</sup></a> </p><p>In <i><a href="/facts/The_Elder_Scrolls/KALTlW1f">The Elder Scrolls</a></i> series, many orcs or Orsimer are skilled blacksmiths.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132"><sup>132</sup></a> In <a href="/facts/Hasbro/WYS1bW6P">Hasbro</a>'s <i><a href="/facts/Heroscape/8lqmh4g1">Heroscape</a></i> products, orcs come from the pre-historic planet Grut.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133"><sup>133</sup></a> They are blue-skinned, with prominent tusks or horns.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134"><sup>134</sup></a> The Skylander Voodood from the first game in the series, <i><a href="/facts/Skylanders%3a_Spyro%2527s_Adventure/sYUzmxgb">Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure</a></i>, is an orc.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135"><sup>135</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Haradrim/Y9lD11lM">Haradrim</a> – the dark-skinned "Southrons" who fought for Sauron alongside the orcs</li> <li><a href="/facts/Orc_(slang)/DDV073eF">Orc (slang)</a> – the modern pejorative usage of the word</li> <li><a href="/facts/Troll_(Middle-earth)/7PAtIbL0">Troll (Middle-earth)</a> – large humanoids of great strength and poor intellect, also used by Sauron</li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h3>Primary</h3> <h3>Secondary</h3> <h3>Sources</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Joseph_Bosworth/Co7YYF3D">Bosworth, Joseph</a>; Toller, T. Northcote (1898). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oXlii1KgDngC&pg=PA764"><i>An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary</i></a>. Vol. 1 A-Fir. <a href="/facts/Clarendon_Press/CYyTzzWG">Clarendon Press</a>. p. 764.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Humphrey_Carpenter/oWXMXVJb">Carpenter, Humphrey</a>, ed. (2023) [1981]. <i><a href="/facts/The_Letters_of_J._R._R._Tolkien/Idx2k23C">The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien</a>: Revised and Expanded Edition</i>. New York: <a href="/facts/Harper_Collins/HHLz5lk5">Harper Collins</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-35-865298-4.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Frederick_Klaeber/K8pfVYbw">Klaeber, Friedrich</a> (1950). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pEUkrusVxRIC"><i>Beowulf and the Finnesburg Fragment</i></a>. Translated by <a href="/facts/John_Richard_Clark_Hall/qIXjtmGM">John R. Clark Hall</a> (3 ed.). <a href="/facts/Allen_%2526_Unwin/lF35ffrf">Allen & Unwin</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Jared_Lobdell/XJIhxcDK">Lobdell, Jared</a>, ed. (1975). <i><a href="/facts/A_Tolkien_Compass/9l3Grwdr">A Tolkien Compass</a></i>. Open Court. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-87548-316-0.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Esther_MacCallum-Stewart/bKD0ovWM">MacCallum-Stewart, Esther</a> (2008). "2: 'Never Such Innocence Again': War and Histories in <i>World of Warcraft</i>". In Corneliussen, Hilde; <a href="/facts/Jill_Walker_Rettberg/SRBxKbRx">Rettberg, Jill Walker</a> (eds.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RMsgSX2JWbAC&q=orc"><i>Digital Culture, Play, and Identity: A World of Warcraft Reader</i></a>. MIT Press. pp. 39–62. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780262033701.</li> <li>Magoun, John F. G. (2006). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=by0dzzQ6m8sC&pg=PA622">"South, The"</a>. In <a href="/facts/Michael_D._C._Drout/oMMP05x2">Drout, Michael D. C.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/facts/The_J._R._R._Tolkien_Encyclopedia/Ej4jDPEg">The J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia: Scholarship and Critical Assessment</a></i>. <a href="/facts/Routledge/aSwcES11">Routledge</a>. pp. 622–623. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 1-135-88034-4.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Ilan_Mitchell-Smith/Qj8W8Ekd">Mitchell-Smith, Ilan</a> (May 2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ar1yUk0aDS8C&pg=PA219">"11: Racial Determinism and the Interlocking Economics of Power and Violence in Dungeons & Dragons"</a>. In Harden, B. Garrick; Carley, Robert (eds.). <i>Co-opting Culture</i>. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 219. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7391-2597-7.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Tom_Shippey/eH2wJlA5">Shippey, Tom</a> (2001). <a href="/facts/J._R._R._Tolkien%3a_Author_of_the_Century/eqWVCFy5"><i>J. R. R. Tolkien: Author of the Century</i></a>. <a href="/facts/HarperCollins/HHLz5lk5">HarperCollins</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0261-10401-3.</li> <li></li> <li><a href="/facts/Tom_Shippey/eH2wJlA5">Shippey, Tom</a> (2005) [1982]. <a href="/facts/The_Road_to_Middle-Earth/MLf1TFH2"><i>The Road to Middle-Earth: How J. R. R. Tolkien Created a New Mythology</i></a> (Third ed.). <a href="/facts/HarperCollins/HHLz5lk5">HarperCollins</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-261-10275-0.</li> <li>Stuart, Robert (2022). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t0hrEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA133"><i>Tolkien, Race, and Racism in Middle-earth</i></a>. Springer Nature. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-030-97475-6.</li> <li>Young, Helen (2015). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FvlWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88">"4. Orcs and Otherness: Monsters on Page and Screen"</a>. <i>Race and Popular Fantasy Literature: Habits of Whiteness</i>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 88–113. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781317532170.</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/facts/J._R._R._Tolkien/41HPhk5C">Tolkien, J. R. R.</a> (1937). <a href="/facts/Douglas_A._Anderson/StNWYp7b">Douglas A. Anderson</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/facts/The_Annotated_Hobbit/bWm0yQW5">The Annotated Hobbit</a></i>. Boston: <a href="/facts/Houghton_Mifflin/byG66zxw">Houghton Mifflin</a> (published 2002). <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-618-13470-0. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</li> <li><a href="/facts/J._R._R._Tolkien/41HPhk5C">Tolkien, J. R. R.</a> (1954a). <i><a href="/facts/The_Fellowship_of_the_Ring/7weHJwBP">The Fellowship of the Ring</a></i>. <i><a href="/facts/The_Lord_of_the_Rings/aS5RH7YT">The Lord of the Rings</a></i>. Boston: <a href="/facts/Houghton_Mifflin/byG66zxw">Houghton Mifflin</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9552942">9552942</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/J._R._R._Tolkien/41HPhk5C">Tolkien, J. R. R.</a> (1954). <i><a href="/facts/The_Two_Towers/EsmGe6lb">The Two Towers</a></i>. <i><a href="/facts/The_Lord_of_the_Rings/aS5RH7YT">The Lord of the Rings</a></i>. Boston: <a href="/facts/Houghton_Mifflin/byG66zxw">Houghton Mifflin</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042159111">1042159111</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/J._R._R._Tolkien/41HPhk5C">Tolkien, J. R. R.</a> (1955). <i><a href="/facts/The_Return_of_the_King/XR7IHHJe">The Return of the King</a></i>. <i><a href="/facts/The_Lord_of_the_Rings/aS5RH7YT">The Lord of the Rings</a></i>. Boston: <a href="/facts/Houghton_Mifflin/byG66zxw">Houghton Mifflin</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/519647821">519647821</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/J._R._R._Tolkien/41HPhk5C">Tolkien, J. R. R.</a> (1977). <a href="/facts/Christopher_Tolkien/fIM8mUU5">Christopher Tolkien</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/facts/The_Silmarillion/v3g2SWpm">The Silmarillion</a></i>. Boston: <a href="/facts/Houghton_Mifflin/byG66zxw">Houghton Mifflin</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-395-25730-2.</li> <li><a href="/facts/J._R._R._Tolkien/41HPhk5C">Tolkien, J. R. R.</a> (1984b). <a href="/facts/Christopher_Tolkien/fIM8mUU5">Christopher Tolkien</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/facts/The_Book_of_Lost_Tales/fqBXNyaz">The Book of Lost Tales</a></i>. Vol. 2. Boston: <a href="/facts/Houghton_Mifflin/byG66zxw">Houghton Mifflin</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-395-36614-3.</li> <li><a href="/facts/J._R._R._Tolkien/41HPhk5C">Tolkien, J. R. R.</a> (1993). <a href="/facts/Christopher_Tolkien/fIM8mUU5">Christopher Tolkien</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/facts/Morgoth%2527s_Ring/fxlC05VA">Morgoth's Ring</a></i>. Boston: <a href="/facts/Houghton_Mifflin/byG66zxw">Houghton Mifflin</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-395-68092-1.</li> <li><a href="/facts/J._R._R._Tolkien/41HPhk5C">Tolkien, J. R. R.</a> (1994). <a href="/facts/Christopher_Tolkien/fIM8mUU5">Christopher Tolkien</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/facts/The_War_of_the_Jewels/HKEWpx1q">The War of the Jewels</a></i>. Boston: <a href="/facts/Houghton_Mifflin/byG66zxw">Houghton Mifflin</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-395-71041-3.</li> <li><a href="/facts/J._R._R._Tolkien/41HPhk5C">Tolkien, J. R. R.</a> (1996). <a href="/facts/Christopher_Tolkien/fIM8mUU5">Christopher Tolkien</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/facts/The_Peoples_of_Middle-earth/tzXqhIsC">The Peoples of Middle-earth</a></i>. Boston: <a href="/facts/Houghton_Mifflin/byG66zxw">Houghton Mifflin</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-395-82760-4.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Orcs. <ul><li><a href="https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/14.04/orcs_pr.html">9 milestones in orcs history. <i>Wired</i> magazine article</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.rpg.net/news+reviews/columns/archetypology21dec01.html">RPG.NET Article about Orcs</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Karthaus-Hunt, Beatrix (2002). "'And What Happened After': How J.R.R. Tolkien Visualized, and Other Artists Re-Visualized, the Denizens of Middle-earth". In Westfahl, Gary; Slusser, George Edgar; Plummer, Kathleen Church (eds.). Unearthly Visions: Approaches to Science Fiction and Fantasy Art. Greenwood Press. pp. 138n. ISBN 0-313-31705-4. <a href="0-313-31705-4" target="_blank">0-313-31705-4</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Lobdell 1975, p. 171. - Lobdell, Jared, ed. (1975). A Tolkien Compass. Open Court. ISBN 978-0-87548-316-0. <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>"Orc". Cambridge Dictionary. Retrieved 26 January 2020. <a href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/orc" target="_blank">https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/orc</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Shippey 2005, pp. 362, 438 (chapter 5, note 14). - Shippey, Tom (2005) [1982]. The Road to Middle-Earth: How J. R. R. Tolkien Created a New Mythology (Third ed.). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-261-10275-0. <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Schneidewind, Friedhelm (2007). "Biology of Middle-earth". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia: Scholarship and Critical Assessment. The J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-4159-6942-0. <a href="978-0-4159-6942-0" target="_blank">978-0-4159-6942-0</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Shippey 2005, p. 265. - Shippey, Tom (2005) [1982]. The Road to Middle-Earth: How J. R. R. Tolkien Created a New Mythology (Third ed.). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-261-10275-0. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Carpenter 2023, #144 to Naomi Mitchison 25 April 1954 - Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (2023) [1981]. The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien: Revised and Expanded Edition. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-35-865298-4. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Shippey, Tom (1979). "Creation from Philology in the Lord of the Rings". In Salu, Mary; Farrell, Robert T. (eds.). J. R. R. Tolkien, scholar and storyteller: Essays in Memoriam. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. p. 291. ISBN 978-0-80141-038-3. <a href="978-0-80141-038-3" target="_blank">978-0-80141-038-3</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Carpenter 2023, #290a - Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (2023) [1981]. The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien: Revised and Expanded Edition. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-35-865298-4. <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Here: "orcus [orc].. þrys ꝉ heldeofol" is the redaction given by Pheifer 1974, p. 37n but þrys appears to be a mistranscription for þyrs. The original text uses "ꝉ", the scribal abbreviation for Latin vel meaning "or", which Wright has silently expanded as Anglo-Saxon oððe. <a href="/wiki/%EA%9D%88" target="_blank">/wiki/%EA%9D%88</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Wright, Thomas (1873). A second volume of vocabularies. privately printed. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Wright_(antiquarian)" target="_blank">/wiki/Thomas_Wright_(antiquarian)</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Pheifer, J. D. (1974). Old English Glosses in the Épinal-Erfurt Glossary. Oxford University Press. pp. 37, 106. ISBN 978-0-19-811164-1.(Repr. Sandpaper Books, 1998 ISBN 0-19-811164-9), Gloss #698: orcus orc (Épinal); orci orc (Erfurt). <a href="978-0-19-811164-1" target="_blank">978-0-19-811164-1</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>The Corpus Glossary (Corpus Christi College MS. 144, late 8th to early 9th century) has the two glosses: "orcus, orc" and "orcus, ðyrs, hel-diobul.Pheifer 1974, p. 37n - Pheifer, J. D. (1974). Old English Glosses in the Épinal-Erfurt Glossary. Oxford University Press. pp. 37, 106. ISBN 978-0-19-811164-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kN5ZAAAAMAAJ&q=orcus" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=kN5ZAAAAMAAJ&q=orcus</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Klaeber 1950, p. 5. - Klaeber, Friedrich (1950). Beowulf and the Finnesburg Fragment. Translated by John R. Clark Hall (3 ed.). Allen & Unwin. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pEUkrusVxRIC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=pEUkrusVxRIC</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Klaeber 1950, p. 25 - Klaeber, Friedrich (1950). Beowulf and the Finnesburg Fragment. Translated by John R. Clark Hall (3 ed.). Allen & Unwin. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pEUkrusVxRIC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=pEUkrusVxRIC</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Klaeber 1950, p. 183: "orcneas: 'evil spirits' does not bring out all the meaning. Orcneas is compounded of orc (from the Lat. orcus "the underworld" or Hades) and neas "corpses". Necromancy was practised among the ancient Germani and was familiar among the pagan Norsemen who revived it in England when they invaded". - Klaeber, Friedrich (1950). Beowulf and the Finnesburg Fragment. Translated by John R. Clark Hall (3 ed.). Allen & Unwin. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pEUkrusVxRIC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=pEUkrusVxRIC</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Klaeber here takes orcus to be the world and not the god, as does Bosworth & Toller 1898, p. 764: "orc, es; m. The infernal regions (orcus)", though the latter seems to predicate on synthesizing the compound "Orcþyrs" by altering the reading of the Cleopatra glossaries as given by Wright's Voc. ii. that he sources. - Bosworth, Joseph; Toller, T. Northcote (1898). An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. Vol. 1 A-Fir. Clarendon Press. p. 764. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oXlii1KgDngC&pg=PA764" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=oXlii1KgDngC&pg=PA764</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Shippey, Tom (1979). "Creation from Philology in the Lord of the Rings". In Salu, Mary; Farrell, Robert T. (eds.). J. R. R. Tolkien, scholar and storyteller: Essays in Memoriam. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. p. 291. ISBN 978-0-80141-038-3. <a href="978-0-80141-038-3" target="_blank">978-0-80141-038-3</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>The usual Old English word for corpse is líc, but -né appears in nebbed 'corpse bed',[14] and in dryhtné 'dead body of a warrior', where dryht is a military unit. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Shippey 2001, p. 88. - Shippey, Tom (2001). J. R. R. Tolkien: Author of the Century. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0261-10401-3. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Klaeber 1950, p. 183: "orcneas: 'evil spirits' does not bring out all the meaning. Orcneas is compounded of orc (from the Lat. orcus "the underworld" or Hades) and neas "corpses". Necromancy was practised among the ancient Germani and was familiar among the pagan Norsemen who revived it in England when they invaded". - Klaeber, Friedrich (1950). Beowulf and the Finnesburg Fragment. Translated by John R. Clark Hall (3 ed.). Allen & Unwin. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pEUkrusVxRIC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=pEUkrusVxRIC</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Klaeber 1950, p. 183: "orcneas: 'evil spirits' does not bring out all the meaning. Orcneas is compounded of orc (from the Lat. orcus "the underworld" or Hades) and neas "corpses". Necromancy was practised among the ancient Germani and was familiar among the pagan Norsemen who revived it in England when they invaded". - Klaeber, Friedrich (1950). Beowulf and the Finnesburg Fragment. Translated by John R. Clark Hall (3 ed.). Allen & Unwin. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pEUkrusVxRIC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=pEUkrusVxRIC</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Shippey 2001, p. 88. - Shippey, Tom (2001). J. R. R. Tolkien: Author of the Century. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0261-10401-3. <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Beowulf: A Dual-language Edition. Translated by Chickering, Howell D. Anchor Books. 1977. p. 284. ISBN 978-0-3850-6213-8. <a href="978-0-3850-6213-8" target="_blank">978-0-3850-6213-8</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Gilliver, Peter; Marshall, Jeremy; Weiner, Edmund (2009). "Part III. Word Studies. Orc.". The Ring of Words: Tolkien and the Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. pp. 174–175. ISBN 978-0-19-956836-9. <a href="978-0-19-956836-9" target="_blank">978-0-19-956836-9</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Tolkien 1937, p. 149, n9 - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1937). Douglas A. Anderson (ed.). The Annotated Hobbit. Boston: Houghton Mifflin (published 2002). ISBN 978-0-618-13470-0. <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Thorin Oakenshield's Elvish sword from Gondolin. <a href="/wiki/Thorin_Oakenshield" target="_blank">/wiki/Thorin_Oakenshield</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Tolkien 1937, p. 149, n9 - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1937). Douglas A. Anderson (ed.). The Annotated Hobbit. Boston: Houghton Mifflin (published 2002). ISBN 978-0-618-13470-0. <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Gilliver, Peter; Marshall, Jeremy; Weiner, Edmund (2009). "Part III. Word Studies. Orc.". The Ring of Words: Tolkien and the Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. pp. 174–175. ISBN 978-0-19-956836-9. <a href="978-0-19-956836-9" target="_blank">978-0-19-956836-9</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Tolkien 1937, p. 62, n4 - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1937). Douglas A. Anderson (ed.). The Annotated Hobbit. Boston: Houghton Mifflin (published 2002). ISBN 978-0-618-13470-0. <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Kemball-Cook, Jessica (February 1977). "Three Notes on Names in Tolkien and Lewis". Mythprint. 15 (2): 2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4s0qAQAAIAAJ&q=%22rist%22+%22cleave%22" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4s0qAQAAIAAJ&q=%22rist%22+%22cleave%22</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Tolkien 1937, ch. 4 "Over Hill and Under Hill" - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1937). Douglas A. Anderson (ed.). The Annotated Hobbit. Boston: Houghton Mifflin (published 2002). ISBN 978-0-618-13470-0. <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Parma Eldalamberon volume XII: "Quenya Lexicon Quenya Dictionary": 'Ork' ('orq-') monster, ogre, demon. "orqindi" ogresse. [The original reading of the second entry was >'orqinan' ogresse.< Perhaps the intended meaning of the earlier form was 'region of ogres'; cf. 'kalimban', 'Hisinan'. 'The Poetic and Mythologic Words of Eldarissa' gives 'ork' 'ogre, giant' and 'orqin' 'ogress', which may be a feminine form. ...]" <a href="/wiki/Parma_Eldalamberon" target="_blank">/wiki/Parma_Eldalamberon</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Tolkien 1994, Appendix C "Elvish names for the Orcs", pp. 289–391 - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1994). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). The War of the Jewels. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-71041-3. <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Carpenter 2023, #144 to Naomi Mitchison 25 April 1954 - Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (2023) [1981]. The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien: Revised and Expanded Edition. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-35-865298-4. <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Carpenter 2023, #144 to Naomi Mitchison 25 April 1954 - Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (2023) [1981]. The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien: Revised and Expanded Edition. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-35-865298-4. <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Tolkien 1994, Appendix C "Elvish names for the Orcs", pp. 289–391 - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1994). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). The War of the Jewels. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-71041-3. <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Carpenter 2023, #144 to Naomi Mitchison 25 April 1954 - Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (2023) [1981]. The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien: Revised and Expanded Edition. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-35-865298-4. <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Carpenter 2023, #144 to Naomi Mitchison 25 April 1954 - Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (2023) [1981]. The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien: Revised and Expanded Edition. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-35-865298-4. <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Gilliver, Peter; Marshall, Jeremy; Weiner, Edmund (2009). "Part III. Word Studies. Orc.". The Ring of Words: Tolkien and the Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. pp. 174–175. ISBN 978-0-19-956836-9. <a href="978-0-19-956836-9" target="_blank">978-0-19-956836-9</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>In the Cleopatra Glossaries, Folio 69 verso; the entry is illustrated above. <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_Glossaries" target="_blank">/wiki/Cleopatra_Glossaries</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Tolkien, J. R. R. (2005). "Nomenclature of The Lord of the Rings" (PDF). In Hammond, Wayne G.; Scull, Christina (eds.). The Lord of the Rings: A Reader's Companion. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-720907-1. <a href="978-0-00-720907-1" target="_blank">978-0-00-720907-1</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Karthaus-Hunt, Beatrix (2002). "'And What Happened After': How J.R.R. Tolkien Visualized, and Other Artists Re-Visualized, the Denizens of Middle-earth". In Westfahl, Gary; Slusser, George Edgar; Plummer, Kathleen Church (eds.). Unearthly Visions: Approaches to Science Fiction and Fantasy Art. Greenwood Press. pp. 138n. ISBN 0-313-31705-4. <a href="0-313-31705-4" target="_blank">0-313-31705-4</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Tolkien 1994, Appendix C "Elvish names for the Orcs", pp. 289–391 - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1994). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). The War of the Jewels. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-71041-3. <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Tolkien 1955 book 6, ch. 1, "The Tower of Cirith Ungol" - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1955). The Return of the King. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 519647821. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/519647821" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/519647821</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Tolkien 1954, Book 3, ch. 3 "The Uruk-hai" - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954). The Two Towers. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 1042159111. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042159111" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042159111</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>Tolkien 1954, Book 3, ch. 3 "The Uruk-hai" - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954). The Two Towers. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 1042159111. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042159111" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042159111</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Tolkien 1954, Book 3, ch. 3 "The Uruk-hai" - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954). The Two Towers. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 1042159111. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042159111" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042159111</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Tolkien 1993, "Myths transformed", text X - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1993). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). Morgoth's Ring. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-68092-1. <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>Tolkien 1954, Book 3, ch. 3 "The Uruk-hai" - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954). The Two Towers. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 1042159111. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042159111" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042159111</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>Tolkien 1954a, Book 1, ch. 11 "A Knife in the Dark" - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954a). The Fellowship of the Ring. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 9552942. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9552942" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9552942</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>Tolkien 1954, Book 3, ch. 9 "Flotsam and Jetsam" - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954). The Two Towers. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 1042159111. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042159111" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042159111</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>Oladipo, Gloria (5 October 2021). "Lord of the Rings orc was modeled after Harvey Weinstein, Elijah Wood reveals". The Guardian. Retrieved 1 December 2022. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/2021/oct/05/elijah-wood-lord-of-the-rings-orc-modeled-harvey-weinstein" target="_blank">https://www.theguardian.com/film/2021/oct/05/elijah-wood-lord-of-the-rings-orc-modeled-harvey-weinstein</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Tolkien 1954, Book 3, ch. 3 "The Uruk-hai" - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954). The Two Towers. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 1042159111. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042159111" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042159111</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Canavan, A. P. (2012). ""Let's hunt some orc!": Reevaluating the Monstrosity of Orcs". New York Review of Science Fiction. Retrieved 7 March 2020. A version of this essay was presented at the International Conference on the Fantastic in 2012. <a href="https://www.nyrsf.com/2015/03/ap-canavan-lets-hunt-some-orc-reevaluating-the-monstrosity-of-orcs.html" target="_blank">https://www.nyrsf.com/2015/03/ap-canavan-lets-hunt-some-orc-reevaluating-the-monstrosity-of-orcs.html</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Tolkien 1996, Part One: the Prologue and Appendices to The Lord of the Rings. Draft of Appendix F. - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1996). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). The Peoples of Middle-earth. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-82760-4. <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Hostetter, Carl F. (November 1992). "Ugluk to the Dung-pit". Vinyar Tengwar (26). Elvish Linguistic Fellowship. <a href="/wiki/Carl_Hostetter" target="_blank">/wiki/Carl_Hostetter</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>Fauskanger, Helge K. "Orkish and the Black Speech – base language for base purposes". Ardalambion. University of Bergen. Retrieved 21 April 2023. <a href="/wiki/Helge_Fauskanger" target="_blank">/wiki/Helge_Fauskanger</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>Schneidewind, Friedhelm (2007). "Biology of Middle-earth". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). The J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-4159-6942-0. <a href="978-0-4159-6942-0" target="_blank">978-0-4159-6942-0</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>Schneidewind, Friedhelm (2007). "Biology of Middle-earth". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). The J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-4159-6942-0. <a href="978-0-4159-6942-0" target="_blank">978-0-4159-6942-0</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>Tolkien 1977, p. 50 - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1977). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). The Silmarillion. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-25730-2. <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>Tolkien 1977, pp. 93–94 - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1977). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). The Silmarillion. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-25730-2. <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:63"><p>The orcs are described as "foul broodlings of Melkor who fared abroad doing his evil work" in The Tale of Tinúviel.[T 15] <a href="/wiki/The_Tale_of_Tin%C3%BAviel" target="_blank">/wiki/The_Tale_of_Tin%C3%BAviel</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:64"><p>Shippey 2005, p. 265 - Shippey, Tom (2005) [1982]. The Road to Middle-Earth: How J. R. R. Tolkien Created a New Mythology (Third ed.). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-261-10275-0. <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:65"><p>Tolkien (1963). Letter dated 21 October 1963 to Ms. Munsby, cited in Gee, Henry. "The Science of Middle-earth: Sex and the Single Orc". TheOneRing.net. Retrieved 29 May 2009. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Gee" target="_blank">/wiki/Henry_Gee</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:66"><p>Chausse, Jean (2016). "Le pouvoir féminin en Arda". In Qadri, Jean-Philippe; Sainton, Jérôme (eds.). Pour la gloire de ce monde. Recouvrements et consolations en Terre du Milieu (in French). Le Dragon de Brume. p. 160, n7. ISBN 978-2-9539896-4-9. <a href="978-2-9539896-4-9" target="_blank">978-2-9539896-4-9</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:67"><p>Stuart 2022, p. 133. - Stuart, Robert (2022). Tolkien, Race, and Racism in Middle-earth. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-97475-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t0hrEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA133" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=t0hrEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA133</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:68"><p>Tolkien 1984b, p. 159 - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1984b). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). The Book of Lost Tales. Vol. 2. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-36614-3. <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:69"><p>Tolkien 1993, "Myths transformed", text VIII - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1993). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). Morgoth's Ring. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-68092-1. <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:70"><p>Tolkien 1993, "Myths transformed", text X - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1993). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). Morgoth's Ring. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-68092-1. <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:71"><p>Shippey 2005, p. 265 - Shippey, Tom (2005) [1982]. The Road to Middle-Earth: How J. R. R. Tolkien Created a New Mythology (Third ed.). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-261-10275-0. <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:72"><p>Shippey 2005, p. 265 - Shippey, Tom (2005) [1982]. The Road to Middle-Earth: How J. R. R. Tolkien Created a New Mythology (Third ed.). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-261-10275-0. <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:73"><p>Shippey 2005, pp. 362, 438 (chapter 5, note 14) - Shippey, Tom (2005) [1982]. The Road to Middle-Earth: How J. R. R. Tolkien Created a New Mythology (Third ed.). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-261-10275-0. <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:74"><p>Carpenter 2023, letter 153 to Peter Hastings, draft, September 1954 - Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (2023) [1981]. The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien: Revised and Expanded Edition. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-35-865298-4. <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:75"><p>Tally, Robert T. Jr. (2010). "Let Us Now Praise Famous Orcs: Simple Humanity in Tolkien's Inhuman Creatures". Mythlore. 29 (1). article 3. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Tally" target="_blank">/wiki/Robert_Tally</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:76"><p>Shippey 2001, pp. 131–133. - Shippey, Tom (2001). J. R. R. Tolkien: Author of the Century. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0261-10401-3. <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:77"><p>Tolkien 1984b, "The Tale of Tinúviel" - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1984b). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). The Book of Lost Tales. Vol. 2. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-36614-3. <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:78"><p>Tolkien 1993, "Myths transformed", text VIII - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1993). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). Morgoth's Ring. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-68092-1. <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:79"><p>Tolkien 1977, p. 50 - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1977). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). The Silmarillion. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-25730-2. <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:80"><p>Tolkien 1993, "Myths transformed", text X - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1993). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). Morgoth's Ring. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-68092-1. <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:81"><p>Shippey 2005, p. 265 - Shippey, Tom (2005) [1982]. The Road to Middle-Earth: How J. R. R. Tolkien Created a New Mythology (Third ed.). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-261-10275-0. <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:82"><p>Shippey 2001, pp. 131–133. - Shippey, Tom (2001). J. R. R. Tolkien: Author of the Century. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0261-10401-3. <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:83"><p>Tally, Robert T. Jr. (2010). "Let Us Now Praise Famous Orcs: Simple Humanity in Tolkien's Inhuman Creatures". Mythlore. 29 (1). article 3. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Tally" target="_blank">/wiki/Robert_Tally</a> <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:84"><p>Tally, Robert T. Jr. (2010). "Let Us Now Praise Famous Orcs: Simple Humanity in Tolkien's Inhuman Creatures". Mythlore. 29 (1). article 3. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Tally" target="_blank">/wiki/Robert_Tally</a> <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:85"><p>Shippey 2005, pp. 362, 438 (chapter 5, note 14) - Shippey, Tom (2005) [1982]. The Road to Middle-Earth: How J. R. R. Tolkien Created a New Mythology (Third ed.). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-261-10275-0. <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:86"><p>O'Hehir, Andrew (6 June 2001). "A curiously very great book". Salon.com. Retrieved 3 March 2020. <a href="https://www.salon.com/2001/06/06/tolkien2/" target="_blank">https://www.salon.com/2001/06/06/tolkien2/</a> <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:87"><p>Turner, Jenny (15 November 2001). "Reasons for Liking Tolkien". London Review of Books. 23 (22). <a href="https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v23/n22/jenny-turner/reasons-for-liking-tolkien" target="_blank">https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v23/n22/jenny-turner/reasons-for-liking-tolkien</a> <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:88"><p>Ibata, David (12 January 2003). "'Lord' of racism? Critics view trilogy as discriminatory". The Chicago Tribune. <a href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/lifestyles/chi-030112epringsrace-story.html" target="_blank">https://www.chicagotribune.com/lifestyles/chi-030112epringsrace-story.html</a> <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:89"><p>Carpenter 2023, #210 - Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (2023) [1981]. The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien: Revised and Expanded Edition. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-35-865298-4. <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:90"><p>Carpenter 2023, #210 - Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (2023) [1981]. The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien: Revised and Expanded Edition. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-35-865298-4. <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:91"><p>O'Hehir, Andrew (6 June 2001). "A curiously very great book". Salon.com. Retrieved 3 March 2020. <a href="https://www.salon.com/2001/06/06/tolkien2/" target="_blank">https://www.salon.com/2001/06/06/tolkien2/</a> <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:92"><p>O'Hehir, Andrew (6 June 2001). "A curiously very great book". Salon.com. Retrieved 3 March 2020. <a href="https://www.salon.com/2001/06/06/tolkien2/" target="_blank">https://www.salon.com/2001/06/06/tolkien2/</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:93"><p>Turner, Jenny (15 November 2001). "Reasons for Liking Tolkien". London Review of Books. 23 (22). <a href="https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v23/n22/jenny-turner/reasons-for-liking-tolkien" target="_blank">https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v23/n22/jenny-turner/reasons-for-liking-tolkien</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:94"><p>O'Hehir, Andrew (6 June 2001). "A curiously very great book". Salon.com. Retrieved 3 March 2020. <a href="https://www.salon.com/2001/06/06/tolkien2/" target="_blank">https://www.salon.com/2001/06/06/tolkien2/</a> <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:95"><p>Tally, Robert (2019). "Demonizing the Enemy, Literally: Tolkien, Orcs, and the Sense of the World Wars". Humanities. 8 (1): 54. doi:10.3390/h8010054. ISSN 2076-0787. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Tally" target="_blank">/wiki/Robert_Tally</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:96"><p>Carpenter 2023, #71 - Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (2023) [1981]. The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien: Revised and Expanded Edition. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-35-865298-4. <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:97"><p>Rogers, William N. II; Underwood, Michael R. (2000). "Gagool and Gollum: Exemplars of Degeneration in King Solomon's Mines and The Hobbit". In Clark, Sir George (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien and His Literary Resonances: Views of Middle-earth. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 121–132. ISBN 978-0-313-30845-1. <a href="978-0-313-30845-1" target="_blank">978-0-313-30845-1</a> <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:98"><p>Tolkien 1954, Book 3, Ch. 4, "Treebeard" - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954). The Two Towers. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 1042159111. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042159111" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042159111</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:99"><p>Tolkien 1954, Book 3, Ch. 4, "Treebeard" - Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954). The Two Towers. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 1042159111. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042159111" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042159111</a> <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:100"><p>Ibata, David (12 January 2003). "'Lord' of racism? Critics view trilogy as discriminatory". The Chicago Tribune. <a href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/lifestyles/chi-030112epringsrace-story.html" target="_blank">https://www.chicagotribune.com/lifestyles/chi-030112epringsrace-story.html</a> <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:101"><p>Straubhaar, Sandra Ballif (2004). "Myth, Late Roman History, and Multiculturalism in Tolkien's Middle-Earth". In Chance, Jane (ed.). Tolkien and the invention of myth: a reader. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 101–117. ISBN 978-0-8131-2301-1. <a href="978-0-8131-2301-1" target="_blank">978-0-8131-2301-1</a> <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:102"><p>Canavan, A. P. (2012). ""Let's hunt some orc!": Reevaluating the Monstrosity of Orcs". New York Review of Science Fiction. Retrieved 7 March 2020. A version of this essay was presented at the International Conference on the Fantastic in 2012. <a href="https://www.nyrsf.com/2015/03/ap-canavan-lets-hunt-some-orc-reevaluating-the-monstrosity-of-orcs.html" target="_blank">https://www.nyrsf.com/2015/03/ap-canavan-lets-hunt-some-orc-reevaluating-the-monstrosity-of-orcs.html</a> <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:103"><p>"Stan Nicholls". Fantasticfiction.co.uk. Retrieved 21 February 2009. <a href="https://www.fantasticfiction.com/n/stan-nicholls/" target="_blank">https://www.fantasticfiction.com/n/stan-nicholls/</a> <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:104"><p>Pratchett, Terry (2009). Unseen Academicals. Doubleday. p. 389. ISBN 978-0-3856-0934-0. <a href="978-0-3856-0934-0" target="_blank">978-0-3856-0934-0</a> <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:105"><p>"'Orc' (from Orcus) is another term for an ogre or ogre-like creature. Being useful fodder for the ranks of bad guys, monsters similar to Tolkien's orcs are also in both games." Gygax, Gary (March 1985). "On the influence of J.R.R. Tolkien on the D&D and AD&D games". The Dragon. No. 95. pp. 12–13. <a href="/wiki/Ogre" target="_blank">/wiki/Ogre</a> <a href="#fnref:105" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:106"><p>Williams, Skip; Tweet, Jonathan; Cook, Monte (1 October 2000). Monster Manual: Core Rulebook III (3 ed.). Wizards of the Coast. p. 146. ISBN 0-7869-1552-8. Orcs are aggressive humanoids that raid, pillage, and battle other creatures apud MacCallum-Stewart (2008), p. 41 <a href="0-7869-1552-8" target="_blank">0-7869-1552-8</a> <a href="#fnref:106" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:107"><p>"Orcs gather in tribes that exert their dominance and satisfy their bloodlust by plundering villages, devouring or driving off roaming herd, and slaying any humanoids that stand against them".[40] quoted by Young (2015), p. 96. <a href="#fnref:107" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:108"><p>Mohr, Joseph (7 December 2019). "Orcs in Dungeons and Dragons". Old School Role Playing. Archived from the original on 31 December 2019. Retrieved 31 January 2020. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191231184034/https://oldschoolroleplaying.com/orcs-in-dungeons-and-dragons/" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20191231184034/https://oldschoolroleplaying.com/orcs-in-dungeons-and-dragons/</a> <a href="#fnref:108" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:109"><p>Mohr, Joseph (7 December 2019). "Orcs in Dungeons and Dragons". Old School Role Playing. Archived from the original on 31 December 2019. Retrieved 31 January 2020. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191231184034/https://oldschoolroleplaying.com/orcs-in-dungeons-and-dragons/" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20191231184034/https://oldschoolroleplaying.com/orcs-in-dungeons-and-dragons/</a> <a href="#fnref:109" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:110"><p>Crawford, Jeremy, ed. (July 2003). Monster Manual: Dungeons & Dragons Core Rulebook. Co-lead design by Mike Mearls (5 ed.). Wizards of the Coast. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-7869-6561-8. <a href="978-0-7869-6561-8" target="_blank">978-0-7869-6561-8</a> <a href="#fnref:110" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:111"><p>Carpenter 2023, #210 - Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (2023) [1981]. The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien: Revised and Expanded Edition. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-35-865298-4. <a href="#fnref:111" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:112"><p>Pramas, Chris (2017). Orc Warfare. New York: Rosen Publishing. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-5081-7624-4. <a href="978-1-5081-7624-4" target="_blank">978-1-5081-7624-4</a> <a href="#fnref:112" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:113"><p>Mitchell-Smith (2009), p. 219. - Mitchell-Smith, Ilan (May 2009). "11: Racial Determinism and the Interlocking Economics of Power and Violence in Dungeons & Dragons". In Harden, B. Garrick; Carley, Robert (eds.). Co-opting Culture. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-7391-2597-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ar1yUk0aDS8C&pg=PA219" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Ar1yUk0aDS8C&pg=PA219</a> <a href="#fnref:113" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:114"><p>Mitchell-Smith (2009), p. 219. - Mitchell-Smith, Ilan (May 2009). "11: Racial Determinism and the Interlocking Economics of Power and Violence in Dungeons & Dragons". In Harden, B. Garrick; Carley, Robert (eds.). Co-opting Culture. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-7391-2597-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ar1yUk0aDS8C&pg=PA219" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Ar1yUk0aDS8C&pg=PA219</a> <a href="#fnref:114" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:115"><p>Williams, Skip; Tweet, Jonathan; Cook, Monte (1 October 2000). Monster Manual: Core Rulebook III (3 ed.). Wizards of the Coast. p. 146. ISBN 0-7869-1552-8. orcs... look like primitive humans with gray skin, coarse hair, stooped postures, low foreheads, and porcine faces with prominent lower canines... they have lupine ears. apud Young (2015), p. 95 <a href="0-7869-1552-8" target="_blank">0-7869-1552-8</a> <a href="#fnref:115" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:116"><p>Williams, Skip; Tweet, Jonathan; Cook, Monte (July 2003). Monster Manual: Dungeons & Dragons Core Rulebook (3.5 ed.). Wizards of the Coast. p. 203. ISBN 0-7869-2893-X. [The Creature] looks like a primitive human with gray skin and coarse hair. It has a stooped posture, low forehead, and a piglike face with prominent lower canines that resemble a boar's tusks. apud Mitchell-Smith (2009), p. 216 <a href="0-7869-2893-X" target="_blank">0-7869-2893-X</a> <a href="#fnref:116" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:117"><p>And the "Gray orc" introduced as a race.[42] <a href="#fnref:117" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:118"><p>Gygax, Gary (December 1977). Monster Manual (1 ed.). TSR. p. 76. Orcs appear particularly disgusting because their coloration ― brown or brownish green with bluish sheen ― highlights their pinkish snouts and ears. Their bristly hair is dark brown or black, sometimes with tan patches. <a href="/wiki/Gary_Gygax" target="_blank">/wiki/Gary_Gygax</a> <a href="#fnref:118" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:119"><p>Crawford, Jeremy, ed. (July 2003). Monster Manual: Dungeons & Dragons Core Rulebook. Co-lead design by Mike Mearls (5 ed.). Wizards of the Coast. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-7869-6561-8. <a href="978-0-7869-6561-8" target="_blank">978-0-7869-6561-8</a> <a href="#fnref:119" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:120"><p>Either the D&D first edition[42] or Advanced D&D,[44] <a href="#fnref:120" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:121"><p>Gygax, Gary (1977) Monster Manual, TSR. Also Young (2015), p. 97, citing this and subsequent editions of MM. <a href="/wiki/Gary_Gygax" target="_blank">/wiki/Gary_Gygax</a> <a href="#fnref:121" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:122"><p>Young (2015), p. 97. - Young, Helen (2015). "4. Orcs and Otherness: Monsters on Page and Screen". Race and Popular Fantasy Literature: Habits of Whiteness. Taylor & Francis. pp. 88–113. ISBN 9781317532170. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FvlWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=FvlWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88</a> <a href="#fnref:122" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:123"><p>Crawford, Jeremy, ed. (July 2003). Monster Manual: Dungeons & Dragons Core Rulebook. Co-lead design by Mike Mearls (5 ed.). Wizards of the Coast. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-7869-6561-8. <a href="978-0-7869-6561-8" target="_blank">978-0-7869-6561-8</a> <a href="#fnref:123" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:124"><p>Moore, Roger E. "The Half-Orc Point of View." Dragon #62 (TSR, June 1982). <a href="/wiki/Roger_E._Moore" target="_blank">/wiki/Roger_E._Moore</a> <a href="#fnref:124" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:125"><p>Baur, Wolfgang, Jason Bulmahn, Joshua J. Frost, James Jacobs, Nicolas Logue, Mike McArtor, James L. Sutter, Greg A. Vaughan, Jeremy Walker. Classic Monsters Revisited (Paizo, 2008) pages 52–57. <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Baur" target="_blank">/wiki/Wolfgang_Baur</a> <a href="#fnref:125" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:126"><p>Priestley, Rick; Thornton, Jake (2000). Warhammer Fantasy Battles Army Book: Orcs & Goblins (6th ed.). Games Workshop: Nottingham. pp. 10–11.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link) <a href="/wiki/Rick_Priestley" target="_blank">/wiki/Rick_Priestley</a> <a href="#fnref:126" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:127"><p>Sanders, Rob. "Xenos: Seven Alien Species With A Shot At Conquering the 40k Galaxy". Rob Sanders Speculative Fiction. Retrieved 1 February 2020. <a href="http://rob-sanders.blogspot.com/2012/03/xenos-seven-alien-species-with-shot-at.html" target="_blank">http://rob-sanders.blogspot.com/2012/03/xenos-seven-alien-species-with-shot-at.html</a> <a href="#fnref:127" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:128"><p>MacCallum-Stewart (2008), pp. 39–62. - MacCallum-Stewart, Esther (2008). "2: 'Never Such Innocence Again': War and Histories in World of Warcraft". In Corneliussen, Hilde; Rettberg, Jill Walker (eds.). Digital Culture, Play, and Identity: A World of Warcraft Reader. MIT Press. pp. 39–62. ISBN 9780262033701. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RMsgSX2JWbAC&q=orc" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=RMsgSX2JWbAC&q=orc</a> <a href="#fnref:128" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:129"><p>"Another orc enters the Heroes of the Storm battleground". Destructoid. 6 October 2016. Retrieved 31 January 2020. <a href="https://www.destructoid.com/another-orc-enters-the-heroes-of-the-storm-battleground-391319.phtml" target="_blank">https://www.destructoid.com/another-orc-enters-the-heroes-of-the-storm-battleground-391319.phtml</a> <a href="#fnref:129" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:130"><p>Wizards of the Coast acquired TSR in 1997, and subsequently published editions of D&D and Monster Manual. <a href="#fnref:130" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:131"><p>Vessenes, Ted (8 February 2002). "Lessons of the Past". The One Ring. Retrieved 28 October 2021. <a href="https://www.theonering.com/news/games/lessons-of-the-past-by-ted-vessenes/" target="_blank">https://www.theonering.com/news/games/lessons-of-the-past-by-ted-vessenes/</a> <a href="#fnref:131" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:132"><p>Stewart, Charlie (14 September 2020). "Why the Orcs Could Have a Huge Role in The Elder Scrolls 6". GameRant. Retrieved 13 April 2021. <a href="https://gamerant.com/the-elder-scrolls-6-orcs/" target="_blank">https://gamerant.com/the-elder-scrolls-6-orcs/</a> <a href="#fnref:132" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:133"><p>"Blade Gruts". Hasbro.com. Archived from the original on 14 June 2011. Retrieved 30 October 2017. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110614145310/http://www.hasbro.com/games/kid-games/heroscape/default.cfm?page=Inside%2FCharacterDetail&char_id=2&set_id=3&set_type=2" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20110614145310/http://www.hasbro.com/games/kid-games/heroscape/default.cfm?page=Inside%2FCharacterDetail&char_id=2&set_id=3&set_type=2</a> <a href="#fnref:133" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:134"><p>"Heavy Gruts". Hasbro.com. Archived from the original on 14 June 2011. Retrieved 30 October 2017. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110614145317/http://www.hasbro.com/games/kid-games/heroscape/default.cfm?page=Inside%2FCharacterDetail&char_id=103&set_id=8&set_type=2" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20110614145317/http://www.hasbro.com/games/kid-games/heroscape/default.cfm?page=Inside%2FCharacterDetail&char_id=103&set_id=8&set_type=2</a> <a href="#fnref:134" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:135"><p>Ronaghan, Neal. "Skylanders Giants Character Guide Magic Element Characters From Spyro's Adventure". Nintendo World Report. Retrieved 7 July 2022. <a href="http://www.nintendoworldreport.com/feature/31352/skylanders-giants-character-guide-magic-element-characters-from-spyros-adventure" target="_blank">http://www.nintendoworldreport.com/feature/31352/skylanders-giants-character-guide-magic-element-characters-from-spyros-adventure</a> <a href="#fnref:135" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>