Menu
Home
People
Places
Arts
History
Plants & Animals
Science
Life & Culture
Technology
Reference.org
Generative grammar
open-in-new
<h2 id="principles">Principles</h2> <p>Generative grammar is an umbrella term for a variety of approaches to linguistics. What unites these approaches is the goal of uncovering the cognitive basis of language by formulating and testing explicit models of humans' subconscious grammatical knowledge.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> </p> <h3>Cognitive science</h3> <p>Generative grammar studies language as part of <a href="/facts/Cognitive_science/8qoggl7r">cognitive science</a>. Thus, research in the generative tradition involves formulating and testing hypotheses about the mental processes that allow humans to use language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p><p>Like other approaches in linguistics, generative grammar engages in <a href="/facts/Linguistic_description/Hs0halB8">linguistic description</a> rather than <a href="/facts/Linguistic_prescriptivism/B8KvsTEf">linguistic prescription</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p> <h3>Explicitness and generality</h3> <p>Generative grammar proposes models of language consisting of explicit rule systems, which make testable <a href="/facts/Falsifiability/IlxN7cYB">falsifiable</a> predictions. This is different from <a href="/facts/Traditional_grammar/tfkqceDK">traditional grammar</a> where grammatical patterns are often described more loosely.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> These models are intended to be parsimonious, capturing generalizations in the data with as few rules as possible. For example, because English <a href="/facts/Imperative_mood/E3zRtPgJ">imperative</a> <a href="/facts/Tag_questions/ozxpQsgo">tag questions</a> obey the same restrictions that second person <a href="/facts/Future_tense/YTLNSh1Y">future</a> <a href="/facts/Declarative_mood/No8AaPnv">declarative</a> tags do, <a href="/facts/Paul_Postal/GuW0z0Xd">Paul Postal</a> proposed that the two constructions are derived from the same underlying structure. By adopting this hypothesis, he was able to capture the restrictions on tags with a single rule. This kind of reasoning is commonplace in generative research.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p><p>Particular theories within generative grammar have been expressed using a variety of <a href="/facts/Formal_system/KaeDAjK7">formal systems</a>, many of which are modifications or extensions of <a href="/facts/Context_free_grammars/yu1FFdK4">context free grammars</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p> <h3>Competence versus performance</h3> <p>Generative grammar generally distinguishes <a href="/facts/Linguistic_competence/NaNrJkcC">linguistic competence</a> and <a href="/facts/Linguistic_performance/NW8hnQIe">linguistic performance</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> Competence is the collection of subconscious rules that one knows when one knows a language; performance is the system which puts these rules to use.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> This distinction is related to the broader notion of <a href="/facts/David_Marr_(neuroscientist)/mc7wyhYl">Marr's levels</a> used in other cognitive sciences, with competence corresponding to Marr's computational level.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> </p><p>For example, generative theories generally provide competence-based explanations for why <a href="/facts/English_language/tpkxGt7b">English</a> speakers would judge the sentence in (1) as <a href="/facts/Acceptability_(linguistics)/MJ1to9uY">odd</a>. In these explanations, the sentence would be <a href="/facts/Ungrammatical/MJ1to9uY">ungrammatical</a> because the rules of English only generate sentences where <a href="/facts/Demonstrative/XAM9dxwK">demonstratives</a> <a href="/facts/Agreement_(linguistics)/MxF9ErBV">agree</a> with the <a href="/facts/Grammatical_number/zzs5AV6v">grammatical number</a> of their associated <a href="/facts/Noun/SsnDNfkX">noun</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p> (1) *That cats is eating the mouse. <p>By contrast, generative theories generally provide performance-based explanations for the oddness of <a href="/facts/Center_embedding/uDWlNlUJ">center embedding</a> sentences like one in (2). According to such explanations, the grammar of English could in principle generate such sentences, but doing so in practice is so taxing on <a href="/facts/Working_memory/kzeDD3KQ">working memory</a> that the sentence ends up being <a href="/facts/Parsing/nRKB01S3">unparsable</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p> (2) *The cat that the dog that the man fed chased meowed. <p>In general, performance-based explanations deliver a simpler theory of grammar at the cost of additional assumptions about memory and parsing. As a result, the choice between a competence-based explanation and a performance-based explanation for a given phenomenon is not always obvious and can require investigating whether the additional assumptions are supported by independent evidence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> For example, while many generative models of syntax explain <a href="/facts/Syntactic_island/tfuKadbm">island effects</a> by positing constraints within the grammar, it has also been argued that some or all of these constraints are in fact the result of limitations on performance.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p><p>Non-generative approaches often do not posit any distinction between competence and performance. For instance, <a href="/facts/Usage-based_models_of_language/RYqU1NFb">usage-based models of language</a> assume that grammatical patterns arise as the result of usage.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p> <h3>Innateness and universality</h3> <p>A major goal of generative research is to figure out which aspects of linguistic competence are innate and which are not. Within generative grammar, it is generally accepted that at least some <a href="/facts/Domain-specific/mBesg500">domain-specific</a> aspects are innate, and the term "universal grammar" is often used as a placeholder for whichever those turn out to be.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> </p><p>The idea that at least some aspects are innate is motivated by <a href="/facts/Poverty_of_the_stimulus/TgnGEIY8">poverty of the stimulus</a> arguments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> For example, one famous poverty of the stimulus argument concerns the acquisition of <a href="/facts/Yes-no_question/v6UgKvHN">yes-no questions</a> in English. This argument starts from the observation that children only make mistakes compatible with rules targeting hierarchical structure even though the examples which they encounter could have been generated by a simpler rule that targets linear order. In other words, children seem to ignore the possibility that the question rule is as simple as "switch the order of the first two words" and immediately jump to alternatives that rearrange <a href="/facts/Constituent_(linguistics)/7eIG0Ap3">constituents</a> in <a href="/facts/Tree_(data_structure)/RcXz9noF">tree structures</a>. This is taken as evidence that children are born knowing that grammatical rules involve hierarchical structure, even though they have to figure out what those rules are.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> The empirical basis of poverty of the stimulus arguments has been challenged by <a href="/facts/Geoffrey_Pullum/Kd42LFpF">Geoffrey Pullum</a> and others, leading to back-and-forth debate in the <a href="/facts/Language_acquisition/bwdh0CVG">language acquisition</a> literature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> Recent work has also suggested that some <a href="/facts/Recurrent_neural_network/bx7hBVB1">recurrent neural network</a> architectures are able to learn hierarchical structure without an explicit constraint.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> </p><p>Within generative grammar, there are a variety of theories about what universal grammar consists of. One notable hypothesis proposed by <a href="/facts/Hagit_Borer/4uINyluQ">Hagit Borer</a> holds that the fundamental syntactic operations are universal and that all variation arises from different <a href="/facts/Feature_(linguistics)/J6FGlLVc">feature</a>-specifications in the <a href="/facts/Mental_lexicon/2PHbluce">lexicon</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> On the other hand, a strong hypothesis adopted in some variants of <a href="/facts/Optimality_Theory/TIJlsvcg">Optimality Theory</a> holds that humans are born with a universal set of constraints, and that all variation arises from differences in how these constraints are ranked.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> In a 2002 paper, <a href="/facts/Noam_Chomsky/3rtpzlER">Noam Chomsky</a>, <a href="/facts/Marc_Hauser/HLCLlNuS">Marc Hauser</a> and <a href="/facts/W._Tecumseh_Fitch/3BSHhTFX">W. Tecumseh Fitch</a> proposed that universal grammar consists solely of the capacity for hierarchical phrase structure.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> </p><p>In day-to-day research, the notion that universal grammar exists motivates analyses in terms of general principles. As much as possible, facts about particular languages are derived from these general principles rather than from language-specific stipulations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="subfields">Subfields</h2> <p>Research in generative grammar spans a number of subfields. These subfields are also studied in non-generative approaches. </p> <h3>Syntax</h3> <p>Syntax studies the rule systems which combine smaller units such as <a href="/facts/Morphemes/4JNcPMHs">morphemes</a> into larger units such as <a href="/facts/Phrase/mbnD0ksH">phrases</a> and <a href="/facts/Sentence_(linguistics)/GhKKkcm2">sentences</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> Within generative syntax, prominent approaches include <a href="/facts/Minimalist_program/K6YhIlAz">Minimalism</a>, <a href="/facts/Government_and_binding_theory/2DTpSetS">Government and binding theory</a>, <a href="/facts/Lexical_Functional_Grammar/UqAfrL1G">Lexical-functional grammar</a> (LFG), and <a href="/facts/Head-driven_phrase_structure_grammar/MW1TXsca">Head-driven phrase structure grammar</a> (HPSG).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> </p> <h3>Phonology</h3> <p>Phonology studies the rule systems which organize linguistic sounds. For example, research in phonology includes work on <a href="/facts/Phonotactic/SqxGkJ67">phonotactic</a> rules which govern which <a href="/facts/Phonemes/EXGHlJ7a">phonemes</a> can be combined, as well as those that determine the placement of <a href="/facts/Stress_(linguistics)/rsHpCK5H">stress</a>, <a href="/facts/Tone_(linguistics)/eprhXrWJ">tone</a>, and other <a href="/facts/Suprasegmental/UDzAIz46">suprasegmental</a> elements.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> Within generative grammar, a prominent approach to phonology is <a href="/facts/Optimality_Theory/TIJlsvcg">Optimality Theory</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> </p> <h3>Semantics</h3> <p>Semantics studies the rule systems that determine expressions' meanings. Within generative grammar, semantics is a species of <a href="/facts/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)/FlWb7Hxp">formal semantics</a>, providing <a href="/facts/Compositionality/yP2hR4Le">compositional</a> models of how the <a href="/facts/Denotation/oABEtLtA">denotations</a> of sentences are computed on the basis of the meanings of the individual <a href="/facts/Morpheme/4JNcPMHs">morphemes</a> and their syntactic structure.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="extensions">Extensions</h2> <h3>Music</h3> <p>Generative grammar has been applied to <a href="/facts/Music_theory/BoekvflP">music theory</a> and <a href="/facts/Musical_analysis/tq9UuN1V">analysis</a> since the 1980s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> One notable approach is <a href="/facts/Fred_Lerdahl/dSazWbEf">Fred Lerdahl</a> and <a href="/facts/Ray_Jackendoff/T9rKpW9q">Ray Jackendoff</a>'s <a href="/facts/Generative_theory_of_tonal_music/koe9tQDS">Generative theory of tonal music</a>, which formalized and extended ideas from <a href="/facts/Schenkerian_analysis/mh8BrgHv">Schenkerian analysis</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> </p> <h3>Biolinguistics</h3> <p>Recent work in generative-inspired <a href="/facts/Biolinguistics/AYbX5JVS">biolinguistics</a> has proposed that universal grammar consists solely of syntactic <a href="/facts/Recursion/CxSKxJoW">recursion</a>, and that it arose recently in humans as the result of a random genetic mutation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> Generative-inspired biolinguistics has not uncovered any particular genes responsible for language. While some prospects were raised at the discovery of the <i><a href="/facts/FOXP2/JpPfECGS">FOXP2</a></i> <a href="/facts/Gene/e1swwPY6">gene</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> there is not enough support for the idea that it is 'the grammar gene' or that it had much to do with the relatively recent emergence of syntactical speech.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="history">History</h2> <p>As a distinct research tradition, generative grammar began in the late 1950s with the work of <a href="/facts/Noam_Chomsky/3rtpzlER">Noam Chomsky</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> However, its roots include earlier <a href="/facts/Structuralism/qWLvWtfb">structuralist</a> approaches such as <a href="/facts/Glossematics/E3Rhw2cG">glossematics</a> which themselves had older roots, for instance in the work of the ancient Indian grammarian <a href="/facts/P%25C4%2581%25E1%25B9%2587ini/C2brRvXB">Pāṇini</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> Military funding to generative research was an important factor in its early spread in the 1960s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> </p><p>The initial version of generative syntax was called <a href="/facts/Transformational_grammar/vqIyVYdP">transformational grammar</a>. In transformational grammar, rules called transformations mapped a level of representation called <a href="/facts/Deep_structure/l00JHPXK">deep structures</a> to another level of representation called surface structure. The semantic interpretation of a sentence was represented by its deep structure, while the surface structure provided its pronunciation. For example, an active sentence such as "The doctor examined the patient" and "The patient was examined by the doctor", had the same deep structure. The difference in surface structures arises from the application of the passivization transformation, which was assumed to not affect meaning. This assumption was challenged in the 1960s by the discovery of examples such as "Everyone in the room knows two languages" and "Two languages are known by everyone in the room". </p><p>After the <a href="/facts/Linguistics_wars/VJJuNkQB">Linguistics wars</a> of the late 1960s and early 1970s, Chomsky developed a revised model of syntax called <a href="/facts/Government_and_binding_theory/2DTpSetS">Government and binding theory</a>, which eventually grew into <a href="/facts/Minimalist_program/K6YhIlAz">Minimalism</a>. In the aftermath of those disputes, a variety of other generative models of syntax were proposed including <a href="/facts/Relational_grammar/9TQMB5a9">relational grammar</a>, <a href="/facts/Lexical_Functional_Grammar/UqAfrL1G">Lexical-functional grammar</a> (LFG), and <a href="/facts/Head-driven_phrase_structure_grammar/MW1TXsca">Head-driven phrase structure grammar</a> (HPSG). </p><p>Generative phonology originally focused on <a href="/facts/Rewriting/9PHlnnnJ">rewrite rules</a>, in a system commonly known as <i>SPE Phonology</i> after the 1968 book <a href="/facts/The_Sound_Pattern_of_English/QvDwURv2">The Sound Pattern of English</a> by Chomsky and <a href="/facts/Morris_Halle/vIpRykBE">Morris Halle</a>. In the 1990s, this approach was largely replaced by <a href="/facts/Optimality_theory/TIJlsvcg">Optimality theory</a>, which was able to capture generalizations called conspiracies which needed to be stipulated in SPE phonology.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> </p><p>Semantics emerged as a subfield of generative linguistics during the late 1970s, with the pioneering work of <a href="/facts/Richard_Montague/oaBs5m51">Richard Montague</a>. Montague proposed a system called <a href="/facts/Montague_grammar/6jFRwH5E">Montague grammar</a> which consisted of interpretation rules mapping expressions from a bespoke model of syntax to formulas of <a href="/facts/Intensional_logic/uHHP4TWR">intensional logic</a>. Subsequent work by <a href="/facts/Barbara_Partee/bHjMrbbv">Barbara Partee</a>, <a href="/facts/Irene_Heim/Jlje4L3P">Irene Heim</a>, <a href="/facts/Tanya_Reinhart/kczXuoGr">Tanya Reinhart</a>, and others showed that the key insights of Montague Grammar could be incorporated into more syntactically plausible systems.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Cognitive_linguistics/Qu4DApFf">Cognitive linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Cognitive_revolution/rRdkd5Sc">Cognitive revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Digital_infinity/5fqcwLk5">Digital infinity</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Formal_grammar/QLxaQNAz">Formal grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Functional_theories_of_grammar/kjkTVX2L">Functional theories of grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Generative_lexicon/Vya8f9wC">Generative lexicon</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Generative_metrics/ND2LUJb4">Generative metrics</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Generative_principle/b5lbUUns">Generative principle</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Generative_semantics/Ns4b2USn">Generative semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Generative_systems/yMCCDG43">Generative systems</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Parsing/nRKB01S3">Parsing</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Phrase_structure_rules/B867agmG">Phrase structure rules</a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Syntactic_Structures/t1YdoLTP">Syntactic Structures</a></i></li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Chomsky, Noam. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.</li> <li>Hurford, J. (1990) <i>Nativist and functional explanations in language acquisition</i>. In I. M. Roca (ed.), Logical Issues in Language Acquisition, 85–136. Foris, Dordrecht.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Alec_Marantz/HF77tjMe">Marantz, Alec</a> (2019). <a href="https://as.nyu.edu/content/dam/nyu-as/as/documents/What%20do%20linguists%20do_For_PDF.pdf">"What do linguists do?"</a> (PDF).</li> <li>Isac, Daniela; Charles Reiss (2013). <a href="https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani"><i>I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science, 2nd edition</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-953420-3.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li> Media related to Generative linguistics at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>"Generativist". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). August 2024. <a href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/Generativist" target="_blank">https://www.dictionary.com/browse/Generativist</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Wasow, Thomas (2003). "Generative Grammar" (PDF). In Aronoff, Mark; Ress-Miller, Janie (eds.). The Handbook of Linguistics. Blackwell. pp. 296, 311. doi:10.1002/9780470756409.ch12}. ...generative grammar is not so much a theory as a family or theories, or a school of thought... [having] shared assumptions and goals, widely used formal devices, and generally accepted empirical results <a href="/wiki/Tom_Wasow" target="_blank">/wiki/Tom_Wasow</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Carnie, Andrew (2002). Syntax: A Generative Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-631-22543-0. <a href="978-0-631-22543-0" target="_blank">978-0-631-22543-0</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Carnie, Andrew (2002). Syntax: A Generative Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 4–6, 8. ISBN 978-0-631-22543-0. <a href="978-0-631-22543-0" target="_blank">978-0-631-22543-0</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Wasow, Thomas (2003). "Generative Grammar" (PDF). In Aronoff, Mark; Ress-Miller, Janie (eds.). The Handbook of Linguistics. Blackwell. pp. 295–296, 299–300. doi:10.1002/9780470756409.ch12. <a href="/wiki/Tom_Wasow" target="_blank">/wiki/Tom_Wasow</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Adger, David (2003). Core syntax: A minimalist approach. Oxford University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0199243709. <a href="978-0199243709" target="_blank">978-0199243709</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Carnie, Andrew (2002). Syntax: A Generative Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-631-22543-0. <a href="978-0-631-22543-0" target="_blank">978-0-631-22543-0</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Wasow, Thomas (2003). "Generative Grammar" (PDF). In Aronoff, Mark; Ress-Miller, Janie (eds.). The Handbook of Linguistics. Blackwell. pp. 295, 297. doi:10.1002/9780470756409.ch12. <a href="/wiki/Tom_Wasow" target="_blank">/wiki/Tom_Wasow</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Wasow, Thomas (2003). "Generative Grammar" (PDF). In Aronoff, Mark; Ress-Miller, Janie (eds.). The Handbook of Linguistics. Blackwell. pp. 298–300. doi:10.1002/9780470756409.ch12. <a href="/wiki/Tom_Wasow" target="_blank">/wiki/Tom_Wasow</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Adger, David (2003). Core syntax: A minimalist approach. Oxford University Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN 978-0199243709. <a href="978-0199243709" target="_blank">978-0199243709</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Wasow, Thomas (2003). "Generative Grammar" (PDF). In Aronoff, Mark; Ress-Miller, Janie (eds.). The Handbook of Linguistics. Blackwell. pp. 298–300. doi:10.1002/9780470756409.ch12. <a href="/wiki/Tom_Wasow" target="_blank">/wiki/Tom_Wasow</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Wasow, Thomas (2003). "Generative Grammar" (PDF). In Aronoff, Mark; Ress-Miller, Janie (eds.). The Handbook of Linguistics. Blackwell. pp. 298–300. doi:10.1002/9780470756409.ch12. <a href="/wiki/Tom_Wasow" target="_blank">/wiki/Tom_Wasow</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Wasow, Thomas (2003). "Generative Grammar" (PDF). In Aronoff, Mark; Ress-Miller, Janie (eds.). The Handbook of Linguistics. Blackwell. pp. 297–298. doi:10.1002/9780470756409.ch12}. <a href="/wiki/Tom_Wasow" target="_blank">/wiki/Tom_Wasow</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Wasow, Thomas (2003). "Generative Grammar" (PDF). In Aronoff, Mark; Ress-Miller, Janie (eds.). The Handbook of Linguistics. Blackwell. pp. 297–298. doi:10.1002/9780470756409.ch12}. <a href="/wiki/Tom_Wasow" target="_blank">/wiki/Tom_Wasow</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Pritchett, Bradley (1992). Grammatical competence and parsing performance. University of Chicago Press. p. 2. ISBN 0-226-68442-3. <a href="0-226-68442-3" target="_blank">0-226-68442-3</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Marr, David (1982). Vision. MIT Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-0262514620. <a href="978-0262514620" target="_blank">978-0262514620</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Adger, David (2003). Core syntax: A minimalist approach. Oxford University Press. pp. 4–7, 17. ISBN 978-0199243709. <a href="978-0199243709" target="_blank">978-0199243709</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Adger, David (2003). Core syntax: A minimalist approach. Oxford University Press. pp. 4–7, 17. ISBN 978-0199243709. <a href="978-0199243709" target="_blank">978-0199243709</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Dillon, Brian; Momma, Shota (2021), Psychological background to linguistic theories (PDF) (Course notes) <a href="https://shotam.github.io/LING611_slides/LING611_day1.pdf" target="_blank">https://shotam.github.io/LING611_slides/LING611_day1.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Dillon, Brian; Momma, Shota (2021), Psychological background to linguistic theories (PDF) (Course notes) <a href="https://shotam.github.io/LING611_slides/LING611_day1.pdf" target="_blank">https://shotam.github.io/LING611_slides/LING611_day1.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Sprouse, Jon; Wagers, Matt; Phillips, Colin (2013). "Deriving competing predictions from grammatical approaches and reductionist approaches to island effects". In Sprouse, Jon; Hornstein, Norbert (eds.). Experimental syntax and island effects. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139035309.002. <a href="/wiki/Colin_Phillips" target="_blank">/wiki/Colin_Phillips</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Phillips, Colin (2013). "On the nature of island constraints I: Language processing and reductionist accounts" (PDF). In Sprouse, Jon; Hornstein, Norbert (eds.). Experimental syntax and island effects. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139035309.005. <a href="http://www.colinphillips.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/phillips2013_islands1.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.colinphillips.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/phillips2013_islands1.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Hofmeister, Philip; Staum Casasanto, Laura; Sag, Ivan (2013). "Islands in the grammar? Standards of evidence". In Sprouse, Jon; Hornstein, Norbert (eds.). Experimental syntax and island effects. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139035309.004. <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Sag" target="_blank">/wiki/Ivan_Sag</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Vyvyan, Evans; Green, Melanie (2006). Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 108–111. ISBN 0-7486-1832-5. <a href="0-7486-1832-5" target="_blank">0-7486-1832-5</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Wasow, Thomas (2003). "Generative Grammar" (PDF). In Aronoff, Mark; Ress-Miller, Janie (eds.). The Handbook of Linguistics. Blackwell. p. 299. doi:10.1002/9780470756409.ch12}. <a href="/wiki/Tom_Wasow" target="_blank">/wiki/Tom_Wasow</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Pesetsky, David (1999). "Linguistic universals and universal grammar". In Wilson, Robert; Keil, Frank (eds.). The MIT encyclopedia of the cognitive sciences. MIT Press. pp. 476–478. doi:10.7551/mitpress/4660.001.0001. <a href="/wiki/David_Pesetsky" target="_blank">/wiki/David_Pesetsky</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Adger, David (2003). Core syntax: A minimalist approach. Oxford University Press. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-0199243709. <a href="978-0199243709" target="_blank">978-0199243709</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Lasnik, Howard; Lidz, Jeffrey (2017). "The Argument from the Poverty of the Stimulus" (PDF). In Roberts, Ian (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Universal Grammar. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Howard_Lasnik" target="_blank">/wiki/Howard_Lasnik</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Adger, David (2003). Core syntax: A minimalist approach. Oxford University Press. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-0199243709. <a href="978-0199243709" target="_blank">978-0199243709</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Lasnik, Howard; Lidz, Jeffrey (2017). "The Argument from the Poverty of the Stimulus" (PDF). In Roberts, Ian (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Universal Grammar. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Howard_Lasnik" target="_blank">/wiki/Howard_Lasnik</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Crain, Stephen; Nakayama, Mineharu (1987). "Structure dependence in grammar formation". Language. 63 (3). doi:10.2307/415004. <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Crain" target="_blank">/wiki/Stephen_Crain</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Pullum, Geoff; Scholz, Barbara (2002). "Empirical assessment of stimulus poverty arguments". The Linguistic Review. 18 (1–2): 9–50. doi:10.1515/tlir.19.1-2.9. <a href="/wiki/Geoff_Pullum" target="_blank">/wiki/Geoff_Pullum</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Legate, Julie Anne; Yang, Charles (2002). "Empirical re-assessment of stimulus poverty arguments" (PDF). The Linguistic Review. 18 (1–2): 151–162. doi:10.1515/tlir.19.1-2.9. <a href="/wiki/Julie_Anne_Legate" target="_blank">/wiki/Julie_Anne_Legate</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>McCoy, R. Thomas; Frank, Robert; Linzen, Tal (2018). "Revisiting the poverty of the stimulus: hierarchical generalization without a hierarchical bias in recurrent neural networks" (PDF). Proceedings of the 40th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society: 2093–2098. <a href="https://tallinzen.net/media/papers/mccoy_frank_linzen_2018_cogsci.pdf" target="_blank">https://tallinzen.net/media/papers/mccoy_frank_linzen_2018_cogsci.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Pesetsky, David (1999). "Linguistic universals and universal grammar". In Wilson, Robert; Keil, Frank (eds.). The MIT encyclopedia of the cognitive sciences. MIT Press. pp. 476–478. doi:10.7551/mitpress/4660.001.0001. <a href="/wiki/David_Pesetsky" target="_blank">/wiki/David_Pesetsky</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Gallego, Ángel (2012). "Parameters". In Boeckx, Cedric (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic Minimalism. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199549368.013.0023. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Pesetsky, David (1999). "Linguistic universals and universal grammar". In Wilson, Robert; Keil, Frank (eds.). The MIT encyclopedia of the cognitive sciences. MIT Press. pp. 476–478. doi:10.7551/mitpress/4660.001.0001. <a href="/wiki/David_Pesetsky" target="_blank">/wiki/David_Pesetsky</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>McCarthy, John (1992). Doing optimality theory. Wiley. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-1-4051-5136-8. <a href="978-1-4051-5136-8" target="_blank">978-1-4051-5136-8</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Hauser, Marc; Chomsky, Noam; Fitch, W. Tecumseh (2002). "The faculty of language: what is it, who has it, and how did it evolve". Science. 298: 1569–1579. doi:10.1126/science.298.5598.1569. <a href="/wiki/Marc_Hauser" target="_blank">/wiki/Marc_Hauser</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Wasow, Thomas (2003). "Generative Grammar" (PDF). In Aronoff, Mark; Ress-Miller, Janie (eds.). The Handbook of Linguistics. Blackwell. p. 299. doi:10.1002/9780470756409.ch12}. <a href="/wiki/Tom_Wasow" target="_blank">/wiki/Tom_Wasow</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Carnie, Andrew (2002). Syntax: A Generative Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-631-22543-0. <a href="978-0-631-22543-0" target="_blank">978-0-631-22543-0</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Carnie, Andrew (2002). Syntax: A Generative Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-631-22543-0. <a href="978-0-631-22543-0" target="_blank">978-0-631-22543-0</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Clements, Nick (1999). "Phonology". In Wilson, Robert; Keil, Frank (eds.). The MIT encyclopedia of the cognitive sciences. MIT Press. pp. 639–641. doi:10.7551/mitpress/4660.003.0026. <a href="/wiki/Nick_Clements" target="_blank">/wiki/Nick_Clements</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>McCarthy, John (1992). Doing optimality theory. Wiley. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-1-4051-5136-8. <a href="978-1-4051-5136-8" target="_blank">978-1-4051-5136-8</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Irene Heim; Angelika Kratzer (1998). Semantics in generative grammar. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-19713-3. <a href="978-0-631-19713-3" target="_blank">978-0-631-19713-3</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Baroni, Mario; Maguire, Simon; Drabkin, William (1983). "The Concept of Musical Grammar". Music Analysis. 2 (2): 175–208. doi:10.2307/854248. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>Lerdahl, Fred; Ray Jackendoff (1983). A Generative Theory of Tonal Music. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-62107-6. <a href="978-0-262-62107-6" target="_blank">978-0-262-62107-6</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Berwick, Robert; Chomsky, Noam (2015). Why Only Us: Language and Evolution. MIT Press. ISBN 9780262034241. <a href="9780262034241" target="_blank">9780262034241</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Scharff C, Haesler S (December 2005). "An evolutionary perspective on FoxP2: strictly for the birds?". Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 15 (6): 694–703. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2005.10.004. PMID 16266802. S2CID 11350165. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>Scharff C, Petri J (July 2011). "Evo-devo, deep homology and FoxP2: implications for the evolution of speech and language". Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 366 (1574): 2124–40. doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0001. PMC 3130369. PMID 21690130. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3130369" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3130369</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>Diller, Karl C.; Cann, Rebecca L. (2009). Rudolf Botha; Chris Knight (eds.). Evidence Against a Genetic-Based Revolution in Language 50,000 Years Ago. Oxford Series in the Evolution of Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 135–149. ISBN 978-0-19-954586-5. <a href="978-0-19-954586-5" target="_blank">978-0-19-954586-5</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>Newmeyer, Frederick (1986). Linguistic Theory in America. Academic Press. pp. 17–18. ISBN 0-12-517152-8. <a href="0-12-517152-8" target="_blank">0-12-517152-8</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>Koerner, E. F. K. (1978). "Towards a historiography of linguistics". Toward a Historiography of Linguistics: Selected Essays. John Benjamins. pp. 21–54. <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Bloomfield, Leonard, 1929, 274; cited in Rogers, David, 1987, 88 <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Hockett, Charles, 1987, 41 <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Newmeyer, F. J. (1986). Has there been a 'Chomskyan revolution' in linguistics?. Language, 62(1), p.13 <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>McCarthy, John (1992). Doing optimality theory. Wiley. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-1-4051-5136-8. <a href="978-1-4051-5136-8" target="_blank">978-1-4051-5136-8</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>Partee, Barbara (2011). "Formal semantics: Origins, issues, early impact". The Baltic International Yearbook of Cognition, Logic and Communication. 6. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.826.5720. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>Crnič, Luka; Pesetsky, David; Sauerland, Uli (2014). "Introduction: Biographical Notes" (PDF). In Crnič, Luka; Sauerland, Uli (eds.). The art and craft of semantics: A Festschrift for Irene Heim. <a href="https://semanticsarchive.net/Archive/jZiNmM4N/CrnicPesetskySauerland.pdf" target="_blank">https://semanticsarchive.net/Archive/jZiNmM4N/CrnicPesetskySauerland.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>