Islam in Myanmar

<h2 id="demographics">Demographics</h2>

<a href="/facts/Islam/zDLbL45C">Islam</a>, mainly of the <a href="/facts/Sunni/WYo0zeq0">Sunni</a> denomination, is practised by 4.3% of the population of Burma according to the government census latest 2014 year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2">2</a> However, according to the <a href="/facts/US_State_Department/WsB5FMBT">US State Department</a>'s 2006 <a href="/facts/Freedom_of_religion/ERtoqLEE">international religious freedom</a> report, the country's non-Buddhist populations were underestimated in the census. <a href="/facts/Islamic_religious_leaders/R0f2o5cJ">Muslim leaders</a> estimate that 10% of the population may be Muslim.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a>

<h3>Burmese Muslim groups</h3>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Kamein/z4e2mKkV">Kamein</a>, a <a href="/facts/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_Myanmar/gdcq95Fv">government-recognized</a> ethnic minority native to Rakhine state and one of the seven groups of the <a href="/facts/Rakhine_people/6kh6mAf7">Rakhine</a> nation.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Rohingya_people/GaGBFoWA">Rohingyas</a>, a minority <a href="/facts/Muslim/W2ukq4pg">Muslim</a> <a href="/facts/Ethnic_group/XSp5l24t">ethnic group</a> in northern <a href="/facts/Rakhine_State/MJ7PAbBI">Rakhine State</a>, <a href="/facts/Myanmar/zcqQH2oE">Myanmar</a>. The Rohingya population is mostly concentrated in five northern townships of Rakhine State: <a href="/facts/Maungdaw/cAL3Lfe1">Maungdaw</a>, <a href="/facts/Buthidaung/sR5NhYUf">Buthidaung</a>, <a href="/facts/Rathedaung/LCcHVCpq">Rathedaung</a>, <a href="/facts/Sittwe/8HGFc1Dl">Akyab</a>, Sandway, Tongo, Shokepro, Rashong Island and <a href="/facts/Kyauktaw/L6gqKeMu">Kyauktaw</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Panthay/IxjxF9cm">Panthay</a>, Chinese Muslims in Burma migrated from <a href="/facts/Yunnan/Q924cyfE">Yunnan</a> Province of China.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Burmese_Malays/sjLNh8Wh">Burmese Malays</a> in <a href="/facts/Tanintharyi_Region/4gsWloFk">Tanintharyi</a>. Burmese people of Malay ancestry are locally called Pashu regardless of religion.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Bamar_people/gaW4Bcpm">Bamar</a> Muslims (historically known as Zerbadi Muslims) are a community descended from inter-ethnic marriages between <a href="/facts/Burmese_Indians/59xWkrnn">Indian</a> <a href="/facts/Muslim/W2ukq4pg">Muslim</a> males and Burmese females.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a> They are the largest Muslim group in Myanmar and form more than half of the total Muslim population in the country.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a> Culturally, Bamar Muslims are the same as the Bamar Buddhists including their lifestyle, clothing and language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a></li></ul>
<h4>Pathi and Panthays</h4>

Main article: <a href="/facts/Panthays/IxjxF9cm">Panthays</a>
Myanmar Muslims were sometimes called Pathi, and Chinese Muslims are called <a href="/facts/Panthay/IxjxF9cm">Panthay</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> Native Burmese Muslim reverts were sometimes called Pathi,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a> a name believed to be derived as a distortion of the Persian word "Parsi". Many settlements in the southern region of Myanmar were noted for their Muslim populations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> There is some assumption amongst Pathi that the city of <a href="/facts/Pathein/MQDKF1MI">Pathein</a> is named after its high Pathi population.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> Some also trace it a purported Muslim Indian king who ruled the city in the 13th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> However, etymologists typically trace the name to <a href="/facts/Old_Mon/N4tQCxIj">Old Mon</a> "Kusimanagara" shorterned to "Kuthen" from the <a href="/facts/Kalyani_Inscriptions/Nqe4xdEw">Kalyani Inscriptions</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> And coincidentally, Pathein is still famous for Pathein <a href="/facts/Halawa/Nl7cKj6w">halawa</a>, a traditional <a href="/facts/Cuisine_of_Myanmar/wR8BY16M">Myanmar snack</a> inherited from northern Indian Muslim related to <a href="/facts/Halwa/oap270jm">halwa</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> 
<a href="/facts/Persian_people/4GhM3jl2">Persian</a> Muslims arrived in northern Burma on the border with the Chinese region of <a href="/facts/Yunnan/Q924cyfE">Yunnan</a> as recorded in the Chronicles of <a href="/facts/China/lTjIXY5p">China</a> in 860 AD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> Burma's contacts with Islam via Yunnan go back to Nasiruddin, the commander of the <a href="/facts/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma/o8NqfFjM">first Mongol invasion of Burma</a> in 1277.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> In the 19th century, the broadminded King <a href="/facts/Mindon_Min/9rbE1yhB">Mindon</a> of Mandalay permitted the Chinese Muslims known as Panthays to build a mosque in Mandalay. The mosque received donations from Sultan <a href="/facts/Du_Wenxiu/GXP3MH4X">Du Wenxiu</a> of the <a href="/facts/Panthay_Rebellion/G2wCe5kD">Pingnan Sultanate</a> in Yunnan and was supervised by one of his colonels. It signifies the beginning of the first Panthay Jama'at (Congregation) in the Mandalay Empire.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a>

<h4>Rohingya people</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Rohingya_people/GaGBFoWA">Rohingya people</a>
Around 800,000 <a href="/facts/Rohingya_people/GaGBFoWA">Muslim Rohingyas</a> live in Burma with around 80% living in <a href="/facts/Rakhine_State/MJ7PAbBI">Rakhine State</a>. The Military of Myanmar has been killing and driving the Rohingyas out of the country as part of their on and off attempt since the 1940s to create a Muslim-free land in Western Burma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a>
In the 1970s, uprisings appeared again during the period of the <a href="/facts/Bangladesh_Liberation_War/gTshjg0R">Bangladesh Liberation War</a> in 1971. Recently, groups in the area, according to various media reports, aimed to create northern part of <a href="/facts/Rakhine_State/MJ7PAbBI">Rakhine State</a> as an independent or autonomous state.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a>
Successive governments, both democratic and military, did not grant the citizenship of the Muslim <a href="/facts/Rohingya_people/GaGBFoWA">Rohingya</a> people of Northern Rakhine state. Their claim to citizenship has been marred by disputes with the ethnic Arakanese, who are mainly Buddhists. In 2017, the military carried out a crackdown on Rohingya people in Rakhine State; in 2022, the <a href="/facts/US_Secretary_of_State/AgUe4Dkq">US Secretary of State</a> determined that members of the Burmese military had committed genocide and crimes against humanity against the Rohingya people.+ An estimated 1.6 million Rohingya have fled to Bangladesh, Thailand and India; by the end of 2022, the <a href="/facts/UNHCR/n02xPguc">UNHCR</a> reported that approximately 148,000 Rohingya were being held in displacement camps in the country.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a>

<h2 id="history">History</h2>
The first Muslims in Myanmar date to early <a href="/facts/Arab_Muslim/3RXSJzh1">Arab Muslim</a> merchants in the <a href="/facts/Bagan_Kingdom/YKt63eoD">Bagan period</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> Early settlements and propagation of Islam is documented to the 9th century. The <a href="/facts/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma/o8NqfFjM">First Mongol invasion of Burma</a> in the 13th century and the relationship of the <a href="/facts/Mrauk_U_Kingdom/wj6SD6wM">Mrauk U Kingdom</a> with the Bengal Sultanate are examples of prominent Muslim presence in Myanmar with Muslims ranging from traders and settlers to positions of status as royal advisors and port authorities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> The Pathi and Panthay ethnic groups also form a historically significant group of precolonial Chinese Muslims in Myanmar. In addition, <a href="/facts/British_rule_in_Burma/FmlWE7Ax">British rule in Burma</a> brought several Muslim diasaporic immigrants, including Indian Muslims who became a significant population in <a href="/facts/Rangoon/y88kj6dh">Rangoon</a>.
The core of the Burmese Muslim community today are the descendants of Muslim peoples who settled and <a href="/facts/Interracial_marriage/ICc2byUm">intermarried</a> with local <a href="/facts/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_Burma/gdcq95Fv">Burmese ethnic groups</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> Muslims arrived in Burma as <a href="/facts/Merchant/bPb8WTBb">traders</a> or <a href="/facts/Settlers/SjBCIznY">settlers</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a> military personnel,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a> and <a href="/facts/Prisoners_of_war/X22JC3Fj">prisoners of war</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a> refugees,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a> and as <a href="/facts/Slaves/IXX2S92u">slaves</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> However, many early Muslims also as saying goes held positions of status as royal advisers, royal administrators, <a href="/facts/Port_authorities/f7vGDHsy">port authorities</a>, <a href="/facts/Mayor/KN24kwhp">mayors</a>, and traditional medicine men.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a> Burmese kings resettled Muslims as prisoners of war throughout history as they did with other ethnic groups.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> Muslim artillerymen, riflemen and royal bodyguards served regularly in Burmese army during the Konbaung dynasty. 
The colonial period saw substantial immigration of <a href="/facts/Burmese_Indians/59xWkrnn">Burmese Indians</a>, many of them Muslim. Various riots and dissatisfaction with the socioeconomic conditions under <a href="/facts/British_rule_in_Burma/FmlWE7Ax">British rule in Burma</a> led to increased anti-Muslim sentiment.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a> Muslims sought representation and citizenship during independence, but faced significant opposition. In the 1960s, all Muslims were increasingly seen as foreign elements unwelcome in the country.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a>
During the <a href="/facts/State_Peace_and_Development_Council/qo2cNdTF">State Peace and Development Council</a> junta rule, anti-Muslim riots became increasingly common. Anti-Muslim pamphlets were widely distributed and vengeful Buddhist mobs formed to reports of alleged Muslims raping Buddhist women in 1997, 2001, 2012, 2013 and 2014.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> In 2005, the <a href="/facts/Ministry_of_Religious_Affairs_and_Culture_(Myanmar)/2xj1lnRn">Ministry of Religious Affairs</a> cited the various examples of Muslims and Christians throughout Myanmar's royal history and the loving kindness of Burmese culture to declare freedom of religion for all. issued a declaration concerning freedom of religion<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a>
In 2015, anti-Muslims sentiment focused increasingly on the <a href="/facts/Rohingya_people/GaGBFoWA">Rohingya people</a> in northern <a href="/facts/Rakhine_State/MJ7PAbBI">Rakhine State</a>. Starting in 2016, <a href="/facts/2016_Rohingya_persecution_in_Myanmar/nQ60Re9t">persecution targeting the Rohingya</a> grew leading to a crackdown with extrajudicial killings and other human rights abuses and brutalities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a> In 2017, this was followed up by the <a href="/facts/Rohingya_genocide/nQ60Re9t">Rohingya genocide</a>, where a military operation killed thousands and drove out hundreds of thousands of Rohingya people into Bangladesh.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a>

<h3>Bagan period</h3>
In the early Bagan era (AD 652-660), Arab chronicles document merchants landing at ports such as Thaton and Martaban while sailing from <a href="/facts/Madagascar/ez12IAcY">Madagascar</a> to China.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a> Arab travellers visited the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal south of Burma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a>
The first Muslims landed in Myanmar's <a href="/facts/Irrawaddy_delta/5cINjChl">Irrawaddy delta</a> and on the <a href="/facts/Tanintharyi_Region/4gsWloFk">Tanintharyi coast</a>. By the 9th century, they were also present in <a href="/facts/Arakan/tC6eaMn5">Arakan</a>, prior to the establishment of <a href="/facts/Pagan_Kingdom/YKt63eoD">the first Burmese empire</a> in 1055 AD by King <a href="/facts/Anawrahta/8vPU2lXy">Anawrahta</a> of <a href="/facts/Bagan/MU2AjQzK">Bagan</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a> The sea ports of Burma are rife with the legendary accounts of early shipwrecks in their vicinity, which are supported by archaeological remnants. However, long-term settlement by Muslim traders appear to date to later centuries following the <a href="/facts/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma/o8NqfFjM">First Mongol invasion of Burma</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a>

<h4>Deified Muslim figures</h4>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Byatta/KFUgYJon">Byatta</a>, <a href="/facts/Shwe_Hpyin_Naungdaw/NudP98yx">Shwe Hpyin Naungdaw</a>, and <a href="/facts/Shwe_Hpyin_Nyidaw/8nMBcmhv">Shwe Hpyin Nyidaw</a>
In Burma's semi-historical traditional historical chronicle, the <a href="/facts/Hmannan_Yazawin/t2wAKvtN">Hmannan Yazawin</a>, two Kalar Muslim sailor brothers, Byat Wi and <a href="/facts/Byatta/KFUgYJon">Byat Ta</a>, arrived near <a href="/facts/Thaton/NgMkndUW">Thaton</a> in the 11th century. Kalar today is an <a href="/facts/Ethnic_slur/HzlfQHpc">ethnic slur</a> for Indians and Arabs, but originally meant "dark-skinned" and is assumed to have meant that they were from India.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> According to the chronicle, they gained superhuman strength after eating the magic meat of a <a href="/facts/Zawgyi_(alchemist)/0RRv9u2q">mystic</a>. The <a href="/facts/Thaton_Kingdom/GXVLfb6t">king of Thaton</a> became afraid of them and killed the elder brother. The younger brother, Byatta, escaped to <a href="/facts/Bagan/MU2AjQzK">Bagan</a> and took refuge with king <a href="/facts/Anawratha/8vPU2lXy">Anawratha</a>. He met and married Me Wunna from <a href="/facts/Mount_Popa/QBJv1scN">Mount Popa</a> and had two sons- the Shwe Hpyin brothers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a>

The Shwe Hpyin brothers served the Bagan king as warriors. They became famous for infiltrating the Chinese King of Gandalaraj Utibua's bodyguards to draw three lines with <a href="/facts/Lime_(material)/uMcVXGBM">white lime</a> on the king's body and write a threatening message on the wall, scaring the Chinese into peace.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a> However, the brothers were eventually executed because they refused to contribute in the building of a pagoda in <a href="/facts/Taungbyon/UVEhcPvD">Taungbyon</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a> There was dissatisfaction with the decision and, according to legend, the two brothers' spirit manifested and demanded possession of Taungbyon. They were then <a href="/facts/Apotheosis/67vWy7Uv">deified</a> as two of the <a href="/facts/Nat_(spirit)/wwSfMkCo">37 Great Nats</a>, the Burmese pantheon.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a> 
The brothers are the subject of Myanmar's largest Nat festival- the <a href="/facts/Taungbyone_Festival/R3BluIv4">Taungbyone Festival</a>, celebrated annually for six days. Worshippers avoid consumption of <a href="/facts/Pork/TuIYFNeU">pork</a> out of respect for their religion as Muslims.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a>

<h4>Traders in Lower Burma</h4>
When King <a href="/facts/Anawrahta/8vPU2lXy">Anawrahta</a> attacked Martaban, the capital of the <a href="/facts/Thaton_Kingdom/GXVLfb6t">Thaton Kingdom</a> in the 12th century, their king <a href="/facts/Manuha/b3D3k3sU">Manuha</a> was recorded to have two Muslim officers who commanded the defence fiercely.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a>
Early Muslim settlements the <a href="/facts/Dawah/KoBC3sEy">propagation</a> of <a href="/facts/Islam/zDLbL45C">Islam</a> between the 9th and 14th century were documented by <a href="/facts/Arab/E77duPsg">Arab</a>, <a href="/facts/Persian_people/4GhM3jl2">Persian</a>, European and <a href="/facts/Chinese_people/Ft6TzPzd">Chinese</a> travellers. the majority of these were trade colonies in <a href="/facts/Lower_Burma/pHqMKG2x">Lower Burma</a>, with Muslim traders primarily referring to <a href="/facts/Hanthawaddy_kingdom/u2wCc3Cv">Pegu</a> as "Burma". Later, during the Bagan king <a href="/facts/Kyansittha/rQxs9En0">Kyansittha</a> would take Indians captive during his invasions of Lower Burma, starting some of the first Muslims settlements in <a href="/facts/Upper_Burma/k17zoSVy">Upper Burma</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a>
At first Muslims arrived on the Arakan coast and moved into the upward hinterland to <a href="/facts/Maungdaw/cAL3Lfe1">Maungdaw</a>. The time when the Muslims arrived in Burma and in Arakan and <a href="/facts/Maungdaw/cAL3Lfe1">Maungdaw</a> is uncertain.

<h3>Mrauk U Kingdom</h3>
The <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Ava/1KDWVRg2">Kingdom of Ava</a> attacked Arakan in 1404, ousting the Arakin king <a href="/facts/Min_Saw_Mon/RvmXVeVw">Narameikhla</a> to Bengal in the court of the Sultan of Gayr.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a> He was reinstated as King of Arakan with the military assistance of the Sultan.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a> Narameikhla founded the new capital, <a href="/facts/Mrauk_U/SmbCr997">Mrauk U</a> and the <a href="/facts/Mrauk_U_Kingdom/wj6SD6wM">Mrauk U Kingdom</a>. The Muslim army who helped him retake the kingdom settled in Arakan and built the Sandi Khan mosque in the village of Kawalaung.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a> According to the Arakanese <a href="/facts/Rakhine_Razawin_Thit/BT4U96Tg">Rakhine Razawin Thit</a> chronicle, Narameikhla had to surrender the twelve towns of Bhanga (Bengal) to the Sultan of Bengal and agree to be feudatory to Bengal in order to gain support. Arakan thus remained to be a subject state of Bengal for a century (1430-1530); Bengal Sultans conferred Muslim titles to nine kings of Arakan during this period.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a>

Coins bearing the <a href="/facts/Six_Kalmas/DoS1etxe">kalimah</a> Islamic confession of faith and the name of the four khalifs of Islam in Arabic were discovered from this period of Arakan. Even after Mrauk U's independence from Bengal, many of its kings continued to style themselves as sultans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a> The son of <a href="/facts/Mughal_Empire/yRg2kAy5">Mughal</a> Emperor <a href="/facts/Shah_Jahan/XQu9CkFQ">Shah Jahan</a>, prince Shah Shuja, fled to Arakan in 1660 being granted asylum from his brother <a href="/facts/Aurangzeb/HfsMWhuA">Aurangzeb</a> after a failed rebellion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a> His soldiers' descendants became the Muslim <a href="/facts/Kamein/z4e2mKkV">Kamein people</a>, forming the Royal Archers of the Guard. After the death of Arakanese king <a href="/facts/Sanda_Thudhamma/t2ovgHVy">Sanda Thudhamma</a> in 1684, the Kamein became very powerful power brokers in the Arakan court, dominating it from 1684 to 1710.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a>

<h3>Taungoo period</h3>
When <a href="/facts/Tabinshwehti/5gw1H0ds">Tabinshwehti</a>, the first Taungoo king (1530-50 AD) attacked <a href="/facts/Hanthawaddy/K4lFJJlL">Hanthawaddy</a>, Muslim soldiers were recorded as helping the <a href="/facts/Mon_people/Ssoc6Wj2">Mons</a> with artillery.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a> When <a href="/facts/Tabinshwehti/5gw1H0ds">Tabinshwehti</a> attacked Martaban in 1541 AD, many Muslims resisted strongly. When <a href="/facts/Bayinnaung/CjRYMwzP">Bayinnaung</a> successfully conquered <a href="/facts/Ayutthaya_Kingdom/j1vbEsRB">Ayutthaya</a> a decade later, he used Muslim artillerymen.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a> 
In the chronicles of <a href="/facts/Malaysia/8zbUMzCP">Malaysia</a>, during the first <a href="/facts/Malacca_sultanate/1YBCoI27">Malacca Empire</a> of <a href="/facts/Parameswara_(sultan)/bu0mELVw">Parameswara</a> in the early 15th century, it was recorded that when Burmese traders and sailors traded in Malacca. Muslims workers regularly travelled to Burma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a>
From the fifteenth to seventeenth Centuries, Muslim traders faced strict regulations by Burmese kings and, mostly, by local governors. However the ports thrived as a important point for sea communication, supplies and repairs for Muslim trading fleets. Muslim traders would marry and settle with local women. Despite strict trade regulations, Burmese governors occasionally encouraged this intermarriage while barring Muslims from taking their local wives or children back when they left to boost population numbers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a> Muslim sailors built worship sites called Buddermokan which were <a href="/facts/Mosques/U51uY78w">mosques</a>, but equally holy to four religions in Burmese trade ports<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a> They were shrines to the "God of the Flood" in memory of Badral-Din Awliya, who was worshipped as a <a href="/facts/Nat_(deity)/wwSfMkCo">nat</a> by the Buddhists, a minor god by Hindus and Chinese and a saint by the Muslims. Buddermokans were They are found in <a href="/facts/Akyab/8HGFc1Dl">Akyab</a>, <a href="/facts/Sandoway/SuMD2ela">Sandoway</a> and on a small island off Mergui.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a>
In the 17th century, Muslims tried to control business and to become powerful. They were appointed, variously, governors of Mergui, viceroys of the provinces in <a href="/facts/Tanintharyi_Region/4gsWloFk">Tenasserim</a> and as port authorities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a> In 1617 A.D. even after the English East India Company had established its factory at <a href="/facts/Masulipatnam/pWBK8D9W">Masulipatnam</a>, the Muslim merchants engaged themselves in trade between the Coromandel Coast and Pegu in Lower Burma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a> When the Burmese King <a href="/facts/Anaukpetlun/Al2TDtja">Anaukpetlun</a> reconquered <a href="/facts/Syriam/BG5xnnA2">Syriam</a> in 1613 and <a href="/facts/Bago%2c_Myanmar/K4lFJJlL">Bago</a> in 1617, the Muslim Moores in Masulipatan rejoiced greatly hoping to get the trade of Pegu into their hands again and prepared to send there two ships in the following September.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a> Anaukpetlun also enslaved Indian mercenaries and battle ships from Syriam, resettling them in <a href="/facts/Shwebo/ILItnCo0">Shwebo</a>.,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a> Successive kings, up to the reign of <a href="/facts/Thalun/PD1BLucy">Thalun</a> continued to resettle Muslim prisoners of war, particular in <a href="/facts/Myedu/ReLtzqGl">Myedu</a> a village near Shwebo, as well as in Sagaing, Yamethin and Kyaukse.

<h4>Sanay Min</h4>
In 1707, the Taungoo king <a href="/facts/Sanay_Min/EIcAfepc">Sanay Min</a> brought Muslim prisoners of war from <a href="/facts/Sandoway/SuMD2ela">Sandoway</a> and settled them in Myedu. Three thousand Muslims from the weakening <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Mrauk_U/wj6SD6wM">Kingdom of Mrauk U</a> took refuge under his rule from 1698–1714. These refugees were divided and settled in <a href="/facts/Taungoo/kDPKBsbL">Taungoo</a>, <a href="/facts/Yamethin/77sDAQ92">Yamethin</a>, Nyaung Yan, Yin Daw, <a href="/facts/Meiktila/n7KwREsE">Meiktila</a>, Pin Dale, Tabet Swe', Bhodhii, Syi Tha, Siputtara, Myae du and Depayin.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a> Another record from 1783 mentions these three thousand Muslims were relieve of military service in 1709 and settled instead.
Sanay Min also had two flotillas, named Elahee and Selamat, both Arabic Islamic names. These ships were recorded to have called at Forte St. George. The Elahee was used to send for missionaries exchanged between the <a href="/facts/Mughal_Empire/yRg2kAy5">Mughal Empire</a> and the Burmese kingdom, being captained by an Arab.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a> The diplomatic relations between the Court of Ava and Muslim Court of the Moghul began in 1706 A.D., with an exchange of gifts recorded by the English factory in Madras.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a>

<h3>Konbaung Dynasty</h3>

During <a href="/facts/Alaungpaya/6Gvw2xoD">Alaungpaya</a>'s conquests to create the <a href="/facts/Konbaung_Dynasty/sh3VRRoR">Konbaung Dynasty</a>, Muslims soldiers fought against him in <a href="/facts/Pyay/yIDwueS2">Pyay</a> and Muslim rich men were recorded to have surrendered expensive presents and warships to him in <a href="/facts/Yangon/y88kj6dh">Yangon</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a> He captured many Muslim artillery men during his conquest of <a href="/facts/Syriam/BG5xnnA2">Syriam</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a> and later let them serve in his army.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a> After his capture of <a href="/facts/Bago%2c_Myanmar/K4lFJJlL">Bago</a>, a parade was held in which Pathi Muslim soldiers were allowed to march in their traditional uniforms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a> His campaign against <a href="/facts/Assam/64Hs7TwB">Assam</a> and <a href="/facts/Manipur/afIbV0R2">Manipur</a> of India brought more Muslims to settle in Burma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a> These Muslims were resettled from his conquests to <a href="/facts/Myedu/ReLtzqGl">Myedu</a> and were called Myedu Kala or Kala Pyo.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a>

<h4>Amarapura period</h4>

When King <a href="/facts/Bodawpaya/S3Tbk91u">Bodawpaya</a> founded <a href="/facts/Amarapura/2x3Qz4UK">Amarapura</a> as his new capital in 1783, he issued a royal decree officially recognising his Muslim subjects. He appointed special minister Abid Shah Hussaini to give judgement regarding conflicts amongst Muslim subjects.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a> 
During the rule of King <a href="/facts/Bagyidaw/VSS1f7FT">Bagyidaw</a> (1819–37), his general <a href="/facts/Maha_Bandula/JbqaLCvz">Maha Bandula</a> conquered Assam and brought back 40,000 prisoners of war, half of whom were likely Muslims.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a> During the <a href="/facts/First_Anglo-Burmese_War/4yuNlTBV">First Anglo-Burmese War</a>, Maha Bandula captured 200 mixed Sepoy Indians, among other spoils, at the battles near Ramu. Muslims amongst them were relocated to the south of Amarapura.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a> Among Maha Bandula's forces was Captain Nay Myo Gone Narrat Khan Sab Bo who led the 70 Cavalry Regiment.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a> Khan Sab Bo's name was Abdul Karim Khan and was the father of the Captain Wali Khan, who also led a famous cavalry regiment during the reigns of successive kings. Khan Sab Bo was sent as an ambassador to <a href="/facts/French_Indochina/Sv3okbSs">French Indochina</a> by <a href="/facts/Bagyidaw/VSS1f7FT">Bagyidaw</a>.
he first mosque in Yangon was built in 1826 AD, at the end of first <a href="/facts/Anglo-Burmese_Wars/QMDjtEm0">Anglo-Burmese Wars</a>. It was destroyed by fighting in 1852 during the Second Anglo-Burmese War.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a>
When King <a href="/facts/Tharrawaddy_Min/d5FdSHDy">Tharrawaddy Min</a> marched to Okkalapa, more than 100 Pathi Muslim Indian cannoneers took part.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a>
Burmese kings of the Konbaung Dynasty employed a lot of Muslims in their inner circle: Royal bodyguards, eunuchs, couriers, interpreters and advisers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a> During the reign of <a href="/facts/Pagan_Min/RF3y98Iz">Pagan Min</a>, Muslims had significant roles in the administration. The governor of Amarapua was U Shwe Oh, a Burmese Muslim. A powerful clerk in Pagan Min's court, <a href="/facts/Maung_Bein/wwDGzmKN">U Bein</a>, was also responsible for the notable <a href="/facts/U_Bein_Bridge/dXHIJTbp">U Bein Bridge</a>, a two-mile-long teakwood bridge.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a> Sir <a href="/facts/Henry_Yule/rymrq4lk">Henry Yule</a> saw many Muslims serving as <a href="/facts/Eunuch/qGwjh0wH">eunuchs</a> in the Burmese court while on a diplomatic mission there.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a> He also noted that the previous governor of Bagan, who had been recently executed, had been a Muslim too.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a> These Muslim eunuchs came from <a href="/facts/Arakan/tC6eaMn5">Arakan</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a>
By 1855, Muslims in Amarapura numbered about 20,000 families, mostly <a href="/facts/Sunni/WYo0zeq0">Sunni</a> Muslims.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a> Abid Shah Hussaini burial place was well known as a shrine in Amarapura Lin Zin Gone Darga.

<h4>Mandalay period</h4>

Pagan Min was deposed by his brother <a href="/facts/Mindon_Min/9rbE1yhB">Mindon Min</a> following the <a href="/facts/Second_Anglo-Burmese_War/IU1R8fJ3">Second Anglo-Burmese War</a>. U Bo and U Yuet were two Kala Pyo Muslims who accompanied the princes when they fled to start the rebellion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a> Mindon showed favour to Muslims when he ascended the throne, giving several Muslims military and civil administrative ranks. In 1853, he ordered the preparation of <a href="/facts/Halal/KtJQsKl8">halal</a> food for his 700 Muslim horse cavalry soldiers during a donation ceremony. Upon the founding of <a href="/facts/Mandalay/8mayB66N">Mandalay</a>, several quarters with allocated spaces for mosques were granted to Muslims for settlement.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108">108</a> U Bo later built and donated the June Mosque, which is still maintained in 27th street in modern Mandalay. U Yuet became the Chief Royal Chef. Mindon also donated teak pillars from the old palace to the construction of a mosque in the Oh Bo district of Mandalay.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109">109</a>

The Burmese Muslim quarters granted in Mandalay were:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110">110</a>

<ul><li>Sigaing dan</li>
<li>Kone Yoe dan</li>
<li>Taung Balu</li>
<li>Oh Bo</li>
<li>Setkyer Ngwezin</li>
<li>June Amoke Tan</li>
<li>Wali Khan Quarter</li>
<li>Taik Tan Qr</li>
<li>Koyandaw Qr (Royal Bodyguards' Qr)</li>
<li>Ah Choke Tan</li>
<li>Kala Pyo Qr</li>
<li>Panthay dan for the Burmese Chinese Muslims.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111">111</a></li></ul>
Twenty mosques were allocated outside the Palace wall in those areas:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112">112</a> 

<ul><li>Sigaing dan Mosque</li>
<li>Kone Yoe Mosque</li>
<li>Taung Balu Mosque</li>
<li>June Mosque</li>
<li>Koyandaw Mosque</li>
<li>Wali Khan Mosque</li>
<li>Kala Pyo Mosque</li>
<li>Seven lots of lands for Setkyer Ngwezin</li>
<li>Mandalay Panthay Mosque.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113">113</a></li></ul>
Inside the palace wall, Mindon Min constructed the Shwe Pannet mosque to accommodate his royal bodyguards.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114">114</a> That mosque was demolished by in order to construct a <a href="/facts/Polo/tm0j516j">polo</a> playground.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115">115</a>
Mindon Min additionally donated to building a rest house in <a href="/facts/Mecca/udqyuk0k">Mecca</a> for his Muslim subjects performing <a href="/facts/Hajj/eDC5AalN">Hajj</a>. Nay Myo Gonna Khalifa U Pho Mya and Haji U Swe Baw were ordered to supervise the building. The king completed the donations needed for the building, which had started with the donations from the Burmese Muslims. This was recorded in the Myedu Mosque imam U Shwe Taung's poems.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116">116</a>

The last <a href="/facts/Mughal_Emperor/WJnl1jIP">Mughal Emperor</a> <a href="/facts/Bahadur_Shah_II/ohD4mB2R">Bahadur Shah II</a> and his family members and some followers were exiled to Yangon, Myanmar. He died during his imprisonment in <a href="/facts/Yangon/y88kj6dh">Yangon</a> and was buried on 7 November 1862.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117">117</a>
During <a href="/facts/Thibaw_Min/7u4XahEb">Thibaw Min</a>'s <a href="/facts/Third_Anglo-Burmese_War/h1v1nYre">Third Anglo-Burmese War</a>, one of the three army groups of the Burmese Army was led by the Akhbat Horse Cavalry Chief, Maha Min Htin Yar Zar. He was previously called U Chone and was the chief clerk of the Kala Pyo Army. He helped save the chief queen back to safety during the Myin Kun Myin Khone Taing revolt and was rewarded with the mayorship of the town of <a href="/facts/Pinle/TgKkJ9Sy">Pinle</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118">118</a> Htin Yar Zar commanded 1,629 soldiers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119">119</a> Additionally, Captain Bo Min Htin Kyaw also commanded 350 Kindar Kala Pyo artillerymen, with four additional Muslim-led cannoneer regiments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120">120</a>

<h3>Muslim immigration to Colonial Burma</h3>

Following the defeat of Thibaw Min by the British in 1885, Burmese Muslims formed many groups organisations for Burmese social welfare and religious affairs. On 28 November 1885, after the British took over, they included Kin Won Min Gyi, Tai Tar Min Gyi and Htin Yar Zar as representatives of the Parliament.
The population of the Muslims increased during the <a href="/facts/British_rule_in_Burma/FmlWE7Ax">British rule in Burma</a> because of new waves of <a href="/facts/Non-resident_Indian_and_person_of_Indian_origin/9styV6rp">Indian Muslim immigration</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121">121</a>
Under British rule, economic discrimination marginalised native Burmese workers, who were often replaced by Indian labourers. This fuelled resentment toward both colonial authorities and <a href="/facts/Burmese_Indians/59xWkrnn">Indian immigrants</a>. Anti-Indian sentiment peaked during the 1930 riots, intensifying racial tensions. Native Burmese sentiment turned against those whom they regarded as foreigners, including Muslims of all ethnic groups.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122">122</a> Following this, the "Burma for Burmese" campaign inflamed xenophobic tensions and an altercation with British Indian police lead to significant anti-Muslim riots in 1938, where hundreds of mosques and Muslim-owned shops were damaged and Muslism were hurt and killed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123">123</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124">124</a>
The population of Muslims in Myanmar would sharply decline in the years following 1941 as a result of the Indo-Burman Immigration agreement. The agreement itself was controversial in both India and Burma, but violent protests were cut short by the onset of the <a href="/facts/Second_World_War/2efV5L1U">Second World War</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125">125</a>
During the in <a href="/facts/Japanese_invasion_of_Burma/IqtCDVRP">Japanese invasion of Burma</a>, the Chinese Muslim border town of <a href="/facts/Panlong_Subtownship/MsIeyrnR">Panglong</a>, was entirely destroyed by the Japanese invaders.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126">126</a>

<h3>Post-Independence Identity and Citizenship of Muslims</h3>

After Burma's independence from the British in 1948, Indian immigration to Burma all but stopped. 
During the process of independence, various Burmese Muslim groups sought minority rights. <a href="/facts/Burmese_Indians/59xWkrnn">Burmese Indians</a> in particular faced strong opposition. These groups coalesced into the <a href="/facts/Burma_Muslim_Congress/NcvDSatw">Burma Muslim Congress</a> (BMC), which sought to establish themselves as a respectable community in Burma and opposed the <a href="/facts/Pakistan_movement/zWMjHHTe">Pakistan movement</a>. The BMC joined the incoming governing party- the <a href="/facts/Anti-Fascist_People%2527s_Freedom_League/eMyzWJA7">Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League</a> (AFPFL)- in 1945 but were expelled in 1948 for being religious. They later rejoined after discontinuing their religious activity. The Muslim community became divided by this decision especially amongst those who disliked the idea of Burmese Muslims being treated as an ethnic minority. Ultimately, upon independence, Muslim minorities such as the Pathis, Kamein, Myedus and Arakanese Muslims were granted citizenship by the new constitution, but Indian Muslims were barred.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127">127</a> 
While many returned to India, most stayed, with many adopting Burmese names and customs to integrate in Burmese culture. Others emphasised pan-Islamic ties and Indian identity, creating tension with more assimilated Muslims. Indian Muslims remained dominant in <a href="/facts/Yangon/y88kj6dh">Yangon</a> while Burmanised Muslims concentrated in Upper Burma. Despite internal divisions, the Burmese Buddhist majority increasingly saw all Muslims as foreign Indians during this period and associated them with other minorities seeking separatism. They became targets in efforts to unite the nation by <a href="/facts/U_Nu/KS6Ut8mQ">U Nu</a> and to end the <a href="/facts/Internal_conflict_in_Myanmar/fl2oVQoV">country's civil war</a> in the early 1960s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128">128</a>
After the <a href="/facts/1962_Burmese_coup_d%2527%25C3%25A9tat/r4uthF2K">1962 Burmese coup d'état</a>, General <a href="/facts/Ne_Win/I0GDbanI">Ne Win</a> expelled Muslims from the army and were rapidly marginalised. The generic <a href="/facts/Ethnic_slur/HzlfQHpc">ethnic slur</a> of "Kalar" came to refer negatively to Burmese Muslims during this time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129">129</a> 
In 1982, <a href="/facts/Myanmar_nationality_law/zG5rSKTw">Myanmar's nationality law</a> was changed to deny citizenship to those who did not live in Burma prior to 1823, disenfranchising many Muslims in Myanmar, even though they had lived in Myanmar for several generations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130">130</a>

<h2 id="persecution">Persecution</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Persecution_of_Muslims_in_Myanmar/KB9h4Pcf">Persecution of Muslims in Myanmar</a>
In the Taungoo period, <a href="/facts/Bayinnaung/CjRYMwzP">Bayinnaung</a> imposed restricts, such as banning <a href="/facts/Dhabihah/Ltjtx8yM">Islamic ritual slaughter</a>, including slaughter required for <a href="/facts/Halal/KtJQsKl8">halal</a> meat and the practice of <a href="/facts/Eid_al-Adha/lxHKhuDt">Eid al-Adha</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131">131</a> After Konbaung Empire was founded, King <a href="/facts/Alaungpaya/6Gvw2xoD">Alaungpaya</a> continued the practice of banning Islamic ritual slaughter. Later, King <a href="/facts/Bodawpaya/S3Tbk91u">Bodawpaya</a> (1782–1819) arrested four famous Myanmar Muslims <a href="/facts/Moulvi/j6odJjt6">moulvis</a> from Myedu and killed them in Ava, the capital, after they refused to eat pork.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132">132</a>
During <a href="/facts/British_rule_in_Burma/FmlWE7Ax">British rule in Burma</a>, colonial economic stratification policies replaced native working classes with cheaper labourers from Bengal and elsewhere in India, fueling anti-Indian and more general anti-Muslim or xenophobic sentiment throughout the country.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133">133</a> These events led to the creation of the "Burma for Burmese" Campaign, which staged a march to a Muslim Bazaar.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134">134</a> Pictures of the <a href="/facts/British_Raj/hBe6wvPS">British Indian</a> police breaking up the demonstration, specifically images of them hurting Buddhist monks inflamed tensions causing anti-Muslim riots throughout the country, particularly near Mandalay, Sagaing and Shwebo. Hundreds of mosques, Muslim-owned houses and shops were looted, destroyed or set on fire.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135">135</a> Following this, the British Governet set up the Inquiry Committee which determined the sociopolitical and economic conditions was the true cause of discontent<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136">136</a> and recommended rights to be guaranteed to all minorities and that Burmese Muslims be assigned special places in the Legislative Council. This report incited further hatred in Burmese newspapers, who were offended that the riots were not characterised as religious in nature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137">137</a>

<h3>Early post-independence persecution</h3>
The issue of Indian migration to Burma during British rule was a significant issue around the time of independence. Ultimately, Indian Muslims were denied citizenship, being seen as foreigners.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138">138</a> Divisions grew internally as many Indian Muslims, especially in Upper Burma, attempted to assimilate into Burmese culture wanting to be "Burmese in public and Muslims in their homes". Despite these divisions and the prominence of unrelated Muslim minorities, the Burmese Buddhist majority increasing saw all Muslims as foreigners who needed to be dealt with to end the <a href="/facts/Internal_conflict_in_Myanmar/fl2oVQoV">country's civil war</a> in the 1960s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139">139</a> This came despite a 1959 ruling from the <a href="/facts/Supreme_Court_of_Myanmar/rUEkb0p2">Supreme Court of Myanmar</a> that people who are "totally unlike the Burmese in appearance ... are nevertheless statutory citizens under the Union" regardless of race on a case regarding a Rohingya person.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140">140</a>
After the coup d'état of General <a href="/facts/Ne_Win/I0GDbanI">Ne Win</a> in 1962, Muslims were expelled from the army and were rapidly marginalised. The generic <a href="/facts/Ethnic_slur/HzlfQHpc">ethnic slur</a> of "Kalar" used against perceived "dark-skinned foreigners" gained especially negative connotations when referring to Burmese Muslims during this time. Accusations of "terrorism" were made against Muslim organisations such as the All Burma Muslim Union,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141">141</a> causing Muslims to join armed resistance groups to fight for greater freedoms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142">142</a> Ne Win targeted <a href="/facts/Burmese_Indian/59xWkrnn">Burmese Indian</a> and nationalised their businesses, causing mass emigration.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143">143</a>
General Ne Win immediately reduced the Haj quota for Muslims to 102 persons only in the whole country. From next year, since 1963, he totally prohibited Muslims from performing Haj. After 17 years of total denial of Haj pilgrimage, only in 1980, open back that blockage and allowed 150 Muslims to perform Haj.
Only in 1990 his successor military coup junta, SPDC or The State Peace and Development Council increase the quota to 200 persons, but with private Hajj travel companies, not limited for Hajj because all Hajj travelers were taking Hajj visa from Thailand. In 2005 after opening embassy of Saudi Arabia to Yangon, allowed 3000 persons for Hajj for the whole country; via private or government. In 2012, during the Thein Sein Gov, 5000 persons are allowed to perform Haj with the help of 50 Haj travel agents.

<h3>Riots in Mandalay (1997)</h3>
On 16 March 1997 beginning at about 3:30 p.m., following reports of an attempted rape by Muslim men and an incident with the <a href="/facts/Mahamuni_Buddha_Temple/wR2zgkSx">Mahamuni Buddha Temple</a>, a mob Buddhist monks and others gathered in <a href="/facts/Mandalay/8mayB66N">Mandalay</a>, targeting mosques and Muslim-owned shops, houses and vehicles. Looting, destruction of property, assault, sectarian violence and religious desecration spread throughout the country.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144">144</a> At least three people were killed and around 100 monks arrested.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145">145</a>

<h3>Riots in Sittwe and Taungoo (2001)</h3>
In February 2001, deeply rooted tensions between Buddhists and Muslims in <a href="/facts/Sittwe/8HGFc1Dl">Sittwe</a> escalated into violence after a dispute at a food stall. Riots broke out with Buddhist mobs setting fire to Muslim homes and properties. Police and soldiers reportedly stood by.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146">146</a>
In 2001, anti-Muslim sentiment in Myanmar intensified with the distribution of inflammatory pamphlets by monks and <a href="/facts/State_Peace_and_Development_Council/qo2cNdTF">State Peace and Development Council</a> junta's <a href="/facts/Union_Solidarity_and_Development_Association/z9AD3HnJ">Union Solidarity and Development Association</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147">147</a> Tensions escalated following the destruction of the <a href="/facts/Buddhas_of_Bamiyan/GJxfWhqS">Buddhas of Bamiyan</a> in <a href="/facts/Afghanistan/v63Auu1C">Afghanistan</a>, with monks in <a href="/facts/Taungoo/kDPKBsbL">Taungoo</a> demanding mosque demolitions in retaliation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148">148</a> On 15 May, riots led by monks and mobs resulted in around 200 Muslim deaths, destruction of mosques, and the burning of hundreds of homes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149">149</a> Pro-junta forces were reported to have beaten worshippers inside mosques. The military intervened after two days, imposing curfews and communication blackouts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:150" href="#fn:150">150</a> The riots were contained, but the violence further increased religious tension.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:151" href="#fn:151">151</a>

<h3>Riots in Rakhine (2012)</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/2012_Rakhine_State_riots/q2aGuXVY">2012 Rakhine State riots</a>

In June 2012, violence erupted in western Myanmar's <a href="/facts/Rakhine_State/MJ7PAbBI">Rakhine State</a> between ethnic <a href="/facts/Arakanese_people/6kh6mAf7">Arakanese</a> and <a href="/facts/Rohingya/GaGBFoWA">Rohingya</a> following reports of a rape circulated by an incendiary pamphlet.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:152" href="#fn:152">152</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:153" href="#fn:153">153</a> Thousands of <a href="/facts/Rohingya/GaGBFoWA">Rohingya</a>, led by religious leaders, rioted in <a href="/facts/Maungdaw/cAL3Lfe1">Maungdaw</a>, destroying property and killing Arakanese residents. Sectarian violence then quickly swept through the Arakan State capital, <a href="/facts/Sittwe/8HGFc1Dl">Sittwe</a>, and surrounding areas<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:154" href="#fn:154">154</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:155" href="#fn:155">155</a> The riots destroyed thousand of houses and caused 77 deaths amongst other damage including an <a href="/facts/Internally_displaced_person/tHMBlw2Y">internal refugee crisis</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:156" href="#fn:156">156</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:157" href="#fn:157">157</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:158" href="#fn:158">158</a>
In November, the <a href="/facts/International_Network_of_Engaged_Buddhists/5ct5AK35">International Network of Engaged Buddhists</a> released a statement calling for the conflict to be resolved and stating that more than 75,000 people had been displaced and impoverished.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:159" href="#fn:159">159</a> 
The junta's military intelligence service is suspected to have placed <a href="/facts/Agent_provocateur/bPxmTdPd">agents provocateur</a> within the monkhood to incite or lead riots based on provoking monks' government connections and their use of <a href="/facts/Mobile_phones/H3EcqD9h">mobile phones</a>- a luxury at the time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:160" href="#fn:160">160</a>

<h3>2013 and 2014 riots</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/2013_Myanmar_anti-Muslim_riots/Y4FRvaVS">2013 Myanmar anti-Muslim riots</a> 
Tensions between Muslim and Buddhist communities flared up to several violent riots across the country in 2013. This violence coincided with the rise of the Buddhist nationalist <a href="/facts/969_Movement/2zIb6Xsz">969 Movement</a> and its leader <a href="/facts/Wirathu/RlYpdpEV">Wirathu</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:161" href="#fn:161">161</a> 
Buddhists and Muslims also clashed for three days in Mandalay in July 2014 following tensions from an alleged rape incident. Vengeful mobs attacked Muslim shops, vehicles and residential areas with two dying in the riots.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:162" href="#fn:162">162</a>

<h3>Rohingya genocide</h3>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Rohingya_conflict/03AUeqGq">Rohingya conflict</a> and <a href="/facts/Rohingya_genocide/nQ60Re9t">Rohingya genocide</a>

In late 2016, the <a href="/facts/Tatmadaw/vvHCjRnb">Myanmar military forces</a> and extremist Buddhists started a major crackdown on the <a href="/facts/Rohingya_people/GaGBFoWA">Rohingya Muslims</a> in northern <a href="/facts/Rakhine_State/MJ7PAbBI">Rakhine State</a>, in response to attacks on border police camps by unidentified insurgents.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:163" href="#fn:163">163</a> The crackdown resulted in wide-scale <a href="/facts/Human_rights/WMW5XCdM">human rights</a> violations at the hands of security forces, including <a href="/facts/Extrajudicial_killings/aXmKesUe">extrajudicial killings</a>, <a href="/facts/Gang_rape/YC8eRKYY">gang rapes</a>, <a href="/facts/Arson/tzNIWYgd">arsons</a>, and other brutalities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:164" href="#fn:164">164</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:165" href="#fn:165">165</a> The crackdown was widely criticised.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:166" href="#fn:166">166</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:167" href="#fn:167">167</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:168" href="#fn:168">168</a> The newly democratic goverment's de facto leader <a href="/facts/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi/jx6sb9HR">Aung San Suu Kyi</a> has particularly been criticized for her inaction and silence over the issue.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:169" href="#fn:169">169</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:170" href="#fn:170">170</a>
In August 2017, the second phase of the <a href="/facts/Rohingya_genocide/nQ60Re9t">Rohingya genocide</a> was carried out with the <a href="/facts/United_Nations/fgXLnmgT">United Nations</a> concluding that <a href="/facts/Ethnic_cleansing/N8zf9Y0K">ethnic cleansing</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:171" href="#fn:171">171</a> At least 6,700 Rohingya were killed in the first month of attacks, between 25 August and 24 September 2017.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:172" href="#fn:172">172</a> The Burmese government dismissed these findings by stating they are "exaggerations".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:173" href="#fn:173">173</a> A study conducted in January 2018 estimated that the military and the local <a href="/facts/Rakhine_people/6kh6mAf7">Rakhine</a> population killed at least 25,000 Rohingya people and perpetrated gang rapes and other forms of sexual violence against 18,000 Rohingya women and girls. They estimated that 116,000 Rohingya were beaten, and 36,000 were thrown into fires.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:174" href="#fn:174">174</a> The military operations displaced a large number of people, with the largest wave of Rohingya refugees fleeing Myanmar in 2017.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:175" href="#fn:175">175</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul>
<li>Islam portal</li><li>Myanmar portal</li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/2012_Ramu_violence/13ehodV7">2012 Ramu violence</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/969_Movement/2zIb6Xsz">969 Movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Burmese_Chinese/Enqddqqs">Burmese Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Burmese_Indians/59xWkrnn">Burmese Indians</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Burmese_Malays/sjLNh8Wh">Burmese Malays</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_Burmese_Muslims/jz27VJjm">List of Burmese Muslims</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_Masjids_in_Mandalay/FLMh3XCk">List of Masjids in Mandalay</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Pakistanis_in_Burma/UrPh8uMT">Pakistanis in Burma</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Panthays/IxjxF9cm">Panthays</a> (Burmese Chinese Muslims)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Rohingya_people/GaGBFoWA">Rohingya people</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Religion_in_Myanmar/rQcEqBfl">Religion in Myanmar</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Rohingya_insurgency_in_Western_Myanmar/03AUeqGq">Rohingya insurgency in Western Myanmar</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/2016%25E2%2580%259317_Northern_Rakhine_State_clashes/6SdoE7xD">2016–17 Northern Rakhine State clashes</a></li></ul>

<h3>Bibliography</h3>

<ul><li><a href="http://www.burmalibrary.org/reg.burma/archives/200107/msg00034.html">"BurmaNet News: July 16, 2001"</a>. BurmaNet News. 16 July 2001. Retrieved 23 August 2008.</li>
<li>Ba Shin, Bohmu (1963). မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် အစ္စလာမ်သာသနာရောက်ရှိလာခြင်း [The coming of Islam to Burma down to 1700 AD] (in Burmese). Burma Historical Commission.</li>
<li>Collis, Maurice (1936). Simese White. London: Faber and Faber.</li>
<li>Collis, Maurice (1938). Trials in Burma. London: Faber and Faber.</li>
<li>Collis, Maurice (1953). Into Hidden Burma, an Autobiography. London: Faber. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2914324">2914324</a>.</li>
<li>Images Asia (May 1997). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051020150319/http://www.ibiblio.org/freeburma/ethnic/rohingya1.txt">"Report on the Situation for Muslims in Burma"</a>. Archived from <a href="http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/reg.burma/archives/199706/msg00422.html">the original</a> on 20 October 2005. Retrieved 24 August 2008.</li>
<li>Kyi, U (1950). Various Notable Facts in Burmese History (Thesis). Mandalay: Tri-pedaka Propagating Press.</li>
<li>Lay, Pathi U Ko (1973). "Twentieth Anniversary Special Edition of Islam Damma Beikman". Myanmar Pyi and Islamic Religion: 109–111.</li>
<li>Marga, U (1967). Pathein Yazawin [History of Pathein/Bassein] (in Burmese). Yangon: Zwe Sarpay Press.</li>
<li>Myint-U, Thant (2011). Where China meets India. Burma and the New Crossroads of Asia. New York: Farrar, Strauss and Groux. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780374984083.</li>
<li>Ministry of Religious Affairs (Government of Myanmar) (15 December 2005). <a href="http://www.mora.gov.mm/artdetail.asp?confID=7">"Freedom of Religion in Myanmar"</a>. Retrieved 23 August 2008.</li>
<li>Minorities at Risk (10 January 2007). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303232832/http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/mar/chronology.asp?groupId=77501">"Chronology for Rohingya (Arakanese) in Burma"</a>. Archived from <a href="http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/mar/chronology.asp?groupId=77501">the original</a> on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 23 August 2008.</li>
<li>"EncyclopediaMyanmar". Mranʻ māʹ cvayʻ cuṃ kyamʻʺ (in Burmese). Ranʻ Kunʻ: Forever Group. 1999. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/61715441">61715441</a>.</li>
<li>Nawrattha, Let Ware. Chronicles of Alaungpaya's battles.</li>
<li>Oo, Aung Lwin (August 2004). <a href="http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=4029">"Festival Time at a Nat Shrine"</a>. Irrawaddy. Retrieved 23 August 2008.</li>
<li>Ozturk, Cem (21 October 2003). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031021074851/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/EJ21Ae01.html">"Myanmar's Muslim Sideshow"</a>. Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 21 October 2003. Retrieved 23 August 2008.</li>
<li>Peletz, Michael G. (2009). Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia Since Early Modern Times. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780415931601.</li>
<li>Sanʻʺ Chve (2005). Kun' bhon' a lvan' [Konbaung Dynasty Royal History] (in Burmese). Vol. 1–3. Mangala ton` ññvan`, Ran` kun`: Ra praññ` Ca pe. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63241377">63241377</a>.</li>
<li>Shin, Ba (1961). Coming of Islam to Burma Down to 1700 A.D. New Delhi: Azad Bhavan. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/81267926">81267926</a>.</li>
<li>Thaung, U (17 July 2002). <a href="http://www.bma-online.org/media-conference.html#3">Burmese Media: Past, Present and Future</a>. Burma Media Conference. Oslo, Norway: Democratic Voice of Burma. Retrieved 25 August 2008.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Pe_Maung_Tin/lvXsVhIf">Tin, Pe Maung</a>; <a href="/facts/Gordon_Luce/15uHkCKl">Luce, G. H.</a> (1960). <a href="/facts/Glass_Palace_Chronicle/7cbCArDj">The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma</a>. Rangoon, Burma: Rangoon University Press.</li>
<li>US Department of State (4 March 2002). <a href="https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2001/eap/8260.htm">"Burma: Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2001"</a>. Retrieved 24 August 2008.</li>
<li>US Department of State (15 September 2006). <a href="https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71335.htm">"Burma—International Religious Freedom Report 2006"</a>. Retrieved 25 September 2007.</li>
<li>Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 3-447-01357-5. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301">185556301</a>.</li></ul>

<h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2>
<ul><li>The Burmanization of Myanmar's Muslims, the <a href="/facts/Acculturation/BDrIWs7j">acculturation</a> of the <a href="/facts/Muslims/W2ukq4pg">Muslims</a> in Burma including <a href="/facts/Rakhine_State/MJ7PAbBI">Arakan</a>, <a href="/facts/Jean_Berlie/CBw29aGM">Jean A. Berlie</a>, White Lotus Press editor, Bangkok, Thailand, published in 2008. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 974-480-126-3, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-974-480-126-5.</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080511152451/http://burmese.dvb.no/news.php?id=853">"Democratic Voice of Burma"</a>. Burma News (in Burmese). 2004. Archived from <a href="http://burmese.dvb.no/news.php?id=853">the original</a> on 11 May 2008. Retrieved 24 August 2008.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Central_Intelligence_Agency/U7urmQYL">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (21 August 2008). <a href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burma/">"Burma"</a>. The World Factbook. Retrieved 22 August 2008.</li>
<li>Charney, Michael W. (1999). 'Where Jambudipa and Islamdom Converged: Religious Change and the Emergence of Buddhist Communalism in Early Modern Arakan, 15th-19th Centuries.' PhD Dissertation, University of Michigan.</li>
<li>Desai, Walter Sadgun (1961). A Pageant of Burmese History. Bombay: Orient Longmans. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7855419">7855419</a>.</li>
<li>Hall, D. G. E. (1981). A History of South-East Asia (4 ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-312-38641-9. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4494819">4494819</a>.</li>
<li>Harvey, G. E. (August 1922). "The fate of Shah Shuja, 1661". Journal of Burma Research Society. XII: 107–112.</li>
<li>Enamul Huq, Muhammad; Visarad, Sahitya-sagar Abdul Karim Sahitya (30 August 2006). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080605201236/http://www.rakhapura.com/scholars-column/bengali-literature-in-the-kings-court-of-arakan.asp">"Arakan Rajsabhay Bangala Sahitya (1600 - 1700 AD): Bengali Literature in the Kings' Court of Arakan"</a>. Translated by Mating, Sein Pru. Archived from <a href="http://www.rakhapura.com/scholars-column/bengali-literature-in-the-kings-court-of-arakan.asp">the original</a> on 5 June 2008. Retrieved 23 August 2008.</li>
<li>Leider, Jacques P. (2004). 'Le Royaume d'Arakan, Birmanie. Son histoire politique entre le début du XVe et la fin du XVIIe siècle,' Paris, EFEO.</li>
<li>Lintner, Bertil (17 April 1988). "March Student Riots, Unrest Reviewed". Bangkok Post.</li>
<li>Maung, M. L. (1998). The Emergence of the Panthay Community at Mandalay. Rangoon: Unpublished.</li>
<li>Naing, Naing Min (November 2001). "Bhomhu Ba Shin", "Wanna Kyawhtin Bhomhu Ba Shin". Al-Balag Journal (in Burmese). Ko Min Lwin.</li>
<li>Soe, Tin (November 2001). "U Shwe Yoe's alias U Ba Ga Lay". Al-Balag Journal (in Burmese). Ko Min Lwin: 80, 82, 91.</li>
<li>Temple, Sir Richard C. (1925). "Buddermokan". Journal of Burma Research Society. XV. Burmese Research Society: 1–33, pt. 1. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0304-2227">0304-2227</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1537852">1537852</a>.</li>
<li>Than, U Ba (1969). Kyāung thōn Myanma yazạwin (Myanmar History) (in Burmese). <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/23574199">23574199</a>.</li>
<li>Tun, Than (September 1938). <a href="https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/win/vol01/no09/tu.htm">"Race Riots in Burma"</a>. Workers' International News. 1 (9): 8–10. Retrieved 24 August 2008.</li>
<li>Zwa, Kyaw (17 June 2007). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930023609/http://www.tayzathuria.org.uk/bd/2007/6/17/b/kz.htm">"Sayar Maung Thaw Ka (poem)"</a>. Burma Digest (in Burmese). VII (6(C)). Archived from <a href="http://www.tayzathuria.org.uk/bd/2007/6/17/b/kz.htm">the original</a> on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 24 August 2008.</li>
<li>N. Kamal. <a href="/facts/Personal_development/spUlNcqT">Building confidence</a> in Rohingyas' mind. The New Nation Newspaper, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 26 April 1992.</li></ul>
<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Islam in Myanmar.

<ul><li><a href="https://archive.today/20121210101621/http://burmadigest.wordpress.com/2007/07/25/the-situation-of-muslims-in-burma/">Situation of Muslims in Burma</a></li>
<li><a href="https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51506.htm">US Department of State, International Religious Freedom Report 2005 on Burma</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Department of Population Ministry of Labour, Immigration and Population MYANMAR (July 2016). The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census - The Union Report: Religion - Census Report Volume 2-C. Department of Population Ministry of Labour, Immigration and Population MYANMAR. pp. 3–5. Retrieved 6 February 2025. <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/2014-myanmar-population-and-housing-census-union-report-religion-census-report-volume" target="_blank">https://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/2014-myanmar-population-and-housing-census-union-report-religion-census-report-volume</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Department of Population Ministry of Labour, Immigration and Population MYANMAR (July 2016). The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census - The Union Report: Religion - Census Report Volume 2-C. Department of Population Ministry of Labour, Immigration and Population MYANMAR. pp. 3–5. Retrieved 6 February 2025. <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/2014-myanmar-population-and-housing-census-union-report-religion-census-report-volume" target="_blank">https://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/2014-myanmar-population-and-housing-census-union-report-religion-census-report-volume</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">USDS (2006) - US Department of State (15 September 2006). "Burma—International Religious Freedom Report 2006". Retrieved 25 September 2007. <a href="https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71335.htm" target="_blank">https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71335.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Hooker, Michael Barry (1 January 1983). Islam in South-East Asia. Brill Archive. ISBN 978-90-04-06844-5. <a href="978-90-04-06844-5" target="_blank">978-90-04-06844-5</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Ayako, Saito (2014). "The Formation of the Concept of Myanmar Muslims as Indigenous Citizens: Their History and Current Situation" (PDF). The Journal of Sophia Asian Studies. 32. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 May 2023 – via Burma Library. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230525005625/https://www.burmalibrary.org/docs21/Formation_of_the_Concept_of_Myanmar_Muslims_as_Indigenous-en.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20230525005625/https://www.burmalibrary.org/docs21/Formation_of_the_Concept_of_Myanmar_Muslims_as_Indigenous-en.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Kingston, Jeff (22 December 2015). Asian Nationalisms Reconsidered. Routledge. ISBN 9781317577300. <a href="9781317577300" target="_blank">9781317577300</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Yegar (1972), p. 7, footnote para. 2 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Yegar (1972), p. 7 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Collis (1953) - Collis, Maurice (1953). Into Hidden Burma, an Autobiography. London: Faber. OCLC 2914324. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2914324" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2914324</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Yegar (1972), p. 7, footnote para. 3 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Myanmar Encyclopedia (1999), vol. 6, p. 350 - "EncyclopediaMyanmar". Mranʻ māʹ cvayʻ cuṃ kyamʻʺ (in Burmese). Ranʻ Kunʻ: Forever Group. 1999. OCLC 61715441. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/61715441" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/61715441</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">James Gray, ed. (1892). Buddhaghosuppatti. London: Luzac & Company. p. 11. <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279735" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279735</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Hornig, Laura (2020). On Money and Metta: Economy and Morality in Urban Buddhist Myanmar. Münster: LIT Verlag. pp. 19–20. ISBN 9783643963406. <a href="9783643963406" target="_blank">9783643963406</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Pathein University Students' Magazine 1955-56 page 5. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Marga (1967), p. 137 - Marga, U (1967). Pathein Yazawin [History of Pathein/Bassein] (in Burmese). Yangon: Zwe Sarpay Press. <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Yegar (1972), p. 2-3 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Ba Shin (1963), p. 24 - Ba Shin, Bohmu (1963). မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် အစ္စလာမ်သာသနာရောက်ရှိလာခြင်း [The coming of Islam to Burma down to 1700 AD] (in Burmese). Burma Historical Commission. <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">(Interview with Haji U Ba Thi alias Haji Adam (born 11 October 1908) a Panthay elder who had served for many years as chairman of the Trust of 'the Panthay Mosque, on 15 October 1997.) The Emergence Of The Panthay Community At Mandalay, by Professor U Maung Maung Lay. published in the "Essays given to Than Tun on his 75th birthday" in the book, "Studies in Myanmar History" volume 1, published by Innwa Publishing House (in 1999). Than Tun Diamond Jubilee Publication Committee. 158 (A) Yogi Kyaung Road. Hlaing XI, Yangon, Myanmar. <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">"Myanmar, Bangladesh leaders 'to discuss Rohingya'". Agence France-Presse. 29 June 2012. Archived from the original on 18 July 2012. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120718074439/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j7a3oPcHSvWSpkXzzSruvNZfdPMA?docId=CNG.8d52d8a6dba835c4ac54aab3f3c8031b.571" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120718074439/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j7a3oPcHSvWSpkXzzSruvNZfdPMA?docId=CNG.8d52d8a6dba835c4ac54aab3f3c8031b.571</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">"টার্গেট আরাকান ও বাংলাদেশের কয়েকটি জেলা স্বাধীন রাষ্ট্রের স্বপ্ন জঙ্গিদের (Some Arakan and Bangladeshi militants target of Independent State)". Dainik Purbokone Bangladesh. Retrieved 22 October 2012. <a href="http://www.dainikpurbokone.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47174:2012-09-07-21-41-19&catid=6:2011-05-26-03-32-28&Itemid=1" target="_blank">http://www.dainikpurbokone.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47174:2012-09-07-21-41-19&catid=6:2011-05-26-03-32-28&Itemid=1</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">"নতুন রাষ্ট্র গঠনে মিয়ানমারের ১১ টি বিচ্ছিন্নতাবাদী গ্রুপ সংগঠিত হচ্ছে (11 secessionist group is organizing to create a new state in Burma)". The Editor, Bangladesh. Retrieved 22 October 2012. <a href="http://www.the-editor.net/bangla/index.php/2012-06-24-03-58-28/2012-06-11-07-22-53/3608-2012-09-08-09-12-10" target="_blank">http://www.the-editor.net/bangla/index.php/2012-06-24-03-58-28/2012-06-11-07-22-53/3608-2012-09-08-09-12-10</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">US State Dept 2022 report <a href="https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/burma" target="_blank">https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/burma</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Tin & Luce (1960) - Tin, Pe Maung; Luce, G. H. (1960). The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma. Rangoon, Burma: Rangoon University Press. <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Ba Shin (1963), p. 24-26 - Ba Shin, Bohmu (1963). မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် အစ္စလာမ်သာသနာရောက်ရှိလာခြင်း [The coming of Islam to Burma down to 1700 AD] (in Burmese). Burma Historical Commission. <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Yegar (1972), p. 30 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Yegar (1972), p. 6 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Lay (1973) - Lay, Pathi U Ko (1973). "Twentieth Anniversary Special Edition of Islam Damma Beikman". Myanmar Pyi and Islamic Religion: 109–111. <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Yegar (1972), p. 9 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Yegar (1972), p. 10 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Yegar (1972), p. 10 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">Yegar (1972), p. 2-3 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Yegar (1972), p. 20 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Yegar (1972), p. 30 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">History of Burma G.E. Harvey p.189 <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">Tin & Luce (1960), vol. 3, p. 172 - Tin, Pe Maung; Luce, G. H. (1960). The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma. Rangoon, Burma: Rangoon University Press. <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Yegar (1972), p. 74-76 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">Yegar (1972), p. 108-110, 113 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">Images Asia (1997) - Images Asia (May 1997). "Report on the Situation for Muslims in Burma". Archived from the original on 20 October 2005. Retrieved 24 August 2008. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051020150319/http://www.ibiblio.org/freeburma/ethnic/rohingya1.txt" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20051020150319/http://www.ibiblio.org/freeburma/ethnic/rohingya1.txt</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">BNN (2001) - "BurmaNet News: July 16, 2001". BurmaNet News. 16 July 2001. Retrieved 23 August 2008. <a href="http://www.burmalibrary.org/reg.burma/archives/200107/msg00034.html" target="_blank">http://www.burmalibrary.org/reg.burma/archives/200107/msg00034.html</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">Ozturk (2003) - Ozturk, Cem (21 October 2003). "Myanmar's Muslim Sideshow". Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 21 October 2003. Retrieved 23 August 2008. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031021074851/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/EJ21Ae01.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20031021074851/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/EJ21Ae01.html</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">"Burma's 'bin Laden of Buddhism'". The Telegraph. 13 July 2013. Retrieved 25 May 2015. <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/burmamyanmar/10177815/Burmas-bin-Laden-of-Buddhism.html" target="_blank">https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/burmamyanmar/10177815/Burmas-bin-Laden-of-Buddhism.html</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">"Curfew imposed in Myanmar as gang violence escalates". Myanmar News.Net. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 7 July 2014. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714201857/http://www.myanmarnews.net/index.php/sid/223558097/scat/c3891022f175b678/ht/Curfew-imposed-in-Myanmar-as-gang-violence-escalates" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20140714201857/http://www.myanmarnews.net/index.php/sid/223558097/scat/c3891022f175b678/ht/Curfew-imposed-in-Myanmar-as-gang-violence-escalates</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">MRA (2005) - Ministry of Religious Affairs (Government of Myanmar) (15 December 2005). "Freedom of Religion in Myanmar". Retrieved 23 August 2008. <a href="http://www.mora.gov.mm/artdetail.asp?confID=7" target="_blank">http://www.mora.gov.mm/artdetail.asp?confID=7</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">James Griffiths (25 November 2016). "Is The Lady listening? Aung San Suu Kyi accused of ignoring Myanmar's Muslims". CNN. Cable News Network. <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2016/11/17/asia/myanmar-rohingya-aung-san-suu-kyi/" target="_blank">https://edition.cnn.com/2016/11/17/asia/myanmar-rohingya-aung-san-suu-kyi/</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">"Myanmar seeking ethnic cleansing, says UN official as Rohingya flee persecution". The Guardian. 24 November 2016. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/24/rohingya-flee-to-bangladesh-to-escape-myanmar-military-strikes" target="_blank">https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/24/rohingya-flee-to-bangladesh-to-escape-myanmar-military-strikes</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">"'No other conclusion,' ethnic cleansing of Rohingyas in Myanmar continues – senior UN rights official". UN News. United Nations. 6 March 2018. Archived from the original on 11 April 2018. <a href="https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/03/1004232" target="_blank">https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/03/1004232</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:47">"What Forces Are Fueling Myanmar's Rohingya Crisis?". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 15 April 2024. <a href="https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/rohingya-crisis" target="_blank">https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/rohingya-crisis</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:48">Kyi (1950), pp. 156–157 - Kyi, U (1950). Various Notable Facts in Burmese History (Thesis). Mandalay: Tri-pedaka Propagating Press. <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:49">Ba Shin (1963), p. 5-6 - Ba Shin, Bohmu (1963). မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် အစ္စလာမ်သာသနာရောက်ရှိလာခြင်း [The coming of Islam to Burma down to 1700 AD] (in Burmese). Burma Historical Commission. <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:50">Yegar (1972), p. 2-3 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:51">Tin & Luce (1960) - Tin, Pe Maung; Luce, G. H. (1960). The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma. Rangoon, Burma: Rangoon University Press. <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:52">Ba Shin (1963), p. 20-24 - Ba Shin, Bohmu (1963). မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် အစ္စလာမ်သာသနာရောက်ရှိလာခြင်း [The coming of Islam to Burma down to 1700 AD] (in Burmese). Burma Historical Commission. <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:53">Yegar (1972), p. 2, para. 3, ll. 1–3 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:54">Tin & Luce (1960), p. 76 - Tin, Pe Maung; Luce, G. H. (1960). The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma. Rangoon, Burma: Rangoon University Press. <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:55">Tin & Luce (1960), pp. 81–82 - Tin, Pe Maung; Luce, G. H. (1960). The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma. Rangoon, Burma: Rangoon University Press. <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:56">Tin & Luce (1960), p. 83 - Tin, Pe Maung; Luce, G. H. (1960). The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma. Rangoon, Burma: Rangoon University Press. <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:57">Tin & Luce (1960), p. 83 - Tin, Pe Maung; Luce, G. H. (1960). The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma. Rangoon, Burma: Rangoon University Press. <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:58">Gilbert, David (15 August 2013). "Myanmar's Multicultural Spirits". The Irrawaddy. Retrieved 8 September 2013. <a href="http://www.irrawaddy.org/archives/42088" target="_blank">http://www.irrawaddy.org/archives/42088</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:59">Yegar (1972) - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:60">Oo (2004) - Oo, Aung Lwin (August 2004). "Festival Time at a Nat Shrine". Irrawaddy. Retrieved 23 August 2008. <a href="http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=4029" target="_blank">http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=4029</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">Yegar (1972), p. 2-3 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">"Ahmed Shah, the Gaur Sultan" in M. Siddiq Khan's Muslim Intercourse with Burma p 248 (contained in a journal published in Hydrabad, Deccan) <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">M. Siddiq Khan's Muslim Intercourse with Burma p.249. and M.S. Collis, "Arakan's place in civilisation of the Bay" in the Journal of the Burma Research Society Vol XV, Pt 1 p.40 <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:64">Ba Shin (1963), p. 26 - Ba Shin, Bohmu (1963). မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် အစ္စလာမ်သာသနာရောက်ရှိလာခြင်း [The coming of Islam to Burma down to 1700 AD] (in Burmese). Burma Historical Commission. <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:65">Ba Shin (1963), p. 27 - Ba Shin, Bohmu (1963). မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် အစ္စလာမ်သာသနာရောက်ရှိလာခြင်း [The coming of Islam to Burma down to 1700 AD] (in Burmese). Burma Historical Commission. <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:66">Ba Shin (1963), p. 26-27 - Ba Shin, Bohmu (1963). မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် အစ္စလာမ်သာသနာရောက်ရှိလာခြင်း [The coming of Islam to Burma down to 1700 AD] (in Burmese). Burma Historical Commission. <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:67">Ba Shin (1963), p. 30-31 - Ba Shin, Bohmu (1963). မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် အစ္စလာမ်သာသနာရောက်ရှိလာခြင်း [The coming of Islam to Burma down to 1700 AD] (in Burmese). Burma Historical Commission. <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:68">TBa Shin (1963), p. 32 - Ba Shin, Bohmu (1963). မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် အစ္စလာမ်သာသနာရောက်ရှိလာခြင်း [The coming of Islam to Burma down to 1700 AD] (in Burmese). Burma Historical Commission. <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:69">Yegar (1972), p. 10, ll. 2–3 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:70">Tin & Luce (1960), vol. 2, p. 186 - Tin, Pe Maung; Luce, G. H. (1960). The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma. Rangoon, Burma: Rangoon University Press. <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:71">Yegar (1972) - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:72">"Parameswara". www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2 March 2007. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070302111429/http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/parames.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20070302111429/http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/parames.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:73">Yegar (1972), p. 6 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:74">Sir Richard C. Temple, Buddermokan, JBRS, XV, pt 1 (1925)1-33 <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:75">A. Journal of the Burma Research Society 15: 1-33. the coast from Assam to Malay with the curious mosques known as Buddermokan reverenced by the Buddhists and China-men as well as Mahomedans. B. Arakan Rajsabhay Bangala Sahitya (1600 - 1700 AD) Bengali Literature in the Kings' Court of Arakan By Dr. Muhammad Enamul Huq (M.A., Ph. D) and Sahitya-sagar Abdul Karim Sahitya Visarad Translated from Bengali by: Maung Sein Pru [1] Archived 11 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine <a href="http://www.rakhapura.com/ScholarsColumn/Bengali_Literature_in_the_Kings_Court_of_Arakan.asp" target="_blank">http://www.rakhapura.com/ScholarsColumn/Bengali_Literature_in_the_Kings_Court_of_Arakan.asp</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:76">Yegar (1972), p. 8 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:77">Kyi (1950), pp. 156–157 - Kyi, U (1950). Various Notable Facts in Burmese History (Thesis). Mandalay: Tri-pedaka Propagating Press. <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:78">Collis (1936), p. 40 - Collis, Maurice (1936). Simese White. London: Faber and Faber. <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:79">Yegar (1972), p. 5 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:80">Early English Intercourse with Burma by D.G.E. Hall p.34 <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:81">Peter Floris 1623, Voyage into East Indies p.119 <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:82">Glass Palace Chronicle Vol. 3, page 172. <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:83">Royal decree copied from the Amarapura Royal Library in 1801 by Kyauk Ta Lone Bo. Shin (1961) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Amarapura_Royal_Library&action=edit&redlink=1" target="_blank">/w/index.php?title=Amarapura_Royal_Library&action=edit&redlink=1</a> <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:84">Early English Intercourse with Burma by D.G.E. Hall p. 201-2 <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:85">"Twentieth Anniversary Special Edition of Islam Damma Beikman." Myanmar Pyi and Islamic religion. The reprint of the records of the lectures given by Pathi U Ko Lay in 1973. <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:86">Early English Intercourse with Burma by D.G.E. Hall p.201-2. <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:87">Early English Intercourse with Burma by D.G.E. Hall p. 200. "Madaras Public Proceedings" 11 April 1706 <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:88">Early English Intercourse with Burma by D.G.E. Hall p. 200. "Madaras Public Proceedings" 24 July 1712 <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:89">Nawrattha, p. 77 - Nawrattha, Let Ware. Chronicles of Alaungpaya's battles. <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:90">Nawrattha, p. 98. - Nawrattha, Let Ware. Chronicles of Alaungpaya's battles. <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:91">Nawrattha, p. 99. - Nawrattha, Let Ware. Chronicles of Alaungpaya's battles. <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:92">Sanʻʺ Chve (2005), vol. 1, pp. 136-142 - Sanʻʺ Chve (2005). Kun' bhon' a lvan' [Konbaung Dynasty Royal History] (in Burmese). Vol. 1–3. Mangala ton` ññvan`, Ran` kun`: Ra praññ` Ca pe. OCLC 63241377. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63241377" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63241377</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:93">Yegar (1972), p. 2-3 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:94">Sanʻʺ Chve (2005), vol. 2, pp. 168–169 - Sanʻʺ Chve (2005). Kun' bhon' a lvan' [Konbaung Dynasty Royal History] (in Burmese). Vol. 1–3. Mangala ton` ññvan`, Ran` kun`: Ra praññ` Ca pe. OCLC 63241377. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63241377" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63241377</a> <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:95">The Royal gazette of Bodawpaya, Criminal Law Royal Decree Vol. 4, page 176. <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:96">Sanʻʺ Chve (2005), vol. 2, pp. 168-169 - Sanʻʺ Chve (2005). Kun' bhon' a lvan' [Konbaung Dynasty Royal History] (in Burmese). Vol. 1–3. Mangala ton` ññvan`, Ran` kun`: Ra praññ` Ca pe. OCLC 63241377. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63241377" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63241377</a> <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:97">Sanʻʺ Chve (2005), vol. 2, p. 377 - Sanʻʺ Chve (2005). Kun' bhon' a lvan' [Konbaung Dynasty Royal History] (in Burmese). Vol. 1–3. Mangala ton` ññvan`, Ran` kun`: Ra praññ` Ca pe. OCLC 63241377. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63241377" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63241377</a> <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:98">Sanʻʺ Chve (2005), vol. 2, p. 392 - Sanʻʺ Chve (2005). Kun' bhon' a lvan' [Konbaung Dynasty Royal History] (in Burmese). Vol. 1–3. Mangala ton` ññvan`, Ran` kun`: Ra praññ` Ca pe. OCLC 63241377. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63241377" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63241377</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:99">Yegar (1972) - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:100">Sanʻʺ Chve (2005), vol. 3, p. 6 - Sanʻʺ Chve (2005). Kun' bhon' a lvan' [Konbaung Dynasty Royal History] (in Burmese). Vol. 1–3. Mangala ton` ññvan`, Ran` kun`: Ra praññ` Ca pe. OCLC 63241377. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63241377" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63241377</a> <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:101">Yegar (1972), pp. 9–11 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:102">HGE Hall History of Southeast Asia. <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:103">Thant Myint-U (2007), p. 126 The River of Lost Footsteps: Histories of Burma, p. 126, at Google Books <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tsTOKi8l1ywC&pg=PA126" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=tsTOKi8l1ywC&pg=PA126</a> <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:104">Yegar (1972), p. 10 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:105">Peletz (2009), p. 73 - Peletz, Michael G. (2009). Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia Since Early Modern Times. Routledge. ISBN 9780415931601. <a href="#fnref:105" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:106">Yegar (1972) - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:106" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:107">Sanʻʺ Chve (2005), vol. 2, p. 139 - Sanʻʺ Chve (2005). Kun' bhon' a lvan' [Konbaung Dynasty Royal History] (in Burmese). Vol. 1–3. Mangala ton` ññvan`, Ran` kun`: Ra praññ` Ca pe. OCLC 63241377. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63241377" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63241377</a> <a href="#fnref:107" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:108">MRA (2005) - Ministry of Religious Affairs (Government of Myanmar) (15 December 2005). "Freedom of Religion in Myanmar". Retrieved 23 August 2008. <a href="http://www.mora.gov.mm/artdetail.asp?confID=7" target="_blank">http://www.mora.gov.mm/artdetail.asp?confID=7</a> <a href="#fnref:108" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:109">MRA (2005) - Ministry of Religious Affairs (Government of Myanmar) (15 December 2005). "Freedom of Religion in Myanmar". Retrieved 23 August 2008. <a href="http://www.mora.gov.mm/artdetail.asp?confID=7" target="_blank">http://www.mora.gov.mm/artdetail.asp?confID=7</a> <a href="#fnref:109" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:110">The "Twentieth Anniversary Special Edition of Islam Damma Beikman." Myanmar Pyi and Islamic religion. The reprint of the records of the lectures given by Pathi U Ko Lay in 1973. from page 109,110 and 111. <a href="#fnref:110" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:111">The Emergence Of The Panthay Community At Mandalay, by Professor U Maung Maung Lay. <a href="#fnref:111" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:112">The "Twentieth Anniversary Special Edition of Islam Damma Beikman." Myanmar Pyi and Islamic religion. The reprint of the records of the lectures given by Pathi U Ko Lay in 1973. from page 109,110 and 111. <a href="#fnref:112" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:113">The Emergence Of The Panthay Community At Mandalay, by Professor U Maung Maung Lay. <a href="#fnref:113" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:114">MRA (2005) - Ministry of Religious Affairs (Government of Myanmar) (15 December 2005). "Freedom of Religion in Myanmar". Retrieved 23 August 2008. <a href="http://www.mora.gov.mm/artdetail.asp?confID=7" target="_blank">http://www.mora.gov.mm/artdetail.asp?confID=7</a> <a href="#fnref:114" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:115">Myint-U (2011), p. 136 - Myint-U, Thant (2011). Where China meets India. Burma and the New Crossroads of Asia. New York: Farrar, Strauss and Groux. ISBN 9780374984083. <a href="#fnref:115" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:116">Various Myanmar History tax-books of Ministry of Education, Myanmar. <a href="#fnref:116" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:117">HGE Hall History of Southeast Asia. <a href="#fnref:117" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:118">Myanmar Encyclopedia (1999), vol. 6, p. 434 - "EncyclopediaMyanmar". Mranʻ māʹ cvayʻ cuṃ kyamʻʺ (in Burmese). Ranʻ Kunʻ: Forever Group. 1999. OCLC 61715441. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/61715441" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/61715441</a> <a href="#fnref:118" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:119">Sanʻʺ Chve (2005), vol. 3, p. 712 - Sanʻʺ Chve (2005). Kun' bhon' a lvan' [Konbaung Dynasty Royal History] (in Burmese). Vol. 1–3. Mangala ton` ññvan`, Ran` kun`: Ra praññ` Ca pe. OCLC 63241377. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63241377" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63241377</a> <a href="#fnref:119" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:120">Sanʻʺ Chve (2005), vol. 3, pp. 324–326 - Sanʻʺ Chve (2005). Kun' bhon' a lvan' [Konbaung Dynasty Royal History] (in Burmese). Vol. 1–3. Mangala ton` ññvan`, Ran` kun`: Ra praññ` Ca pe. OCLC 63241377. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63241377" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63241377</a> <a href="#fnref:120" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:121">Yegar (1972), p. 29, paras. 1–2 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:121" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:122">Collis (1938) - Collis, Maurice (1938). Trials in Burma. London: Faber and Faber. <a href="#fnref:122" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:123">Thaung (2002) - Thaung, U (17 July 2002). Burmese Media: Past, Present and Future. Burma Media Conference. Oslo, Norway: Democratic Voice of Burma. Retrieved 25 August 2008. <a href="http://www.bma-online.org/media-conference.html#3" target="_blank">http://www.bma-online.org/media-conference.html#3</a> <a href="#fnref:123" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:124">Yegar (1972), pp. 32, 36–37 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:124" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:125">Yegar (1972), pp. 39 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:125" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:126">Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (December 2015). "'Saharat Tai Doem' Thailand in Shan State, 1941–45". CPA Media. <a href="http://www.cpamedia.com/article.php?pg=archive&acid=120518152031&aiid=120529165129" target="_blank">http://www.cpamedia.com/article.php?pg=archive&acid=120518152031&aiid=120529165129</a> <a href="#fnref:126" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:127">Yegar (1972), p. 74-76 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:127" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:128">Yegar (1972), p. 108-110, 113 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:128" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:129">Priestley, Harry (January 2006). "The Outsiders". The Irrawaddy News Magazine Online Edition. Rangoon. Archived from the original on 27 November 2006. Retrieved 19 February 2016. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061127183834/http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5380&z=102" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20061127183834/http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5380&z=102</a> <a href="#fnref:129" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:130">Selth, Andrew (2003). "Burma's Muslims: Terrorists or Terrorised?" (PDF). Canberra Papers on Strategy and Defence (150). Strategic and Defence Studies Centre: 9. <a href="http://sdsc.bellschool.anu.edu.au/sites/default/files/publications/attachments/2016-03/150_Burma%E2%80%99s_Muslims__Terrorists_or_Terrorised_%28Canberra_Papers_on_Strategy_and_Defence%2C_150%29__p_073155437X_0.pdf" target="_blank">http://sdsc.bellschool.anu.edu.au/sites/default/files/publications/attachments/2016-03/150_Burma%E2%80%99s_Muslims__Terrorists_or_Terrorised_%28Canberra_Papers_on_Strategy_and_Defence%2C_150%29__p_073155437X_0.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:130" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:131">Yegar (1972), p. 10 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:131" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:132">Yegar (1972), p. 12 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:132" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:133">Collis (1938) - Collis, Maurice (1938). Trials in Burma. London: Faber and Faber. <a href="#fnref:133" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:134">Yegar (1972), p. 36 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:134" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:135">Yegar (1972), p. 36-37 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:135" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:136">Yegar (1972), p. 38 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:136" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:137">Yegar (1972), p. 38 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:137" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:138">Yegar (1972), p. 74 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:138" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:139">Yegar (1972), p. 108-109, 113 - Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01357-5. OCLC 185556301. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185556301</a> <a href="#fnref:139" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:140">(The case of Hason Ali, a Rohingya from Arakan, Vs. Union of Burma, Supreme Court Criminal Miscellaneous Cases No. 155 & 156 of 1959. Nurul Islam. Present atmosphere in Arakan. The New Nation Newspaper, Bangladesh, Monday 12 October 1992.) <a href="#fnref:140" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:141">Priestley, Harry (January 2006). "The Outsiders". The Irrawaddy News Magazine Online Edition. Rangoon. Archived from the original on 27 November 2006. Retrieved 19 February 2016. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061127183834/http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5380&z=102" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20061127183834/http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5380&z=102</a> <a href="#fnref:141" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:142">"Easy Targets". Khrg.org. Archived from the original on 12 March 2007. Retrieved 13 October 2012. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070312172250/http://www.khrg.org/khrg2002/khrg0202.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20070312172250/http://www.khrg.org/khrg2002/khrg0202.html</a> <a href="#fnref:142" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:146">Human Rights News (2002) harvp error: no target: CITEREFHuman_Rights_News2002 (help) <a href="#fnref:146" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:147">Ozturk (2003), ¶ 22 - Ozturk, Cem (21 October 2003). "Myanmar's Muslim Sideshow". Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 21 October 2003. Retrieved 23 August 2008. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031021074851/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/EJ21Ae01.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20031021074851/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/EJ21Ae01.html</a> <a href="#fnref:147" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:148">"Taungoo Violence (May 2001): Crackdown on Burmese Muslims (Human Rights Watch Briefing Paper, July 2002)". Hrw.org. Retrieved 13 October 2012. <a href="https://hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/burma-bck4.htm#P103_22688" target="_blank">https://hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/burma-bck4.htm#P103_22688</a> <a href="#fnref:148" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:149">Ozturk (2003) - Ozturk, Cem (21 October 2003). "Myanmar's Muslim Sideshow". Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 21 October 2003. Retrieved 23 August 2008. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031021074851/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/EJ21Ae01.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20031021074851/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/EJ21Ae01.html</a> <a href="#fnref:149" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:150">BNN (2001) - "BurmaNet News: July 16, 2001". BurmaNet News. 16 July 2001. Retrieved 23 August 2008. <a href="http://www.burmalibrary.org/reg.burma/archives/200107/msg00034.html" target="_blank">http://www.burmalibrary.org/reg.burma/archives/200107/msg00034.html</a> <a href="#fnref:150" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:151">USDS (2002) - US Department of State (4 March 2002). "Burma: Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2001". Retrieved 24 August 2008. <a href="https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2001/eap/8260.htm" target="_blank">https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2001/eap/8260.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:151" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:152">"Three murderers who raped, stabbed a woman to death to be brought to trial soonest". Archived from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2012. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120825035858/http://www.myanmar.com/newspaper/nlm/Jun05_24.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120825035858/http://www.myanmar.com/newspaper/nlm/Jun05_24.html</a> <a href="#fnref:152" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:153">"Arrests made in murder of 10 Muslims". Mizzima.com. 2 July 2012. Retrieved 13 October 2012. <a href="http://www.mizzima.com/news/inside-burma/7430-arrests-made-in-murder-of-10-muslims.html" target="_blank">http://www.mizzima.com/news/inside-burma/7430-arrests-made-in-murder-of-10-muslims.html</a> <a href="#fnref:153" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:154">"Myanmar Breaking News - CNN iReport". Ireport.cnn.com. 9 June 2012. Retrieved 13 October 2012. <a href="http://ireport.cnn.com/docs/DOC-800906" target="_blank">http://ireport.cnn.com/docs/DOC-800906</a> <a href="#fnref:154" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:155">"ထိုင်းနိုင်ငံ The Nation မှတစ်ဆင့် Asian News Network သို့ Eleven Media Group မှ ပေးပို့ခဲ့သည့် မောင်တောဖြစ်စဉ်သတင်း". News-eleven.com. 9 June 2012. Retrieved 13 October 2012. <a href="http://news-eleven.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14013:-the-nation-asian-news-network-eleven-media-group-&catid=42:2009-11-10-07-36-59&Itemid=112" target="_blank">http://news-eleven.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14013:-the-nation-asian-news-network-eleven-media-group-&catid=42:2009-11-10-07-36-59&Itemid=112</a> <a href="#fnref:155" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:157">"Burma: Sectarian Violence Not About Race or Religion". Voice of America. 10 August 2012. Retrieved 13 October 2012. <a href="https://www.voanews.com/a/burma-sectarian-violence-not-about-race-or-religion/1483768.html" target="_blank">https://www.voanews.com/a/burma-sectarian-violence-not-about-race-or-religion/1483768.html</a> <a href="#fnref:157" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:158">http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20121109081516/http://www.searo.who.int/LinkFiles/MMR_ESR_2_2012.pdf [bare URL PDF] <a href="http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20121109081516/http://www.searo.who.int/LinkFiles/MMR_ESR_2_2012.pdf" target="_blank">http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20121109081516/http://www.searo.who.int/LinkFiles/MMR_ESR_2_2012.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:158" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:160">Ozturk (2003), ¶ 23-4 - Ozturk, Cem (21 October 2003). "Myanmar's Muslim Sideshow". Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 21 October 2003. Retrieved 23 August 2008. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031021074851/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/EJ21Ae01.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20031021074851/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/EJ21Ae01.html</a> <a href="#fnref:160" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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</ol>

Islam in Myanmar open-in-new

Islam in Myanmar