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Estrogen receptor alpha
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<h2 id="structure">Structure</h2> <p>The estrogen receptor (ER) is a <a href="/facts/Ligand_(biochemistry)/44QLL4eU">ligand</a>-activated <a href="/facts/Transcription_factor/wro0DPHe">transcription factor</a> composed of several <a href="/facts/Protein_domain/oUpFcSsl">domains</a> important for hormone binding, <a href="/facts/DNA-binding_domain/x2vlHUKl">DNA binding</a>, and <a href="/facts/Activator_(genetics)/VF1xqnrv">activation</a> of <a href="/facts/Transcription_(genetics)/bDgp9HDN">transcription</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Alternative_splicing/nNRwPVNK">Alternative splicing</a> results in several ESR1 <a href="/facts/Messenger_RNA/oUL6qxQn">mRNA</a> transcripts, which differ primarily in their <a href="/facts/Five_prime_untranslated_region/xv930kS8">5-prime untranslated regions</a>. The translated receptors show less variability.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="ligands">Ligands</h2> <h3>Agonists</h3> <h4>Non-selective</h4> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Endogenous/DFkSLkRI">Endogenous</a> <a href="/facts/Estrogen/dPEewnDV">estrogens</a> (e.g., <a href="/facts/Estradiol/eCg3UCgX">estradiol</a>, <a href="/facts/Estrone/FDbcmBGS">estrone</a>, <a href="/facts/Estriol/JYgLMeay">estriol</a>, <a href="/facts/Estetrol/IHLGgJj8">estetrol</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Natural_product/J4RsVhmP">Natural</a> <a href="/facts/Estrogen/dPEewnDV">estrogens</a> (e.g., <a href="/facts/Conjugated_equine_estrogen/Ss9d1kUr">conjugated equine estrogens</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Synthetic_compound/gqCNaN45">Synthetic</a> <a href="/facts/Estrogen/dPEewnDV">estrogens</a> (e.g., <a href="/facts/Ethinylestradiol/aYRGLz8n">ethinylestradiol</a>, <a href="/facts/Diethylstilbestrol/0kPqaIex">diethylstilbestrol</a>)</li></ul> <h4>Selective</h4> <p>Agonists of ERα selective over <a href="/facts/ER%25CE%25B2/lqHMPmUM">ERβ</a> include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Propylpyrazoletriol/DUpDfpVE">Propylpyrazoletriol</a> (PPT)</li> <li><a href="/facts/16%25CE%25B1-LE2/Ixl4KIo6">16α-LE2</a> (Cpd1471)</li> <li><a href="/facts/16%25CE%25B1-Iodo-E2/9DS6vGXn">16α-IE2</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/ERA-63/x2CRxoH3">ERA-63</a> (ORG-37663)</li> <li><a href="/facts/SKF-82%2c958/6YJsd8uE">SKF-82,958</a> – also a <a href="/facts/D1-like_receptor/yu13N9ky">D1-like receptor</a> <a href="/facts/Full_agonist/nz8U5NNp">full agonist</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/(R%2cR)-Tetrahydrochrysene/t9sVcLE2">(R,R)-Tetrahydrochrysene</a> ((R,R)-THC) – actually not selective over ERβ, but rather an antagonist instead of an agonist of ERβ</li></ul> <h3>Mixed</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Phytoestrogen/lsLPIK1k">Phytoestrogens</a> (e.g., <a href="/facts/Coumestrol/l6nzAVys">coumestrol</a>, <a href="/facts/Daidzein/AD3o0xGU">daidzein</a>, <a href="/facts/Genistein/XJc73rxA">genistein</a>, <a href="/facts/Miroestrol/7ndNG02l">miroestrol</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Selective_estrogen_receptor_modulator/nrQldde1">Selective estrogen receptor modulators</a> (e.g., <a href="/facts/Tamoxifen/oHU8n7ch">tamoxifen</a>, <a href="/facts/Clomifene/DHUn89Vt">clomifene</a>, <a href="/facts/Raloxifene/m2cBgY5q">raloxifene</a>)</li></ul> <h3>Antagonists</h3> <h4>Non-selective</h4> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Antiestrogen/VxQlPfYR">Antiestrogens</a> (e.g., <a href="/facts/Fulvestrant/L7bQ0AHa">fulvestrant</a>, <a href="/facts/ICI-164384/SvIcqFaz">ICI-164384</a>, <a href="/facts/Ethamoxytriphetol/lTvtMmdR">ethamoxytriphetol</a>)</li></ul> <h4>Selective</h4> <p>Antagonists of ERα selective over ERβ include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Methylpiperidinopyrazole/u4WnmeWt">Methylpiperidinopyrazole</a> (MPP)</li></ul> <h3>Affinities</h3> <ul><li>v</li><li>t</li><li>e</li></ul> Affinities of estrogen receptor ligands for the ERα and ERβ<table><tbody><tr><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Ligand_(biochemistry)/44QLL4eU">Ligand</a></th><th rowspan="2">Other names</th><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Relative_binding_affinity/44QLL4eU">Relative binding affinities</a> (RBA, %)a</th><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Absolute_binding_affinity/44QLL4eU">Absolute binding affinities</a> (Ki, nM)a</th><th rowspan="2">Action</th></tr><tr><th>ERα</th><th><a href="/facts/ER%25CE%25B2/lqHMPmUM">ERβ</a></th><th>ERα</th><th><a href="/facts/ER%25CE%25B2/lqHMPmUM">ERβ</a></th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Estradiol_(medication)/a8tPPllE">Estradiol</a></td><td>E2; 17β-Estradiol</td><td>100</td><td>100</td><td>0.115 (0.04–0.24)</td><td>0.15 (0.10–2.08)</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Estrone_(medication)/dyUM6hgR">Estrone</a></td><td>E1; 17-Ketoestradiol</td><td>16.39 (0.7–60)</td><td>6.5 (1.36–52)</td><td>0.445 (0.3–1.01)</td><td>1.75 (0.35–9.24)</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Estriol_(medication)/o5rJfAJs">Estriol</a></td><td>E3; 16α-OH-17β-E2</td><td>12.65 (4.03–56)</td><td>26 (14.0–44.6)</td><td>0.45 (0.35–1.4)</td><td>0.7 (0.63–0.7)</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Estetrol_(medication)/jGB4BByX">Estetrol</a></td><td>E4; 15α,16α-Di-OH-17β-E2</td><td>4.0</td><td>3.0</td><td>4.9</td><td>19</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Alfatradiol/VtpJMtzI">Alfatradiol</a></td><td>17α-Estradiol</td><td>20.5 (7–80.1)</td><td>8.195 (2–42)</td><td>0.2–0.52</td><td>0.43–1.2</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/16-Epiestriol/3IkT4l3f">16-Epiestriol</a></td><td>16β-Hydroxy-17β-estradiol</td><td>7.795 (4.94–63)</td><td>50</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/17-Epiestriol/zCxD6sgv">17-Epiestriol</a></td><td>16α-Hydroxy-17α-estradiol</td><td>55.45 (29–103)</td><td>79–80</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/16%2c17-Epiestriol/VXY1jjhj">16,17-Epiestriol</a></td><td>16β-Hydroxy-17α-estradiol</td><td>1.0</td><td>13</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/2-Hydroxyestradiol/jqEgqVSU">2-Hydroxyestradiol</a></td><td>2-OH-E2</td><td>22 (7–81)</td><td>11–35</td><td>2.5</td><td>1.3</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/2-Methoxyestradiol/Bto13yr2">2-Methoxyestradiol</a></td><td>2-MeO-E2</td><td>0.0027–2.0</td><td>1.0</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/4-Hydroxyestradiol/MGFxfa8E">4-Hydroxyestradiol</a></td><td>4-OH-E2</td><td>13 (8–70)</td><td>7–56</td><td>1.0</td><td>1.9</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/4-Methoxyestradiol/fxcQlIQX">4-Methoxyestradiol</a></td><td>4-MeO-E2</td><td>2.0</td><td>1.0</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/2-Hydroxyestrone/QCCeoQqc">2-Hydroxyestrone</a></td><td>2-OH-E1</td><td>2.0–4.0</td><td>0.2–0.4</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/2-Methoxyestrone/lG2taxQ1">2-Methoxyestrone</a></td><td>2-MeO-E1</td><td><0.001–<1</td><td><1</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/4-Hydroxyestrone/8LYy2Io7">4-Hydroxyestrone</a></td><td>4-OH-E1</td><td>1.0–2.0</td><td>1.0</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/4-Methoxyestrone/g0kTUkQd">4-Methoxyestrone</a></td><td>4-MeO-E1</td><td><1</td><td><1</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/16%25CE%25B1-Hydroxyestrone/v6t4zR9y">16α-Hydroxyestrone</a></td><td>16α-OH-E1; 17-Ketoestriol</td><td>2.0–6.5</td><td>35</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/2-Hydroxyestriol/vVR7fruo">2-Hydroxyestriol</a></td><td>2-OH-E3</td><td>2.0</td><td>1.0</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/4-Methoxyestriol/M1a3FNqu">4-Methoxyestriol</a></td><td>4-MeO-E3</td><td>1.0</td><td>1.0</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Estradiol_sulfate/VhYbXLBY">Estradiol sulfate</a></td><td>E2S; Estradiol 3-sulfate</td><td><1</td><td><1</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Estradiol_disulfate/nGx4Ro5e">Estradiol disulfate</a></td><td>Estradiol 3,17β-disulfate</td><td>0.0004</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Estradiol_3-glucuronide/b9vlh02l">Estradiol 3-glucuronide</a></td><td>E2-3G</td><td>0.0079</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Estradiol_17%25CE%25B2-glucuronide/EQwDVUmP">Estradiol 17β-glucuronide</a></td><td>E2-17G</td><td>0.0015</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Estradiol_3-glucuronide_17%25CE%25B2-sulfate/Lg95BJ21">Estradiol 3-gluc. 17β-sulfate</a></td><td>E2-3G-17S</td><td>0.0001</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Estrone_sulfate_(medication)/sd9jfXrH">Estrone sulfate</a></td><td>E1S; Estrone 3-sulfate</td><td><1</td><td><1</td><td>>10</td><td>>10</td><td>Metabolite</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Estradiol_benzoate/Cn6XNm6s">Estradiol benzoate</a></td><td>EB; Estradiol 3-benzoate</td><td>10</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Estradiol_17%25CE%25B2-benzoate/mfXzhvXw">Estradiol 17β-benzoate</a></td><td>E2-17B</td><td>11.3</td><td>32.6</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Estrone_methyl_ether/GtT8qUY5">Estrone methyl ether</a></td><td>Estrone 3-methyl ether</td><td>0.145</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Ent-Estradiol/keKhe41J"><i>ent</i>-Estradiol</a></td><td>1-Estradiol</td><td>1.31–12.34</td><td>9.44–80.07</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Equilin/B470x2YP">Equilin</a></td><td>7-Dehydroestrone</td><td>13 (4.0–28.9)</td><td>13.0–49</td><td>0.79</td><td>0.36</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Equilenin/8S9uqlmI">Equilenin</a></td><td>6,8-Didehydroestrone</td><td>2.0–15</td><td>7.0–20</td><td>0.64</td><td>0.62</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/17%25CE%25B2-Dihydroequilin/eVpgQ9aH">17β-Dihydroequilin</a></td><td>7-Dehydro-17β-estradiol</td><td>7.9–113</td><td>7.9–108</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.17</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/17%25CE%25B1-Dihydroequilin/No2tqnxw">17α-Dihydroequilin</a></td><td>7-Dehydro-17α-estradiol</td><td>18.6 (18–41)</td><td>14–32</td><td>0.24</td><td>0.57</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/17%25CE%25B2-Dihydroequilenin/aghL7uFv">17β-Dihydroequilenin</a></td><td>6,8-Didehydro-17β-estradiol</td><td>35–68</td><td>90–100</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.20</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/17%25CE%25B1-Dihydroequilenin/UXV5wQqh">17α-Dihydroequilenin</a></td><td>6,8-Didehydro-17α-estradiol</td><td>20</td><td>49</td><td>0.50</td><td>0.37</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/8%2c9-Dehydroestradiol/26dPEXwV">Δ8-Estradiol</a></td><td>8,9-Dehydro-17β-estradiol</td><td>68</td><td>72</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.25</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/8%2c9-Dehydroestrone/Ab37DGf6">Δ8-Estrone</a></td><td>8,9-Dehydroestrone</td><td>19</td><td>32</td><td>0.52</td><td>0.57</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Ethinylestradiol/aYRGLz8n">Ethinylestradiol</a></td><td>EE; 17α-Ethynyl-17β-E2</td><td>120.9 (68.8–480)</td><td>44.4 (2.0–144)</td><td>0.02–0.05</td><td>0.29–0.81</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Mestranol/KULLfePb">Mestranol</a></td><td>EE 3-methyl ether</td><td>?</td><td>2.5</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Moxestrol/8vrIRDWN">Moxestrol</a></td><td>RU-2858; 11β-Methoxy-EE</td><td>35–43</td><td>5–20</td><td>0.5</td><td>2.6</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Methylestradiol/KnVTuunF">Methylestradiol</a></td><td>17α-Methyl-17β-estradiol</td><td>70</td><td>44</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Diethylstilbestrol/0kPqaIex">Diethylstilbestrol</a></td><td>DES; Stilbestrol</td><td>129.5 (89.1–468)</td><td>219.63 (61.2–295)</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.05</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Hexestrol/QzSFsIhy">Hexestrol</a></td><td>Dihydrodiethylstilbestrol</td><td>153.6 (31–302)</td><td>60–234</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.06</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Dienestrol/LEVXXVnT">Dienestrol</a></td><td>Dehydrostilbestrol</td><td>37 (20.4–223)</td><td>56–404</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.03</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Benzestrol/AF21xzSh">Benzestrol (B2)</a></td><td>–</td><td>114</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Chlorotrianisene/bCuvCHIW">Chlorotrianisene</a></td><td>TACE</td><td>1.74</td><td>?</td><td>15.30</td><td>?</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Triphenylethylene/Y5JkoLHf">Triphenylethylene</a></td><td>TPE</td><td>0.074</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Triphenylbromoethylene/4fyvzYIu">Triphenylbromoethylene</a></td><td>TPBE</td><td>2.69</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Tamoxifen/oHU8n7ch">Tamoxifen</a></td><td>ICI-46,474</td><td>3 (0.1–47)</td><td>3.33 (0.28–6)</td><td>3.4–9.69</td><td>2.5</td><td>SERM</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Afimoxifene/U5RxjhL0">Afimoxifene</a></td><td>4-Hydroxytamoxifen; 4-OHT</td><td>100.1 (1.7–257)</td><td>10 (0.98–339)</td><td>2.3 (0.1–3.61)</td><td>0.04–4.8</td><td>SERM</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Toremifene/xsqhJFuW">Toremifene</a></td><td>4-Chlorotamoxifen; 4-CT</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>7.14–20.3</td><td>15.4</td><td>SERM</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Clomifene/DHUn89Vt">Clomifene</a></td><td>MRL-41</td><td>25 (19.2–37.2)</td><td>12</td><td>0.9</td><td>1.2</td><td>SERM</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Cyclofenil/Vvnon7o4">Cyclofenil</a></td><td>F-6066; Sexovid</td><td>151–152</td><td>243</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>SERM</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Nafoxidine/sok3Iesj">Nafoxidine</a></td><td>U-11,000A</td><td>30.9–44</td><td>16</td><td>0.3</td><td>0.8</td><td>SERM</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Raloxifene/m2cBgY5q">Raloxifene</a></td><td>–</td><td>41.2 (7.8–69)</td><td>5.34 (0.54–16)</td><td>0.188–0.52</td><td>20.2</td><td>SERM</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Arzoxifene/KSMyWGyv">Arzoxifene</a></td><td>LY-353,381</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>0.179</td><td>?</td><td>SERM</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Lasofoxifene/pS9gQeMd">Lasofoxifene</a></td><td>CP-336,156</td><td>10.2–166</td><td>19.0</td><td>0.229</td><td>?</td><td>SERM</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Ormeloxifene/lsYqYjBY">Ormeloxifene</a></td><td>Centchroman</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>0.313</td><td>?</td><td>SERM</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Levormeloxifene/I5fQNxXy">Levormeloxifene</a></td><td>6720-CDRI; NNC-460,020</td><td>1.55</td><td>1.88</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>SERM</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Ospemifene/U0vDyNlG">Ospemifene</a></td><td>Deaminohydroxytoremifene</td><td>0.82–2.63</td><td>0.59–1.22</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>SERM</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Bazedoxifene/3PF63Ser">Bazedoxifene</a></td><td>–</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>0.053</td><td>?</td><td>SERM</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Etacstil/PLusvK5h">Etacstil</a></td><td>GW-5638</td><td>4.30</td><td>11.5</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>SERM</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/ICI-164%2c384/SvIcqFaz">ICI-164,384</a></td><td>–</td><td>63.5 (3.70–97.7)</td><td>166</td><td>0.2</td><td>0.08</td><td>Antiestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Fulvestrant/L7bQ0AHa">Fulvestrant</a></td><td>ICI-182,780</td><td>43.5 (9.4–325)</td><td>21.65 (2.05–40.5)</td><td>0.42</td><td>1.3</td><td>Antiestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Propylpyrazoletriol/DUpDfpVE">Propylpyrazoletriol</a></td><td>PPT</td><td>49 (10.0–89.1)</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.40</td><td>92.8</td><td>ERα agonist</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/16%25CE%25B1-LE2/Ixl4KIo6">16α-LE2</a></td><td>16α-Lactone-17β-estradiol</td><td>14.6–57</td><td>0.089</td><td>0.27</td><td>131</td><td>ERα agonist</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/16%25CE%25B1-Iodo-E2/9DS6vGXn">16α-Iodo-E2</a></td><td>16α-Iodo-17β-estradiol</td><td>30.2</td><td>2.30</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>ERα agonist</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Methylpiperidinopyrazole/u4WnmeWt">Methylpiperidinopyrazole</a></td><td>MPP</td><td>11</td><td>0.05</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>ERα antagonist</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Diarylpropionitrile/rv0Mb3Na">Diarylpropionitrile</a></td><td>DPN</td><td>0.12–0.25</td><td>6.6–18</td><td>32.4</td><td>1.7</td><td>ERβ agonist</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/8%25CE%25B2-VE2/vTP4jeYQ">8β-VE2</a></td><td>8β-Vinyl-17β-estradiol</td><td>0.35</td><td>22.0–83</td><td>12.9</td><td>0.50</td><td>ERβ agonist</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Prinaberel/01jhwD2x">Prinaberel</a></td><td>ERB-041; WAY-202,041</td><td>0.27</td><td>67–72</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>ERβ agonist</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/ERB-196/4Gnq0aFy">ERB-196</a></td><td>WAY-202,196</td><td>?</td><td>180</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>ERβ agonist</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Erteberel/fmj1dztr">Erteberel</a></td><td>SERBA-1; LY-500,307</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>2.68</td><td>0.19</td><td>ERβ agonist</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/SERBA-2/5nwMocuz">SERBA-2</a></td><td>–</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>14.5</td><td>1.54</td><td>ERβ agonist</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Coumestrol/l6nzAVys">Coumestrol</a></td><td>–</td><td>9.225 (0.0117–94)</td><td>64.125 (0.41–185)</td><td>0.14–80.0</td><td>0.07–27.0</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Genistein/XJc73rxA">Genistein</a></td><td>–</td><td>0.445 (0.0012–16)</td><td>33.42 (0.86–87)</td><td>2.6–126</td><td>0.3–12.8</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Equol/XakdLSpn">Equol</a></td><td>–</td><td>0.2–0.287</td><td>0.85 (0.10–2.85)</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Daidzein/AD3o0xGU">Daidzein</a></td><td>–</td><td>0.07 (0.0018–9.3)</td><td>0.7865 (0.04–17.1)</td><td>2.0</td><td>85.3</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Biochanin_A/T2vS06Ck">Biochanin A</a></td><td>–</td><td>0.04 (0.022–0.15)</td><td>0.6225 (0.010–1.2)</td><td>174</td><td>8.9</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Kaempferol/mLleEu8u">Kaempferol</a></td><td>–</td><td>0.07 (0.029–0.10)</td><td>2.2 (0.002–3.00)</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Naringenin/7tnKVrbd">Naringenin</a></td><td>–</td><td>0.0054 (<0.001–0.01)</td><td>0.15 (0.11–0.33)</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/8-Prenylnaringenin/Xq8EfH3s">8-Prenylnaringenin</a></td><td>8-PN</td><td>4.4</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Quercetin/Ed1BP1YD">Quercetin</a></td><td>–</td><td><0.001–0.01</td><td>0.002–0.040</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Ipriflavone/D60vQhan">Ipriflavone</a></td><td>–</td><td><0.01</td><td><0.01</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Miroestrol/7ndNG02l">Miroestrol</a></td><td>–</td><td>0.39</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Deoxymiroestrol/7ndNG02l">Deoxymiroestrol</a></td><td>–</td><td>2.0</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/%25CE%2592-Sitosterol/B9bAhAl9">β-Sitosterol</a></td><td>–</td><td><0.001–0.0875</td><td><0.001–0.016</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Resveratrol/5sF3fvl7">Resveratrol</a></td><td>–</td><td><0.001–0.0032</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/%25CE%2591-Zearalenol/9tbJlmzU">α-Zearalenol</a></td><td>–</td><td>48 (13–52.5)</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/%25CE%2592-Zearalenol/6HjH1pxg">β-Zearalenol</a></td><td>–</td><td>0.6 (0.032–13)</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Zeranol/pSNoWpxq">Zeranol</a></td><td>α-Zearalanol</td><td>48–111</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Taleranol/Wh0DKkL9">Taleranol</a></td><td>β-Zearalanol</td><td>16 (13–17.8)</td><td>14</td><td>0.8</td><td>0.9</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Zearalenone/bDbw4a38">Zearalenone</a></td><td>ZEN</td><td>7.68 (2.04–28)</td><td>9.45 (2.43–31.5)</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Zearalanone/VYB2nB7C">Zearalanone</a></td><td>ZAN</td><td>0.51</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Bisphenol_A/8AAPhAh0">Bisphenol A</a></td><td>BPA</td><td>0.0315 (0.008–1.0)</td><td>0.135 (0.002–4.23)</td><td>195</td><td>35</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Endosulfan/B3Ywt71m">Endosulfan</a></td><td>EDS</td><td><0.001–<0.01</td><td><0.01</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Kepone/pbJnNvFx">Kepone</a></td><td>Chlordecone</td><td>0.0069–0.2</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/O%2cp%2527-DDT/RfYXlCuF"><i>o,p'</i>-DDT</a></td><td>–</td><td>0.0073–0.4</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/P%2cp%2527-DDT/RfYXlCuF"><i>p,p'</i>-DDT</a></td><td>–</td><td>0.03</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Methoxychlor/ufD5ErBd">Methoxychlor</a></td><td><i>p,p'</i>-Dimethoxy-DDT</td><td>0.01 (<0.001–0.02)</td><td>0.01–0.13</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/HPTE/TNhJedh2">HPTE</a></td><td>Hydroxychlor; <i>p,p'</i>-OH-DDT</td><td>1.2–1.7</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Xenoestrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Testosterone_(medication)/sqLR44L3">Testosterone</a></td><td>T; 4-Androstenolone</td><td><0.0001–<0.01</td><td><0.002–0.040</td><td>>5000</td><td>>5000</td><td>Androgen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Androstanolone/fuPpQYqC">Dihydrotestosterone</a></td><td>DHT; 5α-Androstanolone</td><td>0.01 (<0.001–0.05)</td><td>0.0059–0.17</td><td>221–>5000</td><td>73–1688</td><td>Androgen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Nandrolone/ezrNGa2U">Nandrolone</a></td><td>19-Nortestosterone; 19-NT</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.23</td><td>765</td><td>53</td><td>Androgen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Prasterone/5DECHlAC">Dehydroepiandrosterone</a></td><td>DHEA; Prasterone</td><td>0.038 (<0.001–0.04)</td><td>0.019–0.07</td><td>245–1053</td><td>163–515</td><td>Androgen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/5-Androstenediol/Y0y3zYqj">5-Androstenediol</a></td><td>A5; Androstenediol</td><td>6</td><td>17</td><td>3.6</td><td>0.9</td><td>Androgen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/4-Androstenediol/IMrLvlqU">4-Androstenediol</a></td><td>–</td><td>0.5</td><td>0.6</td><td>23</td><td>19</td><td>Androgen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/4-Androstenedione/GBHxaQvQ">4-Androstenedione</a></td><td>A4; Androstenedione</td><td><0.01</td><td><0.01</td><td>>10000</td><td>>10000</td><td>Androgen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/3%25CE%25B1-Androstanediol/EpwN2yEk">3α-Androstanediol</a></td><td>3α-Adiol</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.3</td><td>260</td><td>48</td><td>Androgen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/3%25CE%25B2-Androstanediol/mnjDJ65V">3β-Androstanediol</a></td><td>3β-Adiol</td><td>3</td><td>7</td><td>6</td><td>2</td><td>Androgen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Androstanedione/W8TkeIuE">Androstanedione</a></td><td>5α-Androstanedione</td><td><0.01</td><td><0.01</td><td>>10000</td><td>>10000</td><td>Androgen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Etiocholanedione/WtFGMegb">Etiocholanedione</a></td><td>5β-Androstanedione</td><td><0.01</td><td><0.01</td><td>>10000</td><td>>10000</td><td>Androgen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Methyltestosterone/2nj6vCGe">Methyltestosterone</a></td><td>17α-Methyltestosterone</td><td><0.0001</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Androgen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Ethinyl-3%25CE%25B1-androstanediol/zTIYcSAF">Ethinyl-3α-androstanediol</a></td><td>17α-Ethynyl-3α-adiol</td><td>4.0</td><td><0.07</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Ethinyl-3%25CE%25B2-androstanediol/efx6BJFN">Ethinyl-3β-androstanediol</a></td><td>17α-Ethynyl-3β-adiol</td><td>50</td><td>5.6</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Estrogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Progesterone_(medication)/U3NtGBtS">Progesterone</a></td><td>P4; 4-Pregnenedione</td><td><0.001–0.6</td><td><0.001–0.010</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Progestogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Norethisterone/G1DJxlre">Norethisterone</a></td><td>NET; 17α-Ethynyl-19-NT</td><td>0.085 (0.0015–<0.1)</td><td>0.1 (0.01–0.3)</td><td>152</td><td>1084</td><td>Progestogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Norethynodrel/lPI8CYgI">Norethynodrel</a></td><td>5(10)-Norethisterone</td><td>0.5 (0.3–0.7)</td><td><0.1–0.22</td><td>14</td><td>53</td><td>Progestogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Tibolone/DKBCSlhg">Tibolone</a></td><td>7α-Methylnorethynodrel</td><td>0.5 (0.45–2.0)</td><td>0.2–0.076</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Progestogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/%25CE%25944-Tibolone/tuzbpGVR">Δ4-Tibolone</a></td><td>7α-Methylnorethisterone</td><td>0.069–<0.1</td><td>0.027–<0.1</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Progestogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/3%25CE%25B1-Hydroxytibolone/oakTFbgx">3α-Hydroxytibolone</a></td><td>–</td><td>2.5 (1.06–5.0)</td><td>0.6–0.8</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Progestogen</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/3%25CE%25B2-Hydroxytibolone/PjbSg77A">3β-Hydroxytibolone</a></td><td>–</td><td>1.6 (0.75–1.9)</td><td>0.070–0.1</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>Progestogen</td></tr><tr><td colspan="7">Footnotes: a = (1) <a href="/facts/Binding_affinity/44QLL4eU">Binding affinity</a> values are of the format "median (range)" (# (#–#)), "range" (#–#), or "value" (#) depending on the values available. The full sets of values within the ranges can be found in the Wiki code. (2) Binding affinities were determined via displacement studies in a variety of <i><a href="/facts/In-vitro/evp3hAX6">in-vitro</a></i> systems with <a href="/facts/Radiolabel/0210Jncn">labeled</a> estradiol and human <a href="/facts/ER%25CE%25B1/PXU6tYY3">ERα</a> and <a href="/facts/ER%25CE%25B2/lqHMPmUM">ERβ</a> proteins (except the ERβ values from Kuiper et al. (1997), which are rat ERβ). Sources: See template page.</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="tissue-distribution-and-function">Tissue distribution and function</h2> <p>ERα plays a role in the physiological development and function of a variety of <a href="/facts/Organ_systems/KAWNntR0">organ systems</a> to varying degrees, including the <a href="/facts/Reproductive_system/gL90a4cf">reproductive</a>, <a href="/facts/Central_nervous_system/k8I6To97">central nervous</a>, <a href="/facts/Skeleton/FXc9Y2lF">skeletal</a>, and <a href="/facts/Circulatory_system/WXwudzzc">cardiovascular systems</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> Accordingly, ERα is widely expressed throughout the body, including the <a href="/facts/Uterus/LIrApMXs">uterus</a> and <a href="/facts/Ovary/z2hG6bNy">ovary</a>, <a href="/facts/Male_reproductive_system/uqrSCfEk">male reproductive organs</a>, <a href="/facts/Mammary_gland/6fVBnNSA">mammary gland</a>, <a href="/facts/Bone/kwJaR6IQ">bone</a>, <a href="/facts/Heart/fF4KSGdk">heart</a>, <a href="/facts/Hypothalamus/lCkNt1bM">hypothalamus</a>, <a href="/facts/Pituitary_gland/gdrQyldF">pituitary gland</a>, <a href="/facts/Liver/Rtp4Fk2b">liver</a>, <a href="/facts/Lung/gTWXI6Fj">lung</a>, <a href="/facts/Kidney/HBspPrv9">kidney</a>, <a href="/facts/Spleen/6NKn9d8s">spleen</a>, and <a href="/facts/Adipose_tissue/PxxedB6e">adipose</a> tissue.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> The development and function of these tissues is disrupted in <a href="/facts/Model_organism/vNv6q4yb">animal models</a> lacking active ERα genes, such as the ERα <a href="/facts/Knockout_mouse/Aw50cobf">knockout mouse</a> (ERKO), providing a preliminary understanding of ERα function at specific <a href="/facts/Biological_target/7bakbMFR">target</a> organs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p> <h3>Uterus and ovary</h3> <p>ERα is essential in the maturation of the <a href="/facts/Female_reproductive_system/9ebPetXh">female reproductive phenotype</a>. In the absence of ERα, the ERKO mouse develops an adult <a href="/facts/Uterus/LIrApMXs">uterus</a>, indicating that ERα may not mediate the initial growth of the uterus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> However, ERα plays a role in the completion of this development, and the subsequent function of the tissue.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> Activation of ERα is known to trigger <a href="/facts/Cell_growth/wbArMaJU">cell proliferation</a> in the uterus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Uterus/LIrApMXs">uterus</a> of female ERKO mice is <a href="/facts/Hypoplasia/lYS7o0Ia">hypoplastic</a>, suggesting that ERα mediates <a href="/facts/Mitosis/ExxrSUs8">mitosis</a> and <a href="/facts/Cellular_differentiation/bCVqUG7w">differentiation</a> in the uterus in response to <a href="/facts/Estrogen/dPEewnDV">estrogen</a> stimulation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p><p>Similarly, <a href="/facts/Preadolescence/3sImdgGL">prepubertal</a> female ERKO mice develop <a href="/facts/Ovary/z2hG6bNy">ovaries</a> that are nearly indistinguishable from those of their <a href="/facts/Wild_type/Rr0vGvM0">wildtype</a> counterparts. However, as the ERKO mice mature they progressively present an abnormal <a href="/facts/Ovary/z2hG6bNy">ovarian</a> phenotype in both <a href="/facts/Physiology/fh25y2pQ">physiology</a> and function.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> Specifically, female ERKO mice develop enlarged <a href="/facts/Ovary/z2hG6bNy">ovaries</a> containing <a href="/facts/Hemorrhagic/CGyFMU0F">hemorrhagic</a> <a href="/facts/Follicular_cyst_of_ovary/9KeaGLb9">follicular cysts</a>, which also lack the <a href="/facts/Corpus_luteum/rA91PnaC">corpus luteum</a>, and therefore do not <a href="/facts/Ovulation/0K3MLdAv">ovulate</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> This adult <a href="/facts/Ovary/z2hG6bNy">ovarian</a> phenotype suggests that in the absence of ERα, <a href="/facts/Estrogen/dPEewnDV">estrogen</a> is no longer able to perform <a href="/facts/Negative_feedback/G9byVgpN">negative feedback</a> on the <a href="/facts/Hypothalamus/lCkNt1bM">hypothalamus</a>, resulting in <a href="/facts/Chronic_condition/6CqLP41r">chronically</a> elevated <a href="/facts/Luteinizing_hormone/a6znte2S">LH</a> levels and constant <a href="/facts/Ovary/z2hG6bNy">ovarian</a> stimulation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> These results identify a pivotal role for ERα in the <a href="/facts/Hypothalamus/lCkNt1bM">hypothalamus</a>, in addition to its role in the <a href="/facts/Estrogen/dPEewnDV">estrogen</a>-driven maturation through <a href="/facts/Theca/AcqcxD7p">theca</a> and <a href="/facts/Interstitial_cell/VoIzlQlG">interstitial cells</a> of the <a href="/facts/Ovary/z2hG6bNy">ovary</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> </p> <h3>Male reproductive organs</h3> <p>ERα is similarly essential in the maturation and maintenance of the <a href="/facts/Male_reproductive_system/uqrSCfEk">male reproductive phenotype</a>, as male ERKO mice are <a href="/facts/Infertility/emky9q8L">infertile</a> and present undersized <a href="/facts/Testicle/Doy40hoq">testes</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> The integrity of <a href="/facts/Testicle/Doy40hoq">testicular structures</a> of ERKO mice, such as the <a href="/facts/Seminiferous_tubule/Jytp8phd">seminiferous tubules</a> of the <a href="/facts/Testicle/Doy40hoq">testes</a> and the <a href="/facts/Germinal_epithelium_(male)/RDgtwJvL">seminiferous epithelium</a>, declines over time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> Furthermore, the <a href="/facts/Fitness_(biology)/MYpAGGey">reproductive performance</a> of male ERKO mice is hindered by abnormalities in <a href="/facts/Sex_organ/c2ypY14E">sexual physiology</a> and <a href="/facts/Reproductive_behavior_of_mice/6m1X7m0g">behavior</a>, such as impaired <a href="/facts/Spermatogenesis/8u8XNEV6">spermatogenesis</a> and loss of <a href="/facts/Intromittent_organ/0bhhQ2hY">intromission</a> and <a href="/facts/Ejaculation/5RnfwCxG">ejaculatory</a> responses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p> <h3>Mammary gland</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Estrogen/dPEewnDV">Estrogen</a> stimulation of ERα is known to stimulate <a href="/facts/Cell_growth/wbArMaJU">cell proliferation</a> in breast tissue.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> ERα is thought to be responsible for <a href="/facts/Puberty/vjfPAKf4">pubertal</a> development of the adult <a href="/facts/Phenotype/vxWXKGLj">phenotype</a>, through mediation of <a href="/facts/Mammary_gland/6fVBnNSA">mammary gland</a> response to estrogens.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> This role is consistent with the abnormalities of female ERKO mice: the <a href="/facts/Lactiferous_duct/IM73pkGe">epithelial ducts</a> of female ERKO mice fail to grow beyond their <a href="/facts/Preadolescence/3sImdgGL">pre-pubertal</a> length, and <a href="/facts/Lactation/0w1HoW27">lactational</a> structures do not develop.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> As a result, the functions of the <a href="/facts/Mammary_gland/6fVBnNSA">mammary gland</a>—including both <a href="/facts/Lactation/0w1HoW27">lactation</a> and release of <a href="/facts/Prolactin/NcdqrzFU">prolactin</a>—are greatly impaired in ERKO mice.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> </p> <h3>Bone</h3> <p>Though its expression in <a href="/facts/Bone/kwJaR6IQ">bone</a> is moderate, ERα is known to be responsible for maintenance of <a href="/facts/Bone_health/cEua58wS">bone integrity</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> It is hypothesized that <a href="/facts/Estrogen/dPEewnDV">estrogen</a> stimulation of ERα may trigger the release of <a href="/facts/Growth_factor/D1xnRbcH">growth factors</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Epidermal_growth_factor/CpyH5tYs">epidermal growth factor</a> or <a href="/facts/Insulin-like_growth_factor_1/2n0nPvtD">insulin-like growth factor-1</a>, which in turn regulate <a href="/facts/Bone/kwJaR6IQ">bone development</a> and maintenance.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> Accordingly, male and female ERKO mice exhibit decreased bone <a href="/facts/Length/EwFyAqGH">length</a> and <a href="/facts/Size/brTWIYNF">size</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> </p> <h3>Brain</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Estrogen/dPEewnDV">Estrogen</a> signaling through ERα appears to be responsible for various aspects of <a href="/facts/Central_nervous_system/k8I6To97">central nervous development</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Synaptogenesis/1fVRWK6e">synaptogenesis</a> and <a href="/facts/Synaptic_plasticity/rdVFxItN">synaptic remodeling</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> In the brain, ERα is found in <a href="/facts/Hypothalamus/lCkNt1bM">hypothalamus</a>, and <a href="/facts/Preoptic_area/Kkz8wPpA">preoptic area</a>, and <a href="/facts/Arcuate_nucleus/lnbnpPtW">arcuate nucleus</a>, all three of which have been linked to <a href="/facts/Reproduction/nNu0F5Dy">reproductive behavior</a>, and the <a href="/facts/Virilization/vcckVBu9">masculinization</a> of the <a href="/facts/Mouse_brain/b251sw7h">mouse brain</a> appears to take place through ERα function.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> Furthermore, studies in models of <a href="/facts/Psychopathology/QcHKDX2n">psychopathology</a> and <a href="/facts/Neurodegeneration/HTDrVEqc">neurodegenerative disease</a> states suggest that <a href="/facts/Estrogen_receptor/dEGaNney">estrogen receptors</a> mediate the <a href="/facts/Neuroprotection/BcbsTfN0">neuroprotective</a> role of <a href="/facts/Estrogen/dPEewnDV">estrogen</a> in the brain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> Finally, ERα appears to mediate <a href="/facts/Positive_feedback/eFGatCpF">positive feedback</a> effects of <a href="/facts/Estrogen/dPEewnDV">estrogen</a> on the brain's secretion of <a href="/facts/Gonadotropin-releasing_hormone/hSsFPpdj">GnRH</a> and <a href="/facts/Luteinizing_hormone/a6znte2S">LH</a>, by way increasing expression of <a href="/facts/Kisspeptin/q3BdHIUe">kisspeptin</a> in neurons of the <a href="/facts/Arcuate_nucleus/lnbnpPtW">arcuate nucleus</a> and <a href="/facts/Anteroventral_periventricular_nucleus/Nvm15KHl">anteroventral periventricular nucleus</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> Although classical studies have suggested that <a href="/facts/Negative_feedback/G9byVgpN">negative feedback</a> effects of <a href="/facts/Estrogen/dPEewnDV">estrogen</a> also operate through ERα, female mice lacking ERα in <a href="/facts/Kisspeptin/q3BdHIUe">kisspeptin</a>-expressing neurons continue to demonstrate a degree of <a href="/facts/Negative_feedback/G9byVgpN">negative feedback</a> response.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="clinical-significance">Clinical significance</h2> <p><a href="/facts/Estrogen_insensitivity_syndrome/afkknYTr">Estrogen insensitivity syndrome</a> is a very rare condition characterized by a defective ERα that is insensitive to estrogens.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> The clinical presentation of a female was observed to include absence of <a href="/facts/Breast_development/87L2NgV3">breast development</a> and other female <a href="/facts/Secondary_sexual_characteristic/lV2Fl3uA">secondary sexual characteristics</a> at <a href="/facts/Puberty/vjfPAKf4">puberty</a>, <a href="/facts/Hypoplasia/lYS7o0Ia">hypoplastic</a> <a href="/facts/Uterus/LIrApMXs">uterus</a>, <a href="/facts/Primary_amenorrhea/axu8sS38">primary amenorrhea</a>, enlarged <a href="/facts/Multicystic_ovaries/lfCSRdGe">multicystic ovaries</a> and associated lower <a href="/facts/Abdominal_pain/aF6gPB0G">abdominal pain</a>, mild <a href="/facts/Hyperandrogenism/ATvFXbXX">hyperandrogenism</a> (manifested as <a href="/facts/Cystic_acne/TKJxhHSd">cystic acne</a>), and delayed <a href="/facts/Bone_maturation/5ySznbfg">bone maturation</a> as well as an increased rate of <a href="/facts/Bone_turnover/eoanghIb">bone turnover</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> The clinical presentation in a male was reported to include lack of <a href="/facts/Epiphyseal_closure/Q1VuGTDS">epiphyseal closure</a>, <a href="/facts/Tall_stature/MBr7rrUy">tall stature</a>, <a href="/facts/Osteoporosis/xa1W00Tj">osteoporosis</a>, and poor <a href="/facts/Sperm_viability/DgsKJmyp">sperm viability</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> Both individuals were completely insensitive to exogenous estrogen treatment, even with high doses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Genetic_polymorphism/6U9NzHwH">Genetic polymorphisms</a> in the gene encoding the ERα have been associated with <a href="/facts/Breast_cancer/6hME580v">breast cancer</a> in women, <a href="/facts/Gynecomastia/8VkLDnGD">gynecomastia</a> in men<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> and dysmenorrhea.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> </p><p>In patients with breast cancer, mutations in the gene encoding ERα (ESR1) have been associated with resistance to endocrine therapy, especially <a href="/facts/Aromatase_inhibitor/G1LhNlsh">aromatase inhibitors</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="coactivators">Coactivators</h2> <p><a href="/facts/Coactivator_(genetics)/0lVABmQx">Coactivators</a> of ER-α include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Nuclear_receptor_coactivator_1/2K9PVkE1">SRC-1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Nuclear_receptor_coactivator_3/BBTDsjm7">AIB1</a> – amplified in breast 1<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/PELP-1/EVHuyIdE">PELP-1</a> – Proline-, glutamic acid-, leucine-rich protein 1<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="interactions">Interactions</h2> <p>Estrogen receptor alpha has been shown to <a href="/facts/Protein-protein_interaction/etvm9Wmg">interact</a> with: </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/AKAP13/vmIX23sj">AKAP13</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Aryl_hydrocarbon_receptor/R7YggznK">AHR</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/BRCA1/xHDwxARA">BRCA1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Caveolin_1/FYj0sufR">CAV1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/CCNC_(gene)/9Cv6cLxb">CCNC</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/CDC25B/SAacU27Y">CDC25B</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/CEBPB/hTX8NvQh">CEBPB</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Cofactor_of_BRCA1/6LqJcJ8I">COBRA1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/COUP-TFI/XtnBktwc">COUP-TFI</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/CREB-binding_protein/F4p9VIV7">CREBBP</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/CRSP3/flvvowFI">CRSP3</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Cyclin_D1/okobJlFK">Cyclin D1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/DNTTIP2/KUkGPhRJ">DNTTIP2</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/EP300/7WU3jvjy">EP300</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Estrogen_receptor_beta/lqHMPmUM">ESR2</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/FOXO1/wSyXhP05">FOXO1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/GREB1/1M4JACm9">GREB1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/GTF2H1/2DIHg2WD">GTF2H1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/HSPA1A/B9xoxwYV">HSPA1A</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/HSPA8/S1552gUg">HSPA8</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Heat_shock_protein_90kDa_alpha_(cytosolic)%2c_member_A1/5aCMeVuF">HSP90AA1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/ISL1/Nh2MVIMp">ISL1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/JARID1A/oXpp4Ntc">JARID1A</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Major_vault_protein/jXdjIwGk">MVP</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/MED1/Swx0vVE8">MED1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/MED12/cAsKk6NB">MED12</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/MED14/FDup3WmL">MED14</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/MED16/X7Cd4sEq">MED16</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/MED24/j7F1A2oS">MED24</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/MED6/ywuYdV70">MED6</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/O-6-methylguanine-DNA_methyltransferase/0fezSc4r">MGMT</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/MNAT1/oYgfj3AK">MNAT1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/MTA1/YpsytLTV">MTA1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/NCOA6/zqUpCwbH">NCOA6</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110"><sup>110</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111"><sup>111</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Nuclear_receptor_coactivator_1/2K9PVkE1">NCOA1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112"><sup>112</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113"><sup>113</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114"><sup>114</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115"><sup>115</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Nuclear_receptor_coactivator_2/XaNcWPBH">NCOA2</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116"><sup>116</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117"><sup>117</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118"><sup>118</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Nuclear_receptor_coactivator_3/BBTDsjm7">NCOA3</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119"><sup>119</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120"><sup>120</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/NRIP1/gIgg3yJm">NRIP1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121"><sup>121</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122"><sup>122</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123"><sup>123</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/PDLIM1/jIVp3d1E">PDLIM1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124"><sup>124</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/POU4F1/6czLaavE">POU4F1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125"><sup>125</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/POU4F2/12PGMzoy">POU4F2</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126"><sup>126</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/PRDM2/esCxKxr0">PRDM2</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127"><sup>127</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/PRMT2/LFDENLG0">PRMT2</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128"><sup>128</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/RBM39/NxA0Xapp">RBM39</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129"><sup>129</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/RNF12/KKy8rYS9">RNF12</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130"><sup>130</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/SAFB/ezKqCujK">SAFB</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131"><sup>131</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132"><sup>132</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/SAFB2/pCHtsnUd">SAFB2</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133"><sup>133</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/SHC1/toWBWWMQ">SHC1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134"><sup>134</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Small_heterodimer_partner/CnBNGHjs">SHP</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135"><sup>135</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136"><sup>136</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/SMARCA4/tTMYE8oQ">SMARCA4</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137"><sup>137</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138"><sup>138</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/SMARCE1/laNmsL2z">SMARCE1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139"><sup>139</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Src_(gene)/5SCJqCU4">Src</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140"><sup>140</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141"><sup>141</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142"><sup>142</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143"><sup>143</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Testicular_receptor_2/K7fgYqnp">TR2</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144"><sup>144</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Testicular_receptor_4/Dq9vx0tG">TR4</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145"><sup>145</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Thymine-DNA_glycosylase/hWgILfbd">TDG</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146"><sup>146</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/TRIM24/0ca92sR7">TRIM24</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147"><sup>147</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148"><sup>148</sup></a> and</li> <li><a href="/facts/XBP1/Fzl8F6S6">XBP1</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149"><sup>149</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>McDonnell DP, Norris JD (May 2002). "Connections and regulation of the human estrogen receptor". <i>Science</i>. 296 (5573): 1642–1644. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Sci...296.1642M">2002Sci...296.1642M</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1071884">10.1126/science.1071884</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12040178">12040178</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30428909">30428909</a>.</li> <li>Simoncini T, Fornari L, Mannella P, Varone G, Caruso A, Liao JK, et al. (November 2002). "Novel non-transcriptional mechanisms for estrogen receptor signaling in the cardiovascular system. Interaction of estrogen receptor alpha with phosphatidylinositol 3-OH kinase". <i>Steroids</i>. 67 (12): 935–939. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0039-128X%2802%2900040-5">10.1016/S0039-128X(02)00040-5</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12398989">12398989</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42656927">42656927</a>.</li> <li>Lannigan DA (January 2003). "Estrogen receptor phosphorylation". <i>Steroids</i>. 68 (1): 1–9. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0039-128X%2802%2900110-1">10.1016/S0039-128X(02)00110-1</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12475718">12475718</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23163361">23163361</a>.</li> <li>Herrington DM (April 2003). "Role of estrogen receptor-alpha in pharmacogenetics of estrogen action". <i>Current Opinion in Lipidology</i>. 14 (2): 145–150. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00041433-200304000-00005">10.1097/00041433-200304000-00005</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12642782">12642782</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:74820004">74820004</a>.</li> <li>Tanaka Y, Sasaki M, Kaneuchi M, Fujimoto S, Dahiya R (April 2003). "Estrogen receptor alpha polymorphisms and renal cell carcinoma--a possible risk". <i>Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology</i>. 202 (1–2): 109–116. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0303-7207%2803%2900071-6">10.1016/S0303-7207(03)00071-6</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12770739">12770739</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34059244">34059244</a>.</li> <li>Ali S, Coombes RC (July 2000). "Estrogen receptor alpha in human breast cancer: occurrence and significance". <i>Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia</i>. 5 (3): 271–281. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1009594727358">10.1023/A:1009594727358</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14973389">14973389</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23500213">23500213</a>.</li> <li>Olsson H (July 2000). "Estrogen receptor content in malignant breast tumors in men--a review". <i>Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia</i>. 5 (3): 283–287. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1009546811429">10.1023/A:1009546811429</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14973390">14973390</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7342455">7342455</a>.</li> <li>Surmacz E, Bartucci M (September 2004). "Role of estrogen receptor alpha in modulating IGF-I receptor signaling and function in breast cancer". <i>Journal of Experimental & Clinical Cancer Research</i>. 23 (3): 385–394. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15595626">15595626</a>.</li> <li>Evinger AJ, Levin ER (2005). "Requirements for estrogen receptor alpha membrane localization and function". <i>Steroids</i>. 70 (5–7): 361–363. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.steroids.2005.02.015">10.1016/j.steroids.2005.02.015</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15862818">15862818</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54297122">54297122</a>.</li> <li>Wang CL, Tang XY, Chen WQ, Su YX, Zhang CX, Chen YM (March 2007). "Association of estrogen receptor alpha gene polymorphisms with bone mineral density in Chinese women: a meta-analysis". <i>Osteoporosis International</i>. 18 (3): 295–305. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00198-006-0239-2">10.1007/s00198-006-0239-2</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17089081">17089081</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11168531">11168531</a>.</li> <li>Keaveney M, Klug J, Gannon F (1992). "Sequence analysis of the 5' flanking region of the human estrogen receptor gene". <i>DNA Sequence</i>. 2 (6): 347–358. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F10425179209020816">10.3109/10425179209020816</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1476547">1476547</a>.</li> <li>Piva R, Gambari R, Zorzato F, Kumar L, del Senno L (March 1992). "Analysis of upstream sequences of the human estrogen receptor gene". <i>Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications</i>. 183 (3): 996–1002. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0006-291X%2805%2980289-X">10.1016/S0006-291X(05)80289-X</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1567414">1567414</a>.</li> <li>Reese JC, Katzenellenbogen BS (May 1992). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2819%2950174-0">"Characterization of a temperature-sensitive mutation in the hormone binding domain of the human estrogen receptor. Studies in cell extracts and intact cells and their implications for hormone-dependent transcriptional activation"</a>. <i>The Journal of Biological Chemistry</i>. 267 (14): 9868–9873. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2819%2950174-0">10.1016/S0021-9258(19)50174-0</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1577818">1577818</a>.</li> <li>Dotzlaw H, Alkhalaf M, Murphy LC (May 1992). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1210%2Fmend.6.5.1603086">"Characterization of estrogen receptor variant mRNAs from human breast cancers"</a>. <i>Molecular Endocrinology</i>. 6 (5): 773–785. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1210%2Fmend.6.5.1603086">10.1210/mend.6.5.1603086</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1603086">1603086</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25208340">25208340</a>.</li> <li>Keaveney M, Klug J, Dawson MT, Nestor PV, Neilan JG, Forde RC, et al. (February 1991). "Evidence for a previously unidentified upstream exon in the human oestrogen receptor gene". <i>Journal of Molecular Endocrinology</i>. 6 (1): 111–115. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1677%2Fjme.0.0060111">10.1677/jme.0.0060111</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2015052">2015052</a>.</li> <li>Reese JC, Katzenellenbogen BS (June 1991). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2818%2999101-5">"Mutagenesis of cysteines in the hormone binding domain of the human estrogen receptor. Alterations in binding and transcriptional activation by covalently and reversibly attaching ligands"</a>. <i>The Journal of Biological Chemistry</i>. 266 (17): 10880–10887. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2818%2999101-5">10.1016/S0021-9258(18)99101-5</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2040605">2040605</a>.</li> <li>Schwabe JW, Neuhaus D, Rhodes D (November 1990). 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