Mongol invasion of Java

<h2 id="background">Background</h2>
<a href="/facts/Kublai_Khan/jkAtyU4h">Kublai</a>, the founder of the <a href="/facts/Yuan_dynasty/mQl0o0XN">Yuan dynasty</a>, had sent envoys to many states demanding that they pay tributes and submit themselves to Yuan China. Men-shi or Meng-qi (孟琪), one of his ministers, was sent to <a href="/facts/Java/2MNA2rLm">Java</a> (<a href="/facts/Singhasari/CWpYxtdD">Singhasari</a>) but was not well received there.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a> The king of <a href="/facts/Singhasari/CWpYxtdD">Singhasari</a>, <a href="/facts/Kertanegara/8z3kBY72">Kertanegara</a>, was offended by Men-shi's proposal and branded his face with a hot iron as was done to common thieves, cut his ears, and scornfully sent him on his way. Kublai Khan was shocked and ordered a punitive expedition against Kertanegara, whom he labeled a barbarian, in 1292. The campaign also had other objectives. According to Kublai Khan, if the Yuan forces were able to defeat Singhasari, the other countries around it would submit themselves.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a> The Yuan dynasty could then control the <a href="/facts/Asia/4IToYrrQ">Asian</a> sea trade routes, because of the strategic geographical position of the <a href="/facts/Indonesian_archipelago/X6UTGc9M">archipelago</a> in trading.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a>
According to the <a href="/facts/History_of_Yuan/ThuE0jR7">History of Yuan</a>, 20,000–30,000 men were collected from <a href="/facts/Fujian/Knjv0XCG">Fujian</a>, <a href="/facts/Jiangxi/mFb3o7r4">Jiangxi</a>, and <a href="/facts/Huguang/MdtTFmxN">Huguang</a> in <a href="/facts/Southern_China/p7vVbT3e">southern China</a>, along with 500<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a>–1,000 ships and enough provisions for a year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> The officers were the <a href="/facts/Han_Chinese/gMl0sKy0">Han Chinese</a> Shi Bi, the <a href="/facts/Yugurs/0ep6sVBo">Yugur</a> Yighmish, who were experienced in overseas voyages, and the <a href="/facts/Han_Chinese/gMl0sKy0">Han Chinese</a> Gao Xing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a>
Meanwhile, after defeating <a href="/facts/Melayu_Kingdom/yNRavICC">Malayu Dharmasraya</a> in <a href="/facts/Sumatra/Fo192kJb">Sumatra</a> in 1290, Singhasari became the most powerful kingdom in the region. Kertanegara sent a massive army to Sumatra in the <a href="/facts/Pamalayu/kLc77Vk0">Pamalayu</a> campaign. However, seizing the opportunity of the lack of an army guarding the capital, in 1292 <a href="/facts/Jayakatwang/NK7K5SIM">Jayakatwang</a>, the Duke of <a href="/facts/Kediri_Kingdom/AAJzACCR">Kediri</a> (Gelang-gelang), a vassal state of Singhasari, revolted against Kertanegara. Jayakatwang's revolt was assisted by Kertanegara's former close friend, Banyak Wide (also known by his title <a href="/facts/Aria_Wiraraja/SFCa0q4I">Arya Wiraraja</a>), who secretly despised Kertanegara since he was removed from being a minister/<a href="/facts/Chamberlain_(office)/26MksNud">chamberlain</a> of Singhasari and was sent to <a href="/facts/Madura/g2lN18gX">Madura</a> as the governor in <a href="/facts/Sumenep_(town)/27KXmnhe">Sumenep</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a>: 199 <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a>
The Kediri (Gelang-gelang) army attacked Singhasari simultaneously from both the north and south flanks. The king of Singhasari only noticed the invasion from the north and sent his son-in-law, Nararya Sanggramawijaya (<a href="/facts/Raden_Wijaya/SgrKa4sr">Raden Wijaya</a>), northward to vanquish the rebellion. The northern attack was quashed, but the southern attack under the command of Kebo Mundarang successfully remained undetected until it reached and sacked the unprepared capital city of <a href="/facts/Singosari/tKckFh1j">Kutaraja</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> Jayakatwang usurped and killed Kertanegara during the <a href="/facts/Tantra/PWp3GPK9">Tantra</a> sacred ceremony while drinking <a href="/facts/Palm_wine/karpzovm">palm wine</a>, thus bringing an end to the <a href="/facts/Singhasari/CWpYxtdD">Singhasari Kingdom</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> The death of Kertanegara and the fall of Singhasari is recorded in the <a href="/facts/Gajah_Mada_inscription/2s4I64qm">Gajah Mada inscription</a> in the month of Jyesta in 1214 Saka, which has been interpreted as April–May 1292 or between 18th May and the 15th June of 1292.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a>
Having learned of the fall of the <a href="/facts/Singhasari/CWpYxtdD">Singhasari</a> capital of <a href="/facts/Singosari/tKckFh1j">Kutaraja</a> to the <a href="/facts/Kediri_Kingdom/AAJzACCR">Kediri</a> rebellion, <a href="/facts/Raden_Wijaya/SgrKa4sr">Raden Wijaya</a> tried to return and defend Singhasari but failed. He and his three colleagues, Rangga Lawe, Sora, and Nambi, went into exile to <a href="/facts/Madura/g2lN18gX">Madura</a> under the protection of the regent <a href="/facts/Aria_Wiraraja/SFCa0q4I">Arya Wiraraja</a>, who then turned to <a href="/facts/Jayakatwang/NK7K5SIM">Jayakatwang</a>'s side. Kertanegara's son-in-law, Raden Wijaya, submitted to Kediri, and being brokered by Arya Wiraraja he was pardoned by Jayakatwang. Wijaya was then permitted to establish a new settlement in Tarik timberland. The new settlement was named <a href="/facts/Majapahit/28e5Eydc">Majapahit</a>, which was taken from <a href="/facts/Aegle_marmelos/TMkeWmaj">maja fruit</a> that had a bitter taste in that timberland (maja is the fruit name and pahit means 'bitter').<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a>

<h3>Military composition</h3>

There were 5,000 men commanded by Shi Bi, 2,000 from the garrison in <a href="/facts/Fujian/Knjv0XCG">Fujian Province</a>, and soldiers from <a href="/facts/Jiangxi/mFb3o7r4">Jiangxi</a>, <a href="/facts/Fujian/Knjv0XCG">Fujian</a>, and <a href="/facts/Huguang/MdtTFmxN">Huguang</a> provinces.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> The personal equipment during the expedition was not explicitly recorded. If the equipment was similar to the <a href="/facts/Mongol_invasions_of_Japan/1GSXRWdU">Mongol invasion of Japan</a>, the soldiers would have worn light steel helmets and hide armor. The weapons included pikes, <a href="/facts/Battle_axe/LeL3RgDf">battle axes</a>, <a href="/facts/Reflex_bow/uHdYLE1Q">reflex bows</a>, <a href="/facts/Rocket/b6j4keIl">rockets</a>, and <a href="/facts/Thunder_crash_bomb/LBWpQzIq">tiě pào</a> (鐵炮 — grenades launched by catapults). Ethnic <a href="/facts/Mongols/fb4zx1s8">Mongol</a> soldiers also brought horses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> The <a href="/facts/History_of_Yuan/ThuE0jR7">History of Yuan</a> also mentioned cannon (Chinese: <a href="/facts/Hu_dun_pao/NpKG1uUh">炮 — Pào</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a>: 10  From the record of <a href="/facts/Ibn_Battuta/sjagHd1M">Ibn Battuta</a>, Chinese ships carried <a href="/facts/Naphtha/DpzLNMey">naphtha</a> shooters/throwers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a> The kind of ships used in the campaign is not mentioned in the History of Yuan, but the norm of Chinese <a href="/facts/Junks/6qRbBnwD">junks</a> pre-1500 was about 20–30 m (65.6–98.4 ft) long.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a> Worcester estimates that the large junks of the Yuan dynasty were 36 feet (10.97 m) in beam and over 100 feet (30.48 m) long.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a>: 22  By using the ratio between the number of ships and total soldiers, each ship may have carried a maximum capacity of 30 or 31 men.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> David Bade estimated a capacity of 20 to 50 men per ship.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a>

The <a href="/facts/History_of_Yuan/ThuE0jR7">History of Yuan</a> recorded that the <a href="/facts/Javanese_people/35mcwIsB">Javanese</a> army had more than 100,000 men. This is now believed to be an exaggerated or mistaken number. Modern estimates place the Javanese forces at around the same size as the Yuan army, of around 20,000 to 30,000 men.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> According to a Chinese record, Java already had a <a href="/facts/Standing_army/Hll2cvJl">standing army</a>, an achievement that only a handful of <a href="/facts/Southeast_Asia/VafwT517">Southeast Asian</a> empires could hope to achieve. This army numbered around 30,000 men that were paid in gold, recorded as early as 1225 in <a href="/facts/Zhu_Fan_Zhi/RSdElEWQ">Zhu Fan Zhi</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a>: 467 
Military forces in various parts of Southeast Asia were lightly armored. As was common in Southeast Asia, most of the Javanese forces were composed of temporarily conscripted commoners (<a href="/facts/Conscription/SstkxdBk">levy</a>) led by the warrior and noble <a href="/facts/Caste/J2qr75PV">castes</a>. The "peasant army" was usually bare-chested wearing a <a href="/facts/Sarong/qpbUe3mb">sarung</a>, and armed with a spear, short sword, or bow and arrows.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a> Their infantry (professional soldiers, not the levy) wore a scale armor called <a href="/facts/Siping-siping/f2QjLh6p">siping-siping</a>, possibly made of <a href="/facts/Brass/pe8EHk6x">brass</a>. The high-ranking soldiers wore a metal <a href="/facts/Breastplate/MTkk64HS">breastplate</a> called <a href="/facts/Kawaca/aM4nmmwK">kawaca</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a> The Javanese navy, however, was more advanced than the Chinese. <a href="/facts/Javanese_junk/TJERddVu">Javanese junks</a> (jong) were more than 69 to 80 metres (226 to 262 ft) long, able to carry 600–1,000 men, and constructed in multiple thick planks that rendered artillery useless.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a>

<h2 id="invasion">Invasion</h2>

The order to subdue <a href="/facts/Java/2MNA2rLm">Java</a> was issued by the <a href="/facts/Kublai_Khan/jkAtyU4h">Kublai Khan</a> on March 1292.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> The <a href="/facts/Yuan_dynasty/mQl0o0XN">Yuan</a> forces departed from the southern port of <a href="/facts/Quanzhou/KRhHy7kg">Quanzhou</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a> traveled along the coast of <a href="/facts/Tr%25E1%25BA%25A7n_dynasty/fUvC0IHo">Trần dynasty</a>, <a href="/facts/Dai_Viet/ksz5RByd">Dai Viet</a> and <a href="/facts/Champa/HLWa7c9y">Champa</a> along the way to their primary target. The small states of <a href="/facts/Malaysia/8zbUMzCP">Malaya</a> and <a href="/facts/Sumatra/Fo192kJb">Sumatra</a> submitted and sent envoys to them, and Yuan commanders left <a href="/facts/Darughachi/7mgbs1cu">darugha</a> there. It is known that the Yuan forces stopped at Ko-lan (Gelam island) to plan their strategy. On 22 January 1293,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> Yighmish departed first to bring the Emperor's order to Java. The main fleet then sailed to <a href="/facts/Karimunjawa/cEAYbUVY">Karimun Jawa</a>, and from there sailed to <a href="/facts/Tuban/wGVYc2Tk">Tuban</a>. As noted in Kidung Panji Wijayakrama, they probably pillaged the coastal town of Tuban and the villages surrounding the area.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> After that, the commanders decided to split the forces into two. The first would advance inland, the second follows them using boats. Shi Bi sailed to the estuary of Sedayu, and from there went to a small river called <a href="/facts/Mas_River/Kd73svsc">Kali Mas</a> (a tributary of <a href="/facts/Brantas_River/qbPVHF1a">Brantas River</a>). Land troops under Gao Xing and Yighmish, which consisted of cavalry and infantry, went to Du-Bing-Zu. Three commanders sailed using fast boats from Sedayu to <a href="/facts/Majapahit/28e5Eydc">Majapahit</a>'s floating bridge and then joined with the main troops on the way to <a href="/facts/Mas_River/Kd73svsc">Kali Mas River</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a>

<h3>Arrival</h3>

When the <a href="/facts/Yuan_dynasty/mQl0o0XN">Yuan</a> army arrived in <a href="/facts/Java/2MNA2rLm">Java</a>, <a href="/facts/Raden_Wijaya/SgrKa4sr">Raden Wijaya</a> sent an envoy from <a href="/facts/Madura/g2lN18gX">Madura</a> and informed them that <a href="/facts/Kertanagara/8z3kBY72">Kertanagara</a> had been killed in a palace coup and the usurper, <a href="/facts/Jayakatwang/NK7K5SIM">Jayakatwang</a>, currently ruled in his place.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a> Wijaya allied himself with the army to fight against Jayakatwang and gave the <a href="/facts/Mongols/fb4zx1s8">Mongols</a> a map of the country <a href="/facts/Kediri_Kingdom/AAJzACCR">Kalang</a> (Gelang-gelang, another name for Kediri). According to the <a href="/facts/History_of_Yuan/ThuE0jR7">History of Yuan</a>, Wijaya attacked Jayakatwang without success when he heard of the arrival of the Yuan navy. Then he requested their aid. In return, Yuan generals demanded his submission to their emperor, and he gave it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a> Raden Wijaya promised a tribute including two princesses should the army succeed in destroying Kediri.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a>

<h3>Battle of the Kali Mas</h3>
On the 22nd March, all of the troops gathered in <a href="/facts/Mas_River/Kd73svsc">Kali Mas</a>. At the headwaters of the river was the palace of the <a href="/facts/Tumapel/ltuwHNu0">Tumapel</a> (<a href="/facts/Singhasari/CWpYxtdD">Singhasari</a>) king. This river was the entryway to Java, and here they decided to battle. A Javanese minister blocked the river using boats. The Yuan commanders then made a crescent-shaped encampment at the bank of the river. They instructed the waterborne troops, cavalry, and infantry to move forward together. The minister abandoned his boats and fled in the night. More than 100 large boats with a devil head at the bow were seized by Yuan forces.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a>
A large portion of the army was tasked to guard the estuary of Kali Mas; meanwhile, the main troops advanced. <a href="/facts/Raden_Wijaya/SgrKa4sr">Raden Wijaya</a>'s messenger said that the king of Kediri had chased him to <a href="/facts/Majapahit/28e5Eydc">Majapahit</a> and begged the Yuan army to protect him. Because the position of Kediri's army couldn't be determined, the Yuan army returned to Kali Mas. Upon hearing information from Yighmish that the enemy's army would arrive that night, the Yuan army departed to Majapahit.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a>

<h4>Attack by Kediri's</h4>
On the 14th April, Kediri's army arrived from 3 directions to attack Wijaya. In the morning of the 15th April, Yighmish led his troops to attack the enemy in the southwest, but couldn't find them. Gao Xing battled the enemy in the southeast, eventually forcing them to flee into the mountains. Near midday, enemy troops came from the southeast. Gao Xing attacked again and managed to defeat them in the evening.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a>

<h3>Battle of the Brantas</h3>
On the 22nd April, the troops split into 3 to attack Kediri, and it was agreed that on the 26th April they would meet up in Daha to begin the attack after hearing cannon fire. The first troops sailed along the river. The second troops led by Yighmish marched along the eastern riverbank while the third army led by Gao Xing marched along the western riverbank. Raden Wijaya and his troops marched in the rear.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a>

<h4>Battle of Daha</h4>
The army arrived at Daha on the 26th April. The prince of <a href="/facts/Kediri_Kingdom/AAJzACCR">Kediri</a> defended the city with his troops. The battle lasted from 6:00 am to 14:00 pm. After attacking 3 times, Kediri forces were defeated and fled. At the same time that the Mongol and Kediri forces clashed, <a href="/facts/Majapahit/28e5Eydc">Majapahit</a> forces attacked the city from another <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a> side and quickly defeated the guards. <a href="/facts/Raden_Wijaya/SgrKa4sr">Raden Wijaya</a> went into the palace and freed the princess which has been taken captive by <a href="/facts/Jayakatwang/NK7K5SIM">Jayakatwang</a> and her two handmaidens.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a> A few thousand Kediri troops tried to cross the river but drowned while 5,000 were killed in the battle. King Jayakatwang retreated to his fortress only to find out that his palace had been burned. The Yuan army then rounded up Daha and called on the king to surrender. In the afternoon, Jayakatwang declared his submission to the <a href="/facts/Mongols/fb4zx1s8">Mongols</a>. The Yuan army captured Jayakatwang, his son, his wife and all his officers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> Kebo Mundarang, who battled in the south, was defeated and fled, only to be captured by Sora. He was brought to a plain and executed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a>

<h3>Wijaya's ambushes against Yuan</h3>
Once <a href="/facts/Jayakatwang/NK7K5SIM">Jayakatwang</a> had been captured by <a href="/facts/Yuan_dynasty/mQl0o0XN">Yuan</a> forces, <a href="/facts/Raden_Wijaya/SgrKa4sr">Raden Wijaya</a> returned to <a href="/facts/Majapahit/28e5Eydc">Majapahit</a>, ostensibly to prepare his tribute settlement, and leaving his allies to celebrate their victory. Shi Bi and Yighmish allowed Raden Wijaya to go back to his country to prepare his tribute and a new letter of submission, but Gao Xing disliked the idea and he warned the other two.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a> Wijaya asked the Yuan forces to come to his country unarmed, as the princesses could not stand the sight of weapons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a>
Two hundred unarmed <a href="/facts/Yuan_dynasty/mQl0o0XN">Yuan</a> soldiers led by two officers were sent to <a href="/facts/Raden_Wijaya/SgrKa4sr">Raden Wijaya's</a> country, but on the 26th May Raden Wijaya quickly mobilized his forces again and ambushed the Yuan convoy. After that Raden Wijaya marched his forces to the main Yuan camp and launched a surprise attack, killing many and sending the rest running back to their ships. Shi Bi was left behind and cut off from the rest of his army, and was obliged to fight his way eastward through 123 km of hostile territory.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> Raden Wijaya did not engage the <a href="/facts/Mongols/fb4zx1s8">Mongols</a> head-on; instead, he used all possible tactics to harass and reduce the enemy army bit by bit.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a> During the rout, the Yuan army lost a part of the spoils that had been captured beforehand.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a>

The Yuan forces had to withdraw in confusion, as the <a href="/facts/Monsoon/0a2o484v">monsoon</a> winds to carry them home would soon end, leaving them to wait on a hostile island for six months. <a href="/facts/Jayakatwang/NK7K5SIM">Jayakatwang</a> composed Kidung Wukir Polaman during captivity in Jung Galuh,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a> but the Mongols killed him and his son before they departed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a> They sailed back on the 31st May to <a href="/facts/Quanzhou/KRhHy7kg">Quanzhou</a> in 68 days.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a> The Kudadu inscription hints at a battle between the Javanese fleet commanded by rakryan mantri Arya Adikara<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a> and the Mongol-Chinese fleet.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a> Kidung Panji Wijayakrama indicated that Mongol ships were either destroyed or captured.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> Shi Bi's troops lost more than 3,000 soldiers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a> Modern research by Nugroho estimated 60% of the Yuan army was killed<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a> (with total losses of 12,000–18,000 soldiers), with an unknown number of soldiers taken prisoner and an unknown number of ships destroyed or captured.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a> In early August 1293, the army arrived in China. They brought Jayakatwang's children and some of his officers, numbering more than 100. They also acquired the nation's map, population registration, and a letter with golden writings from the king of Muli/Buli (probably <a href="/facts/Bali_Kingdom/5ewJCACx">Bali</a>). They captured loot in form of valuables, incenses, perfumes, and textiles; all are counted to be worth more than 500,000 <a href="/facts/Tael/yCITQPMM">taels</a> of silver.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a>

<h2 id="aftermath">Aftermath</h2>

The three <a href="/facts/Yuan_dynasty/mQl0o0XN">Yuan</a> generals, demoralized by the considerable loss of their elite soldiers due to the ambush, returned to their empire with the surviving soldiers. Upon their arrival, Shi Bi was condemned to receive seventy lashes and have a third of his property confiscated for allowing the catastrophe. Yighmish also was reprimanded and a third of his property was confiscated. But Gao Xing was awarded 50 taels of gold for protecting the soldiers from a total disaster. Later, Shi Bi and Yighmish were shown mercy, and the emperor restored their reputation and property.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a>
This failure was the last expedition in <a href="/facts/Kublai_Khan/jkAtyU4h">Kublai Khan</a>'s reign. <a href="/facts/Majapahit/28e5Eydc">Majapahit</a>, in contrast, became the most powerful state of its era in the region.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a> Kublai Khan summoned his minister, Liu Guojie, to prepare another invasion of <a href="/facts/Java/2MNA2rLm">Java</a> with a 100,000-strong army, but this plan was canceled after his death.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a> Travelers passing the region, such as <a href="/facts/Ibn_Battuta/sjagHd1M">Ibn Battuta</a> and <a href="/facts/Odoric_of_Pordenone/IefwFWe6">Odoric of Pordenone</a>, however, noted that Java had been unsuccessfully attacked by the Mongols several times.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a>: 885 <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a> The Gunung Butak inscription from 1294 may have mentioned that Arya Adikara intercepted a further Mongol invasion and defeated it before landing in Java.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a>
This invasion may have involved the first use of gunpowder in the <a href="/facts/Nusantara_(archipelago)/4L3a3XPN">Nusantara archipelago</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a>: 245  After this invasion, Chinese shipbuilding techniques were absorbed by Javanese shipbuilders.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a>: 18 <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a>: 61–62  A new type of jong appeared, called the Sino-Southeast Asian hybrid jong, they mixed Chinese techniques in their manufacture, namely the usage of iron nails alongside wooden dowels, and also the addition of watertight bulkheads and a central rudder.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a>: 268, 272–273 <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a>: 270 

<h2 id="legacy">Legacy</h2>
The <a href="/facts/Mongols/fb4zx1s8">Mongols</a> left two inscriptions on the Serutu Island on February 25, 1293. The inscriptions were called the Pasir Kapal and the Pasir Cina inscriptions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Mongol_invasions_of_Vietnam/R3xTHjn3">Mongol invasions of Vietnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Mongol_invasions_of_Japan/1GSXRWdU">Mongol invasions of Japan</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Cetbang/ePKE5myJ">Cetbang</a>, Majapahit gunpowder powder whose technology was obtained from this incursion</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Bedil_(term)/j02pbUb5">Bedil</a>, a term for gunpowder-based weapon of the region</li></ul>
<h2 id="notes">Notes</h2>

<h2 id="sources">Sources</h2>

<ul><li>Averoes, Muhammad (2022). <a href="https://archive.org/details/size-of-javanese-jong">"Re-Estimating the Size of Javanese Jong Ship"</a>. HISTORIA: Jurnal Pendidik Dan Peneliti Sejarah. 5 (1): 57–64. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.17509%2Fhistoria.v5i1.39181">10.17509/historia.v5i1.39181</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:247335671">247335671</a>.</li>
<li>Bade, David W. (2013), Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies</li>
<li>Bowring, Philip (2019), Empire of the Winds: The Global Role of Asia's Great Archipelago, London, New York: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781788314466</li>
<li>Burnet, Ian (2015), Archipelago: A Journey Across Indonesia, Rosenberg Publishing</li>
<li>Groeneveldt, Willem Pieter (1876), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C">Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca Compiled from Chinese Sources</a>, Batavia: W. Bruining This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/facts/Public_domain/YWKMDKw4">public domain</a>.</li>
<li>Hung, Hsiao-chun; Hartatik; Ma'rifat, Tisna Arif; Simanjuntak, Truman (2022), "Mongol fleet on the way to Java: First archaeological remains from the Karimata Strait in Indonesia", Archaeological Research in Asia, 29: 100327, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ara.2021.100327">10.1016/j.ara.2021.100327</a>, <a href="/facts/Hdl_(identifier)/rdebSxmC">hdl</a>:<a href="https://hdl.handle.net/1885%2F294251">1885/294251</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244553201">244553201</a></li>
<li>Jákl, Jiří (2014). Literary Representations of War and Warfare in Old Javanese Kakawin Poetry (PhD thesis). The University of Queensland.</li>
<li>Lo, Jung-pang (2012) [1957], Elleman, Bruce A. (ed.), China as Sea Power 1127-1368: A Preliminary Survey of the Maritime Expansion and Naval Exploits of the Chinese People During the Southern Song and Yuan Periods, Singapore: NUS Press</li>
<li>Man, John (2007), Kublai Khan: The Mongol king who remade China, London: Bantam Books, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-553-81718-8</li>
<li>Miksic, John Norman (2013), Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800, Singapore: NUS Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-9971-69-558-3</li>
<li>Muljana, Raden Benedictus Slamet (2005) [1965], Menuju Puncak Kemegahan (Sejarah Kerajaan Majapahit), Yogyakarta: LKiS Pelangi Aksara</li>
<li>Nugroho, Irawan Djoko (2011), Majapahit Peradaban Maritim, Jakarta: Suluh Nuswantara Bakti, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-602-9346-00-8</li>
<li>Nugroho, Irawan Djoko (2009), Meluruskan Sejarah Majapahit, Ragam Media</li>
<li>Poesponegoro, Marwati Djoened; Notosusanto, Nugroho (2019) [2008], <a href="https://archive.org/details/sejarah-nasional-indonesia-jilid-2-zaman-kuno/mode/2up">Sejarah Nasional Indonesia Edisi Pemutakhiran Jilid 2: Zaman Kuno</a>, Jakarta: Balai Pustaka</li></ul>

<h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2>
<ul><li>Bade, David W. (2002), Khubilai Khan and the Beautiful Princess of Tumapel: the Mongols Between History and Literature in Java, Ulaanbaatar: A. Chuluunbat</li>
<li><a href="/facts/D%2527Ohsson/RjEf07dw">d'Ohsson, Constantin Mouradgea</a> (2002), "Chapitre 3 Kublai Khan, Tome III", Histoire des Mongols, depuis Tchinguiz-Khan jusqu'à Timour Bey ou Tamerlan, Boston: Adamant Media, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-543-94729-1</li>
<li>Levathes, Louise (1994), When China Ruled the Seas, New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 54, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-671-70158-4, The ambitious khan [Kublai Khan] also sent fleets into the South China Seas to attack Annam and Java, whose leaders both briefly acknowledged the suzerainty of the dragon throne</li>
<li>Sujana, Kadir Tisna (1987), Babad Majapahit, Jakarta: Balai Pustaka This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/facts/Public_domain/YWKMDKw4">public domain</a>.</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Weatherford, Jack (2004), Genghis khan and the making of the modern world, New York: Random House, p. 239, ISBN 0-609-80964-4 <a href="0-609-80964-4" target="_blank">0-609-80964-4</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Bade 2013, p. 45. - Bade, David W. (2013), Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Grousset, Rene (1988), Empire of steppes, Wars in Japan, Indochina and Java, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, p. 288, ISBN 0-8135-1304-9. <a href="0-8135-1304-9" target="_blank">0-8135-1304-9</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Groeneveldt 1876, p. 30. - Groeneveldt, Willem Pieter (1876), Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca Compiled from Chinese Sources, Batavia: W. Bruining <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Nugroho 2011, p. 106–107. - Nugroho, Irawan Djoko (2011), Majapahit Peradaban Maritim, Jakarta: Suluh Nuswantara Bakti, ISBN 978-602-9346-00-8 <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Hung et al. 2022, p. 4–5. - Hung, Hsiao-chun; Hartatik; Ma'rifat, Tisna Arif; Simanjuntak, Truman (2022), "Mongol fleet on the way to Java: First archaeological remains from the Karimata Strait in Indonesia", Archaeological Research in Asia, 29: 100327, doi:10.1016/j.ara.2021.100327, hdl:1885/294251, S2CID 244553201 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ara.2021.100327" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ara.2021.100327</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Weatherford (2004), and also Man (2007). <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">George Coedès. The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. <a href="http://archive.org/details/theindianizedstatesofsoutheastasia" target="_blank">http://archive.org/details/theindianizedstatesofsoutheastasia</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Cœdès, George (1968). The Indianized states of Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 9780824803681. <a href="9780824803681" target="_blank">9780824803681</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Bade 2013, p. 33, 233, 249–250. - Bade, David W. (2013), Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Bade 2013, p. 221. - Bade, David W. (2013), Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Bade 2013, p. 250–251, 254. - Bade, David W. (2013), Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Bade 2013, p. 44, 130, 186. - Bade, David W. (2013), Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Bade 2013, p. 187–188, 224, 230–231, 256–257. - Bade, David W. (2013), Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Groeneveldt 1876, p. 21. - Groeneveldt, Willem Pieter (1876), Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca Compiled from Chinese Sources, Batavia: W. Bruining <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Lo 2012, p. 255, 274. - Lo, Jung-pang (2012) [1957], Elleman, Bruce A. (ed.), China as Sea Power 1127-1368: A Preliminary Survey of the Maritime Expansion and Naval Exploits of the Chinese People During the Southern Song and Yuan Periods, Singapore: NUS Press <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Schlegel, Gustaaf (1902). "On the Invention and Use of Fire-Arms and Gunpowder in China, Prior to the Arrival of European". T'oung Pao. 3: 1–11. <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Bade 2013, p. 46. - Bade, David W. (2013), Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Bowring 2019, p. 129. - Bowring, Philip (2019), Empire of the Winds: The Global Role of Asia's Great Archipelago, London, New York: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd, ISBN 9781788314466 <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Worcester, G. R. G. (1947). The Junks and Sampans of the Yangtze, A Study in Chinese Nautical Research, Volume I: Introduction; and Craft of the Estuary and Shanghai Area. Shanghai: Order of the Inspector General of Customs. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Nugroho 2011, p. 128. - Nugroho, Irawan Djoko (2011), Majapahit Peradaban Maritim, Jakarta: Suluh Nuswantara Bakti, ISBN 978-602-9346-00-8 <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Bade 2013, p. 46. - Bade, David W. (2013), Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Poesponegoro & Notosusanto 2019, p. 452. - Poesponegoro, Marwati Djoened; Notosusanto, Nugroho (2019) [2008], Sejarah Nasional Indonesia Edisi Pemutakhiran Jilid 2: Zaman Kuno, Jakarta: Balai Pustaka <a href="https://archive.org/details/sejarah-nasional-indonesia-jilid-2-zaman-kuno/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/sejarah-nasional-indonesia-jilid-2-zaman-kuno/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Miksic 2013, p. 185. - Miksic, John Norman (2013), Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800, Singapore: NUS Press, ISBN 978-9971-69-558-3 <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">According to Kidung Harsawijaya, during the attack on Singhasari, the Daha troops who attacked from the south numbered 10,000 men; while the northern troops were unspecified. The Singhasari troops that attacked Malayu and later sided with Wijaya before the foundation of the Majapahit settlement also numbered 10,000. This points to a probable number of 20,000; not including the number of those killed during the fall of Singhasari and the Pamalayu expedition and the number of new troops who came from Madura under Arya Wiraraja.[12] <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Miksic 2013, p. 185. - Miksic, John Norman (2013), Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800, Singapore: NUS Press, ISBN 978-9971-69-558-3 <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Yang, Shao-yun (15 June 2020). "A Chinese Gazetteer of Foreign Lands: A new translation of Part 1 of the Zhufan zhi 諸蕃志 (1225)". Storymaps. Retrieved 19 October 2023. <a href="https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/39bce63e4e0642d3abce6c24db470760" target="_blank">https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/39bce63e4e0642d3abce6c24db470760</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Miksic, John N.; Goh, Geok Yian (2017). Ancient Southeast Asia. London: Routledge. <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Oktorino, Nino (2020). Hikayat Majapahit - Kebangkitan dan Keruntuhan Kerajaan Terbesar di Nusantara. Jakarta: Elex Media Komputindo. p. 111–113. <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Jákl 2014, p. 78–80. - Jákl, Jiří (2014). Literary Representations of War and Warfare in Old Javanese Kakawin Poetry (PhD thesis). The University of Queensland. <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">Averoes 2022, p. 59–62. - Averoes, Muhammad (2022). "Re-Estimating the Size of Javanese Jong Ship". HISTORIA: Jurnal Pendidik Dan Peneliti Sejarah. 5 (1): 57–64. doi:10.17509/historia.v5i1.39181. S2CID 247335671. <a href="https://archive.org/details/size-of-javanese-jong" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/size-of-javanese-jong</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Lo 2012, p. 304. - Lo, Jung-pang (2012) [1957], Elleman, Bruce A. (ed.), China as Sea Power 1127-1368: A Preliminary Survey of the Maritime Expansion and Naval Exploits of the Chinese People During the Southern Song and Yuan Periods, Singapore: NUS Press <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Sen, Tan Ta; Dasheng Chen (2009), Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, p. 186, ISBN 9789812308375 <a href="9789812308375" target="_blank">9789812308375</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">The dates in this article are taken from Lo 2012, pp. 303–308 and Hung et al. 2022, p. 7. - Lo, Jung-pang (2012) [1957], Elleman, Bruce A. (ed.), China as Sea Power 1127-1368: A Preliminary Survey of the Maritime Expansion and Naval Exploits of the Chinese People During the Southern Song and Yuan Periods, Singapore: NUS Press <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">Bade 2013, p. 51, 227. - Bade, David W. (2013), Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Nugroho 2011, p. 112. - Nugroho, Irawan Djoko (2011), Majapahit Peradaban Maritim, Jakarta: Suluh Nuswantara Bakti, ISBN 978-602-9346-00-8 <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">Groeneveldt 1876, p. 22. - Groeneveldt, Willem Pieter (1876), Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca Compiled from Chinese Sources, Batavia: W. Bruining <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">Burnet 2015. - Burnet, Ian (2015), Archipelago: A Journey Across Indonesia, Rosenberg Publishing <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">Nugroho 2011, p. 113. - Nugroho, Irawan Djoko (2011), Majapahit Peradaban Maritim, Jakarta: Suluh Nuswantara Bakti, ISBN 978-602-9346-00-8 <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">Groeneveldt 1876, p. 23. - Groeneveldt, Willem Pieter (1876), Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca Compiled from Chinese Sources, Batavia: W. Bruining <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">Bade 2013, p. 30, 45. - Bade, David W. (2013), Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">Nugroho 2011, p. 114. - Nugroho, Irawan Djoko (2011), Majapahit Peradaban Maritim, Jakarta: Suluh Nuswantara Bakti, ISBN 978-602-9346-00-8 <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">Groeneveldt 1876, p. 23. - Groeneveldt, Willem Pieter (1876), Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca Compiled from Chinese Sources, Batavia: W. Bruining <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">Nugroho 2011, p. 114. - Nugroho, Irawan Djoko (2011), Majapahit Peradaban Maritim, Jakarta: Suluh Nuswantara Bakti, ISBN 978-602-9346-00-8 <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">Groeneveldt 1876, p. 24. - Groeneveldt, Willem Pieter (1876), Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca Compiled from Chinese Sources, Batavia: W. Bruining <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">Nugroho 2011, p. 114. - Nugroho, Irawan Djoko (2011), Majapahit Peradaban Maritim, Jakarta: Suluh Nuswantara Bakti, ISBN 978-602-9346-00-8 <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:47">Groeneveldt 1876, p. 24. - Groeneveldt, Willem Pieter (1876), Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca Compiled from Chinese Sources, Batavia: W. Bruining <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:48">Nugroho 2011, p. 115. - Nugroho, Irawan Djoko (2011), Majapahit Peradaban Maritim, Jakarta: Suluh Nuswantara Bakti, ISBN 978-602-9346-00-8 <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:49">Groeneveldt 1876, p. 24. - Groeneveldt, Willem Pieter (1876), Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca Compiled from Chinese Sources, Batavia: W. Bruining <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:50">From the south according to Kidung Panji Wijayakrama, or east according to Pararaton.[51] Nevertheless Kidung Panji Wijayakrama indicated there is a clash in the east too.[52] <a href="/wiki/Pararaton" target="_blank">/wiki/Pararaton</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:51">Bade 2013, p. 54, 228, 246, 258. - Bade, David W. (2013), Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:52">Nugroho 2011, p. 115, 118. - Nugroho, Irawan Djoko (2011), Majapahit Peradaban Maritim, Jakarta: Suluh Nuswantara Bakti, ISBN 978-602-9346-00-8 <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:53">Groeneveldt 1876, p. 24. - Groeneveldt, Willem Pieter (1876), Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca Compiled from Chinese Sources, Batavia: W. Bruining <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:54">Bade 2013, p. 188, 227–228. - Bade, David W. (2013), Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:55">According to Pararaton, Kebo Mundarang battled in the east. He was pursued by Rangga Lawe to a place called Trinipanti valley and killed.[4] <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:56">Groeneveldt 1876, p. 24. - Groeneveldt, Willem Pieter (1876), Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca Compiled from Chinese Sources, Batavia: W. Bruining <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:57">Nugroho 2011, p. 109 and 115. - Nugroho, Irawan Djoko (2011), Majapahit Peradaban Maritim, Jakarta: Suluh Nuswantara Bakti, ISBN 978-602-9346-00-8 <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:58">Bade 2013, p. 60, 189. - Bade, David W. (2013), Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:59">The distance is written as 300 li in the Account of Shi Bi, History of the Yuan dynasty book 162. See Groeneveldt 1876, p. 27. - Groeneveldt, Willem Pieter (1876), Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca Compiled from Chinese Sources, Batavia: W. Bruining <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:60">Bade 2013, p. 60, 219. - Bade, David W. (2013), Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">Nugroho 2011, p. 115, 118–119. - Nugroho, Irawan Djoko (2011), Majapahit Peradaban Maritim, Jakarta: Suluh Nuswantara Bakti, ISBN 978-602-9346-00-8 <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">Groeneveldt 1876, p. 25 and 27. - Groeneveldt, Willem Pieter (1876), Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca Compiled from Chinese Sources, Batavia: W. Bruining <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">Bade 2013, p. 228, 229. - Bade, David W. (2013), Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:64">Groeneveldt 1876, p. 28. - Groeneveldt, Willem Pieter (1876), Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca Compiled from Chinese Sources, Batavia: W. Bruining <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:65">Groeneveldt 1876, p. 27. - Groeneveldt, Willem Pieter (1876), Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca Compiled from Chinese Sources, Batavia: W. Bruining <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:66">An alternate name of Banyak Wide, also known as Arya Wiraraja.[62] <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:67">Nugroho 2009, p. 145. - Nugroho, Irawan Djoko (2009), Meluruskan Sejarah Majapahit, Ragam Media <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:68">Bade 2013, p. 62, 78, 228. - Bade, David W. (2013), Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:69">Shi-bi's notes book 162, in Groeneveldt (1876). <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:70">Nugroho 2011, p. 119. - Nugroho, Irawan Djoko (2011), Majapahit Peradaban Maritim, Jakarta: Suluh Nuswantara Bakti, ISBN 978-602-9346-00-8 <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:71">Sen, Tan Ta; Dasheng Chen (2009), Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, p. 186, ISBN 9789812308375 <a href="9789812308375" target="_blank">9789812308375</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:72">Zoetmulder, Petrus Josephus (1983). Kalangwan: Sastra Jawa Kuno Selayang Pandang. Penerbit Djambatan. p. 521. <a href="https://archive.org/details/kalangwan-sastra-jawa-kuno-selayang-pandang-1983/page/520/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/kalangwan-sastra-jawa-kuno-selayang-pandang-1983/page/520/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:73">Groeneveldt 1876, p. 27. - Groeneveldt, Willem Pieter (1876), Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca Compiled from Chinese Sources, Batavia: W. Bruining <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=rFo0EWli4N0C</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:74">Man 2007, p. 281. - Man, John (2007), Kublai Khan: The Mongol king who remade China, London: Bantam Books, ISBN 978-0-553-81718-8 <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:75">Saunders, J. J. (2001), The history of Mongol conquests, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0-8122-1766-7. <a href="0-8122-1766-7" target="_blank">0-8122-1766-7</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:76">Wei, Zhang (2003). 中国海疆通史 (General History of China's Seas and Frontiers). Vol. 6. 中州古籍出版社 (Zhongzhou Ancient Books Publishing House). p. 244. ISBN 9787534818950. <a href="9787534818950" target="_blank">9787534818950</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:77">Gibb, H.A.R.; Beckingham, C.F., eds. (1994), The Travels of Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, A.D. 1325–1354 (Volume 4), London: Hakluyt Society, ISBN 978-0-904180-37-4 <a href="978-0-904180-37-4" target="_blank">978-0-904180-37-4</a> <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:78">Yule, Sir Henry (1866). Cathay and the way thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China vol. 1. London: The Hakluyt Society. p. 89. <a href="https://archive.org/details/CathayAndTheWayThitherVol1" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/CathayAndTheWayThitherVol1</a> <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:79">"Ibn Battuta's Trip: Chapter 9 Through the Straits of Malacca to China 1345–1346". The Travels of Ibn Battuta A Virtual Tour with the 14th Century Traveler. Berkeley.edu. Archived from the original on 17 March 2013. Retrieved 14 June 2013. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130317035650/http://ibnbattuta.berkeley.edu/9china.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20130317035650/http://ibnbattuta.berkeley.edu/9china.html</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:80">Nugroho 2009, p. 145. - Nugroho, Irawan Djoko (2009), Meluruskan Sejarah Majapahit, Ragam Media <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:81">Manguin, Pierre-Yves (1976). "L'Artillerie legere nousantarienne: A propos de six canons conserves dans des collections portugaises" (PDF). Arts Asiatiques. 32: 233–268. doi:10.3406/arasi.1976.1103. S2CID 191565174. <a href="https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-02509117/file/arasi_0004-3958_1976_num_32_1_1103.pdf" target="_blank">https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-02509117/file/arasi_0004-3958_1976_num_32_1_1103.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:82">Reid, Anthony (2001). Sojourners and Settlers: Histories of Southeast Asia and the Chinese. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 9780824824464. <a href="9780824824464" target="_blank">9780824824464</a> <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:83">Reid, Anthony (2000). Charting the Shape of Early Modern Southeast Asia. Silkworm Books. ISBN 9747551063. <a href="9747551063" target="_blank">9747551063</a> <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:84">Manguin, Pierre-Yves (September 1980). "The Southeast Asian Ship: An Historical Approach". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 11 (2): 266–276. doi:10.1017/S002246340000446X. S2CID 162220129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:85">Lombard, Denys (2005). Nusa Jawa: Silang Budaya, Bagian 2: Jaringan Asia. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Indonesian translation of Lombard, Denys (1990). Le carrefour javanais. Essai d'histoire globale (The Javanese Crossroads: Towards a Global History) vol. 2. Paris: Éditions de l'École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales. <a href="https://archive.org/details/NJ2JA/mode/2up?q=" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/NJ2JA/mode/2up?q=</a> <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:86">Hung et al. 2022, pp. 1–10. - Hung, Hsiao-chun; Hartatik; Ma'rifat, Tisna Arif; Simanjuntak, Truman (2022), "Mongol fleet on the way to Java: First archaeological remains from the Karimata Strait in Indonesia", Archaeological Research in Asia, 29: 100327, doi:10.1016/j.ara.2021.100327, hdl:1885/294251, S2CID 244553201 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ara.2021.100327" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ara.2021.100327</a> <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Mongol invasion of Java open-in-new

Mongol invasion of Java