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<h2 id="etymology">Etymology</h2> <p>The <a href="/facts/Dutch_language/yIB5lbsx">Dutch</a> word <i>polder</i> derives successively from <a href="/facts/Middle_Dutch/E1h4swn9">Middle Dutch</a> <i>polre</i>, from <a href="/facts/Old_Dutch/nXRtejv8">Old Dutch</a> <i>polra</i>, and ultimately from <i>pol-</i>, a piece of land elevated above its surroundings, with the <a href="/facts/Augmentative/MeEpx0S5">augmentative</a> suffix <i>-er</i> and <a href="/facts/Epenthesis/DEJE6nKS">epenthetical</a> <i> -d-</i>. The word has been adopted in thirty-six languages.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="netherlands">Netherlands</h2> <p>The <a href="/facts/Netherlands/y8xn5stT">Netherlands</a> is frequently associated with polders, as its engineers became noted for developing techniques to drain wetlands and make them usable for agriculture and other development. This is illustrated by the saying "God created the world, but the Dutch created the Netherlands".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Dutch_people/QhHtJ2WK">Dutch</a> have a long history of reclamation of marshes and fenland, resulting in some 3,000 <i>polders</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> nationwide. By 1961, about half of the country's land, 18,000 square kilometres (6,800 sq mi), was reclaimed from the sea.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a>[<i>better source needed</i>] About half the total surface area of <i>polders</i> in northwest Europe is in the Netherlands. The first <a href="/facts/Embankment_dam/9Mm3P4DM">embankments</a> in Europe were constructed in Roman times. The first polders were constructed in the 11th century. The oldest extant polder is the <a href="/facts/Achtermeer/PXlKXKkJ">Achtermeer</a> polder, from 1533. </p><p>As a result of flooding disasters, <a href="/facts/Water_board_(The_Netherlands)/3DtymX9J">water boards</a> called <i>waterschap</i> (when situated more inland) or <i>hoogheemraadschap</i> (near the sea, mainly used in the <a href="/facts/Holland/RGCPgWk6">Holland</a> region)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> were set up to maintain the integrity of the water defences around polders, maintain the waterways inside a polder, and control the various water levels inside and outside the polder. Water boards hold separate elections, levy taxes, and function independently from other government bodies. Their function is basically unchanged even today. As such, they are the oldest democratic institutions in the country. The necessary cooperation among all ranks to maintain polder integrity gave its name to the Dutch version of <a href="/facts/Third_Way_(centrism)/q9bbL37a">third-way politics</a>—the <i><a href="/facts/Polder_Model/qLWkWY0k">Polder Model</a></i>. </p><p>The <a href="/facts/North_Sea_flood_of_1953/wydALEQr">1953 flood disaster</a> prompted a new approach to the design of dikes and other water-retaining structures, based on an acceptable probability of overflowing. Risk is defined as the product of probability and consequences. The potential damage in lives, property, and rebuilding costs is compared with the potential cost of water defences. From these calculations follows an acceptable flood risk from the sea at one in 4,000–10,000 years, while it is one in 100–2,500 years for a river flood. The particular established policy guides the Dutch government to improve flood defences as new data on threat levels become available. </p><p>Major Dutch polders and the years they were laid dry include <a href="/facts/Beemster/m4fPnQrS">Beemster</a> (1609–1612), <a href="/facts/Schermer/Iupjf1NH">Schermer</a> (1633–1635), and <a href="/facts/Haarlemmermeerpolder/rmrNCpxJ">Haarlemmermeerpolder</a> (1852). Polders created as part of the <a href="/facts/Zuiderzee_Works/0wf7tvRG">Zuiderzee Works</a> include <a href="/facts/Wieringermeerpolder/tYTMj9JG">Wieringermeerpolder</a> (1930), <a href="/facts/Noordoostpolder/tIEyvJjj">Noordoostpolder</a> (1942) and <a href="/facts/Flevopolder/I6UGnDFw">Flevopolder</a> (1956–1968) </p> <h2 id="examples-of-polders">Examples of polders</h2> <h3>Brazil</h3> <p>Several cities on the <a href="/facts/Para%25C3%25ADba_Valley/kqFoGHsq">Paraíba Valley</a> region (in the state of <a href="/facts/S%25C3%25A3o_Paulo_(state)/GUFhhyBS">São Paulo</a>) have polders on land claimed from the floodplains around the <a href="/facts/Para%25C3%25ADba_do_Sul/WfA3P3pm">Paraíba do Sul</a> river. </p> <h3>Bangladesh</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Bangladesh/NXk4f78Y">Bangladesh</a> has 139 polders, of which 49 are sea-facing, while the rest are along the numerous <a href="/facts/Distributary/qkSKKfqx">distributaries</a> of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna River delta. These were constructed in the 1960s to protect the coast from tidal flooding and reduce salinity incursion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> They reduce long-term flooding and waterlogging following <a href="/facts/Storm_surge/kByBlFz1">storm surges</a> from <a href="/facts/Tropical_cyclone/FQzVXly7">tropical cyclones</a>. They are also cultivated for agriculture.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p> <h3>Belgium</h3> <ul><li>De Moeren, near <a href="/facts/Veurne/lzI1I1dM">Veurne</a> in <a href="/facts/West_Flanders/01B7A7Cd">West Flanders</a></li> <li>Polders along the <a href="/facts/Yser/ky7fF510">Yser</a> river between <a href="/facts/Nieuwpoort%2c_Belgium/pYGIPB1L">Nieuwpoort</a> and <a href="/facts/Diksmuide/hDvYBjH8">Diksmuide</a></li> <li>Polders of Muisbroek and Ettenhoven, in <a href="/facts/Ekeren/Eg133TGU">Ekeren</a> and <a href="/facts/Hoevenen/JsR848CS">Hoevenen</a></li> <li>Polder of Stabroek, in <a href="/facts/Stabroek/JsR848CS">Stabroek</a></li> <li>Kabeljauwpolder, in <a href="/facts/Zandvliet/fgcQkzuQ">Zandvliet</a></li> <li>Scheldepolders on the left bank of <a href="/facts/Scheldt/aEAo82f3">the Scheldt</a></li> <li>Uitkerkse polders, near Blankenberge in West Flanders</li> <li>Prosperpolder, near Doel, Antwerp and Kieldrecht.</li></ul> <h3>Canada</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Tantramar_Marshes/Gy6MfE0B">Tantramar Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Holland_Marsh/Ixnv7LTB">Holland Marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Pitt_Polder_Ecological_Reserve/tUsA7vpw">Pitt Polder Ecological Reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Grand_Pr%25C3%25A9%2c_Nova_Scotia/zF73kAh5">Grand Pré, Nova Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Minas_Basin/gcnNHeRj">Minas Basin</a></li></ul> <h3>China</h3> <ul><li>The city of <a href="/facts/Kunshan/2SNyRCIf">Kunshan</a> has over 100 polders.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a></li></ul> <h4>History</h4> <p>The <a href="/facts/Jiangnan/5kUcFLxv">Jiangnan</a> region, at the <a href="/facts/Yangtze_River_Delta/nkrNkRoY">Yangtze River Delta</a>, has a long history of constructing polders. Most of these projects were performed between the 10th and 13th centuries.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> The Chinese government also assisted local communities in constructing dikes for swampland water drainage.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> The Lijia (里甲) self-monitoring system of 110 households under a <i>lizhang</i> (里长) headman was used for the purposes of service administration and tax collection in the polder, with a <i>liangzhang</i> (粮长, grain chief) responsible for maintaining the water system and a <i>tangzhang</i> (塘长, dike chief) for polder maintenance.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p> <h3>Denmark</h3> <ul><li>Filsø</li> <li><a href="/facts/Kolindsund/4RtKowxQ">Kolindsund</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Lammefjorden/1NPTeeHh">Lammefjorden</a></li></ul> <h3>Finland</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/S%25C3%25B6derfj%25C3%25A4rden/kTVR0xbF">Söderfjärden</a></li> <li>Munsmo</li> <li>Two polders (three square kilometres or 1.2 square miles in total) near Vassor in <a href="/facts/Korsholm/trS3S7hk">Korsholm</a></li></ul> <h3>France</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Marais_Poitevin/54yj0dPm">Marais Poitevin</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Les_Mo%25C3%25ABres/jnzE5SfU">Les Moëres</a>, adjacent to the Flemish polder <i>De Moeren</i> in Belgium.</li> <li>Polders de Couesnon near <a href="/facts/Mont-Saint-Michel/SuSonhvF">Mont-Saint Michel</a> in Normandy<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a></li></ul> <h3>Germany</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Koog/D9e4pchX">Koog</a></p> <p>In Germany, land reclaimed by diking is called a <i>koog</i>. The German <i>Deichgraf</i> system was similar to the Dutch and is widely known from <a href="/facts/Theodor_Storm/nPPG6o0g">Theodor Storm</a>'s novella <i><a href="/facts/The_Rider_on_the_White_Horse/N0DqWcjr">The Rider on the White Horse</a></i>. </p> <ul><li>Altes Land near Hamburg</li> <li><a href="/facts/Blockland%2c_Bremen/JIM9TpT0">Blockland</a> and Hollerland near Bremen</li> <li><a href="/facts/Nordstrand%2c_Germany/eyI4bcCb">Nordstrand, Germany</a></li> <li>Bormerkoog and Meggerkoog near <a href="/facts/Friedrichstadt/q1bucNGG">Friedrichstadt</a></li> <li>36 <i>koogs</i> in the district of <a href="/facts/Nordfriesland/9ly2AoXv">Nordfriesland</a></li> <li>12 <i>koogs</i> in the district of <a href="/facts/Dithmarschen/KaUnPnKh">Dithmarschen</a></li></ul> <p>In southern Germany, the term <i>polder</i> is used for <a href="/facts/Retention_basin/kXIVBuCl">retention basins</a> recreated by opening dikes during river <a href="/facts/Floodplain_restoration/pYV7UYwp">floodplain restoration</a>, a meaning somewhat opposite to that in coastal context. </p> <h3>Guyana</h3> <ul><li>Black Bush Polder, Corentyne, Berbice.</li></ul> <h3>India</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Kuttanad/g1CB01X5">Kuttanad</a> Region, <a href="/facts/Kerala/DMP5u40q">Kerala</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a></li></ul> <h3>Ireland</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Lough_Swilly/XB5YqoSI">Lough Swilly</a>, <a href="/facts/County_Donegal/ABbl3HoH">County Donegal</a>. Near <a href="/facts/Inch_Island/dbDsEee0">Inch Island</a> and <a href="/facts/Newtowncunningham/YbbJsRCN">Newtowncunningham</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a></li></ul> <h3>Italy</h3> <ul><li>Delta of the river <a href="/facts/Po_River/jtwDSkgw">Po</a>, such as Bonifica Valle del Mezzano</li></ul> <h3>Japan</h3> <ul><li>Around the <a href="/facts/Ariake_Sea/n4j7Etd9">Ariake Sea</a> in Kyushu, mainly in <a href="/facts/Saga_Prefecture/pEu1LRxY">Saga</a> but also in <a href="/facts/Fukuoka_Prefecture/5oWJfGgY">Fukuoka</a> and <a href="/facts/Kumamoto_Prefecture/7TUxKpJe">Kumamoto</a> Prefectures</li></ul> <h3>Lithuania</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Rusn%25C4%2597_Island/KPX9d5m5">Rusnė Island</a></li></ul> <h3>Netherlands</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Achtermeer/PXlKXKkJ">Achtermeer</a>, the oldest polder, from 1533</li> <li><a href="/facts/Alblasserwaard/J5blus48">Alblasserwaard</a>, containing the windmills of <a href="/facts/Kinderdijk/az0xQaRh">Kinderdijk</a>, a <a href="/facts/World_Heritage_Site/6AbWWKV4">World Heritage Site</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Alkmaar/aBGuSXjH">Alkmaar</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Andijk/bE9WXRX8">Andijk</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Anna_Paulownapolder/IKfL6zwJ">Anna Paulownapolder</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Beemster/m4fPnQrS">Beemster</a>, a World Heritage Site</li> <li><a href="/facts/Bijlmermeer/s4rRmT6M">Bijlmermeer</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Flevopolder/I6UGnDFw">Flevopolder</a>, the largest <a href="/facts/Artificial_island/t4vHBFvY">artificial island</a> in the world, last part drained in 1968</li> <li><a href="/facts/%2527s-Gravesloot/PntFNdv1">'s-Gravesloot</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Haarlemmermeer/rmrNCpxJ">Haarlemmermeer</a>, containing <a href="/facts/Schiphol/Hrfvv9uz">Schiphol</a> airport</li> <li><a href="/facts/Krimpenerwaard/RpWLKRmc">Krimpenerwaard</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Lauwersmeer/nxShWtuy">Lauwersmeer</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Mastenbroek/QTmQEwTc">Mastenbroek</a>, one of the oldest medieval polders, drained around 1363-1364.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Noordoostpolder/tIEyvJjj">Noordoostpolder</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Prins_Alexander/CJrACueA">Prins Alexanderpolder</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Purmer/ollXFSPs">Purmer</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Schermer/Iupjf1NH">Schermer</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Watergraafsmeer/YPEg8xlL">Watergraafsmeer</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Wieringermeer/tYTMj9JG">Wieringermeer</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Wieringerwaard/CbAhmmve">Wieringerwaard</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Wijdewormer/XfPu8MrW">Wijdewormer</a></li> <li>Zestienhoven, home of the <a href="/facts/Rotterdam_The_Hague_Airport/1RNIElqx">Rotterdam The Hague Airport</a> (<a href="/facts/Overschie/dQ9MUwBG">Overschie</a>), in the city of <a href="/facts/Rotterdam/p8LbhGmE">Rotterdam</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Zuidplaspolder/QgBlyqC9">Zuidplaspolder</a>, along with <a href="/facts/Lammefjord/1NPTeeHh">Lammefjord</a> in Denmark the lowest point of the European Union</li></ul> <h3>Poland</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Vistula/mnDW9Uqt">Vistula</a> delta near <a href="/facts/Elbl%25C4%2585g/Qfv06nSU">Elbląg</a> and <a href="/facts/Nowy_Dw%25C3%25B3r_Gda%25C5%2584ski/qAuMy1uK">Nowy Dwór Gdański</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Warta/aJGnu4mf">Warta</a> delta near <a href="/facts/Kostrzyn_nad_Odr%25C4%2585/xrotQuWG">Kostrzyn nad Odrą</a></li></ul> <h3>Romania</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Danube_Delta/lfVQy0sk">Danube Delta</a></li></ul> <h3>Singapore</h3> <ul><li>Parts of <a href="/facts/Pulau_Tekong/9aEtADF4">Pulau Tekong</a></li></ul> <h3>Slovenia</h3> <ul><li>The <a href="/facts/Ankaran/5nFbJjkF">Ankaran/Ancarano</a> Polder (<a href="/facts/Slovene_language/09YPyUQr">Slovene</a>: <i>Ankaranska bonifika</i>), Semedela Polder (<i>Semedelska bonifika</i>), and Škocjan Polder (<i>Škocjanska bonifika</i>) in reclaimed land around <a href="/facts/Koper/KwchoR6t">Koper/Capodistria</a>.</li></ul> <h3>South Korea</h3> <ul><li>Parts of the coast of <a href="/facts/Ganghwa_Island/mY8z9ED1">Ganghwa Island</a>, adjacent to the river <a href="/facts/Han_River_(Korea)/AH0C0j2q">Han</a> in <a href="/facts/Incheon/U2mUEnlb">Incheon</a></li> <li>Delta of the river <a href="/facts/Nakdong_River/C8pmIfHy">Nakdong</a> in <a href="/facts/Busan/rHbfkIA3">Busan</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Saemangeum/F6DWzQmw">Saemangeum</a> in <a href="/facts/North_Jeolla_Province/BD4cP4ou">North Jeolla Province</a></li></ul> <h3>Spain</h3> <ul><li>Parts of <a href="/facts/M%25C3%25A1laga/9lpQKS8w">Málaga</a> were built on reclaimed land</li></ul> <h3>United Kingdom</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Traeth_Mawr/LJtpuCno">Traeth Mawr</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Sunk_Island/LrkpUcw1">Sunk Island</a>, on the north shore of the <a href="/facts/Humber/SJgJnnmH">Humber</a> east of <a href="/facts/Kingston_upon_Hull/8yMvTEcM">Hull</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Caldicot_and_Wentloog_Levels/Jv16jI0s">Caldicot and Wentloog Levels</a> along the <a href="/facts/Severn_Estuary/SPwuVY1q">Severn Estuary</a> in South Wales</li> <li>Parts of <a href="/facts/The_Fens/2lKmACUu">The Fens</a> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Branston%2c_Lincolnshire/lIEo8A2U">Branston Island</a>, by the <a href="/facts/River_Witham/rPVKlWlt">River Witham</a> outside the conventional area of the fens but connected to them.</li></ul></li> <li>Parts of the coast of <a href="/facts/Essex/cuUqAlzH">Essex</a></li> <li>Some land along the <a href="/facts/River_Plym/YSstLoGX">River Plym</a> in <a href="/facts/Plymouth/FhYcrnqf">Plymouth</a></li> <li>Some land around <a href="/facts/Meathop/GH3n24hD">Meathop</a> east of <a href="/facts/Grange-over-Sands/qojeUBkk">Grange-over-Sands</a>, reclaimed as a side-effect of building a <a href="/facts/Railway/9nJQbsDV">railway</a> <a href="/facts/Embankment_(transportation)/zuU0oRYD">embankment</a></li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Somerset_Levels/JJxxaNRI">Somerset Levels</a> and <a href="/facts/North_Somerset_Levels/eLQ7A3Nk">North Somerset Levels</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Romney_Marsh/fcNau21Y">Romney Marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Sealand%2c_Flintshire/IANeNm67">Sealand, Flintshire</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Humberhead_Levels/y0aDsT6T">Humberhead Levels</a></li></ul> <h3>United States</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/New_Orleans/IgCn61KH">New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Sacramento_%25E2%2580%2593_San_Joaquin_River_Delta/c99rQzqz">Sacramento – San Joaquin River Delta</a></li></ul> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Afsluitdijk/y78wjRG5">Afsluitdijk</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Flood_control_in_the_Netherlands/c0VrG2Le">Flood control in the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Land_reclamation/taYL4BjI">Land reclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Windpump/4c7sVQIj">Windpump</a></li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Derex, Jean-Michel, Franco Cazzola (eds.) 2004. 2nd ed. 2013. <i>Eau et développement dans l'Europe moderne</i>. Paris, Maison des Sciences De L'Homme</li> <li>Farjon, J.M.J., J. Dirkx, A. Koomen, J. Vervloet & W. Lammers. 2001. <i>Neder-landschap Internationaal: bouwstenen voor een selectie van gebieden landschapsbehoud.</i> Alterra, Wageningen. <a href="http://www2.alterra.wur.nl/Webdocs/PDFFiles/Alterrarapporten/AlterraRapport358.pdf">Rapport 358</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121028204957/http://www2.alterra.wur.nl/Webdocs/PDFFiles/Alterrarapporten/AlterraRapport358.pdf">Archived</a> 2012-10-28 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Stenak, Morten. 2005. <i>De inddæmmede Landskaber – En historisk geografi.</i> Landbohistorik Selskab.</li> <li><i><a href="http://edepot.wur.nl/380818">Polders of the World. Keynotes International Symposium</a></i>. 1982. Lelystad, The Netherlands</li> <li>Ven, G.P. van de (ed.) 1993, 4th ed. 2004. <i>Man-made Lowlands. History of Water Management and Land Reclamation in the Netherlands</i>, Matrijs, Utrecht.</li> <li>Wagret, Paul. 1972. <i>Polderlands.</i> London: Methuen.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Polders. <ul><li><a href="http://home.planet.nl/~farjo001/internat_uk.htm">Polder landscapes in the Netherlands</a> – <i>in a northwest European and a landmark context</i>.</li> <li><a href="http://static.nai.nl/polders/e/hoe_e.html">How to make a polder – online film</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417072114/https://static.nai.nl/polders/e/hoe_e.html">Archived</a> 2021-04-17 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Sijs, N. van der, 2010. Nederlandse woorden wereldwijd, 747 pp. Sdu Uitgevers bv, Den Haag. ISBN 9789012582148, https://pure.knaw.nl/portal/files/458170/Nww_compleet_archief.pdf, page 155 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Cf. Forrest Clingerman, Brian Treanor, Martin Drenthen, David Utsler, Interpreting Nature: The Emerging Field of Environmental Hermeneutics, Fordham University Press, 1 sep. 2013. The sentence stems from a poem by Archibald Pitcairn (1652–1713): Tellurem fecere dei, sua littora Belgae. C.D. van Strien, British Travellers in Holland During the Stuart Period: Edward Browne and John Locke as Tourists in the United Provinces, Leiden 1993, 164. <a href="/wiki/Forrest_Clingerman" target="_blank">/wiki/Forrest_Clingerman</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>"Kijk naar de geschiedenis". Rijkswaterstaat. Retrieved 2008-01-21.[permanent dead link] <a href="https://www.rijkswaterstaat.nl/rws/waterinnovatiebron/cgi-bin/toonlijst.pl?config=config&var=volgnr&val=1&layout=index-forceframe&confignr=1&menu=1067260347&menuitem=1120115781" target="_blank">https://www.rijkswaterstaat.nl/rws/waterinnovatiebron/cgi-bin/toonlijst.pl?config=config&var=volgnr&val=1&layout=index-forceframe&confignr=1&menu=1067260347&menuitem=1120115781</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Ley, Willy (October 1961). "The Home-Made Land". For Your Information. Galaxy Science Fiction. pp. 92–106. <a href="https://archive.org/stream/Galaxy_v19n06_1961-08#page/n65/mode/1up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/stream/Galaxy_v19n06_1961-08#page/n65/mode/1up</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>"waterschap". Archived from the original on 2012-11-02. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121102142234/http://www.waterschappen.nl/" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20121102142234/http://www.waterschappen.nl/</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Reh, W., Steenbergen, C., Aten, D. 2007. Sea of Land, The polder as an experimental atlas of Dutch landscape architecture. 344 pp, Uitgeverij Architectura & Natura. ISBN 9789071123962 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>"Bangladesh polders under threat", Irin News <a href="http://www.irinnews.org/report/98292/bangladesh-polders-under-threat" target="_blank">http://www.irinnews.org/report/98292/bangladesh-polders-under-threat</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>"Bangladeshi project to enhance polders amidst climate woes" Archived 2014-04-08 at the Wayback Machine, Unearth News <a href="http://unearthnews.org/2013/07/17/bangladeshi-project-to-enhance-polders-amidst-climate-woes/" target="_blank">http://unearthnews.org/2013/07/17/bangladeshi-project-to-enhance-polders-amidst-climate-woes/</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>"CRCWSC Trade Mission to Kunshan" (PDF). 2016-12-01. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-04-09. <a href="https://watersensitivecities.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/CRCWSC_TradeMissiontoKunshan_R2.pdf" target="_blank">https://watersensitivecities.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/CRCWSC_TradeMissiontoKunshan_R2.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Liao, Qiyu 繆启愉 (1985). Taihu Tangpu Weitian Shi Yanjiu 太湖塘浦圩田史研究 [The research of the dikes and polders of Lake Tai]. Beijing: Nongye Chubanshe. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Xie, Shi 谢湜 (2010). ""11 Shiji Taihu Diqu Nongtian Shuili Geju de Xingcheng" 11 世纪太湖地区农田水利格局的形成 [The formation of water management system in the farmland of the Lake Tai region in the eleventh century]". Journal of Sun Yat-sen University. 50 (5): 94–106. <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Hamashima, Atsutoshi 滨岛敦俊 (1982). Mindai Kōnan nōson shakai no kenkyū 明代江南農村社会の研究 [Rural Society in Jiangnan during the Ming Dynasty. Tokyo: Tokyo University Press. pp. 9–65. <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>"les polders" (PDF). littoral-normand.n2000.fr. Retrieved 2023-03-25. <a href="https://littoral-normand.n2000.fr/sites/littoral-normand.n2000.fr/files/documents/page/les_polders.pdf" target="_blank">https://littoral-normand.n2000.fr/sites/littoral-normand.n2000.fr/files/documents/page/les_polders.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>"Rain continues to throw a challenge in Kuttanad". The Hindu. The Hindu Group. 2011. 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